Philosophy o Considered human beings as the center of
moral consideration.
Human Person in their Environment
ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY- the discipline
of moral relationships of human beings with the
environment and its non-human contents.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT- is development
that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
It contains two key concepts:
1. the concept of needs, in particular the essential
needs of the world’s poor
2. the idea of limitations imposed by the state of
technology and social organization on the
environment’s ability to meet present and future
needs.
THREE IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES OF
SUSTAINABILITY
1. Environmental Integrity- refers to maintaining
the state of the environment.
2. Economic Efficiency- refers to prudence in
decision-making regarding the use of resources
to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste.
- PRUDENCE is the ability to regulate one’s
actions and behavior.
3. Equity- demands that we use our natural
resources in sch a manner that these are
conserved so that the next generation will be
able to use them.
o Prudence and frugality can guide us in our use
of resources.
o FRUGALITY is being thrifty with the use of
one’s resources.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS- the discipline in
philosophy that studies the moral relationship of
human being to, and also the value and moral
status of, the environment and this non-human
content.
VALUE- something has intrinsic value: if it has
inherent worth in itself. Something has
instrumental value: if something is considered as
a means towards achieving a certain end.
Views on the attribution of Moral Consideration
1. Anthropocentrism
o Only humans are assigned intrinsic value.
2. Panthocentrism
o extends intrinsic value and thus moral
consideration to higher forms of animals or
intelligent animals such as dogs and
chimpanzees who are sentient.
o Sentient: having the power of perception by
the senses; conscious.
o Sentient beings therefore have the capacity to
feel pain, and thus, suffering.
3. Biocentrism
o Is the view that not only humans and animals
but also plants should be morally
considerable.
o Intrinsic value is assigned to living things.
4. Ecocentrism
o Regards ecosystems as holistic entities that
should be given moral consideration.
o Ecosystem: the community of organisms in
conjunction with the nonliving components of
their environment interacting as a system
o This view reduces al living beings as mere
members of the ecosystem
o Intrinsic value is assigned to the ecosystem as
a whole.
o Thus, an action is right and therefore, moral,
when it has the tendency to preserve the
integrity, stability of the biotic community; and
wrong when it does the opposite.
ALDO LEOPOLD- an American conservationist,
forester, and philosopher.
“That land is a community is the basic concept of
ecology, but that land is to be loved and respected
is an extension of ethics.”
ECOLOGY- a science that deals with the
relationships between groups of living things and
their environments.
THEORIES IN RADICAL ECOLOGICAL
PHILOSOPHY
1. DEEP ECOLOGY
 Is an ecological and environmental philosophy
which presupposes that all living things
possess equal intrinsic value regardless of
their usefulness or utility to other beings
 is an ecological philosophy developed by
Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in the
early 1970s asserting that all life forms have
an equal right to exist, and human needs and
 desires have no priority over those of other
organisms. Believes that the living
environment should be respected and
regarded as having rights to flourish,
independent of its utility to humans.
 ARNE NAESS- founder of deep ecology
“Each living being is understood as a goal in
itself, in principle on an equal footing with
one’s own ego.”
2. SOCIAL ECOLOGY
 Is an offshoot of the movement against
domination of existing hierarchical structures
in society that pre-empt the development of
the full nature of an individual
 Man has two natures: his first nature (biotic
nature) and his second nature (human
nature).
 It is a critical social theory founded by
American anarchist and libertarian socialist
author Murray Bookchin. Conceptualized as
a critique of current social, political, and anti-
ecological trends, it espouses a
reconstructive, ecological, communitarian, and
ethical approach to society.
“Until human beings cease to live in societies that
are structured around hierarchies as well as
economic classes, we shall never be free of
domination however much we try to dispel it with
rituals, incantations, ecotheologies, and the
adoption of seemingly ‘natural’ ways of life.”
3. ECOFEMINISM
 Feminism: the belief that men and women
should have equal rights and opportunities
 It is also got ecological feminism, branch of
feminism that examines the connections
between woman and nature. Its name was
coined by French feminist Francoise
d’Eaubonne in 1974.
 A philosophical idea that combines feminism
and ecology concerns, emphasizing that both
suffer from their treatment by a male
dominated society.
 Comes from the idea that women and nature
have significant connection, since women
most often have a close association with
nature in many societies due to the nature of
their traditional roles.
 Mary Wollstonecraft- feminist philosopher.
Author of “A Vindication of the Rights of
Woman”
“I do not wish them (women) to have power
over men; but over themselves.”
 Believes that a society characterized by a
mentality that tolerates the oppression of
women is directly linked with its tendency to
tolerate the abuse of the environment and
degradation of nature.
 Ynestra King- Ecofeminist theorist. Author of
“The Ecology of Feminism and the Feminism
of Ecology”
“…the human species in its patriarchal form is the
only species which holds a conscious belief that it
is entitled to dominion over the other species, and
over the planet.”
PRUDENCE and FRUGALITY
PRUDENCE
- Covers good judgment, considering the
consequences of an action, using common
sense and discretion, exercising caution,
and conforming to reasons and decency
- is defined as the ability to have good
judgment that allows avoidance of dangers
and risks.
FRUGALITY
- The quality of being thrifty, sparing or
economical in the consumption of resources
and avoiding waste, lavishness, or
extravagance
- is the act of using money or other resources
wisely and practically.
ERICH FROMM- suggested a new society that
should inspire the development of a new human
being that will nurture prudence and fairness or
frugality towards environment.
Functions of Fromm’s Envisioned Society
• The willingness to give up all forms of having, in
order to fully be
• Being fully present where one is
• Trying to reduce greed, hate, and illusions as
much as one is capable
• Making the full growth of oneself and one’s
fellow beings as supreme goal of living
• Not deceiving others, but also not being
deceived by others; one may be called innocent
but not naïve.
• Freedom that is not arbitrariness but the
responsibility to be oneself, not as a bundle of
 greedy desires, but as delicately balanced
structure that at any moment is confronted with
the alternatives of growth or decay, life or death
• Happiness in the process of ever-growing
aliveness, whatever the furthest point is that
fate permits one to reach, for living as fully as
one can is so satisfactory that the concern for
what one might or might not attain has little
chance to develop
• Joy that comes from giving and sharing
• Developing one’s capacity for love
• Shedding one’s narcissism and accepting that
tragic limitations inherent from human
existence.
Freedom of the human person
FREEDOM- In social and political concept, it is the
freedom of an individual from oppression,
compulsion, or coercion from other persons, an
authority figure, or from society itself.
 Freedom entails the recognition of certain
rights and entitlements of persons.
POLITICAL FREEDOM: Two types of liberties
 POSITIVE LIBERTY refers when a person is
taking control of his or her own life and
fulfilling one’s potential.
 NEGATIVE LIBERTY is freedom from
external restraint, barriers, and other
interferences from other people.
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES ON HUMAN LIBERTY
 LIBERALISM- upholds the preservation of
individual rights and stresses the role of the
government in protecting the civil liberties
 LIBERTARIANISM- believes that the
individual, not the government, is the best
judge in upholding and exercising rights
 SOCIALISM- considers freedom as the
freedom to acquire economic resources and
the ability to work and act according to one’s
desires.
NATURAL RIGHTS- refer to rights which are
innate in the person such as right to life. These
rights are considered universal and inalienable.
LEGAL RIGHTS- are rights that are based on
society’s customs and laws and are enacted by
legislation enforced by the government. It is based
on citizenship.
THEOLOGICAL VIEWS- Freedom is freedom from
sin and living a life of righteousness. Christians
define freedom in context of living in accordance
with the will of God. The freedom to make choices
in life.
EXPRESSION OF FREEDOM: Two ways
FREEWILL- is the capacity to choose from
alternative courses of action or decision.
FREE ACTION- is the freedom to perform an action
without any obstacles or hindrances.
WHAT CAN PREVENT US FROM EXERCISING
FREEDOM?
▪ Constraints on free action include external
obstacles such as prohibitions, laws, and
other social controls imposed by society.
▪ Disability or sickness, or coercion by other
person
▪ Manipulation and brainwashing
▪ Weather, accidents or poverty
DETERMINISM- believes that every event in the
world is brought about by underlying causes or
factors.
MARXISM- believes that society imposes certain
controls on people, and that a person’s social group
largely influences how he or she thinks or acts.
ARISTOTLE- The power of Volition
➢ Volition is the faculty or power of using one's
will.
➢ If there were no intellect, there would be no
will.
➢ The will of humanity is an instrument of free
choice
➢ This is borne out by:
✓ our inner awareness of an aptitude to do
right or wrong
✓ the common testimony of all human
beings
✓ the rewards and punishments of rulers
✓ the general enjoyment of praise and
blame.
➢ A human being is rational. Reason is a divine
characteristic. Humans have the spark of the
divine. If there were no intellect, there would
be no will. Reason can legislate, but only
through will can its legislation be turned into
action. Our will is an instrument of free choice.
Reason will and action drives each other.
“The content of your character is your choice. Day 10. Our reality and our ends
by day, what you choose, what you think and what 11. Subjectivism
you do is who you become.” -Heraclitus 12. The human condition
13. Condemned to be free
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS- Love is freedom
14. Abandonment
➢ St. Thomas Aquinas considers man as a 15. Anguish
moral agent. 16. Despair
➢ Through our spirituality, we have a 17. Bad Faith
conscience. (Being good or evil becomes our 18. “The Unconscious” is not truly unconscious
responsibility) 19. Passion is no excuse
➢ Human beings therefore has a supernatural 20. Ontology
transcendental destiny. Perfection can only be HUMAN ACT
done in cooperation with God.
➢ St. Thomas emphasizes the freedom of  Latin actus humanus
humanity but chooses love in governing  a human action, an act of decision, whose
humanity’s life · Since God is love, then Love source is in rational knowledge and free will
is the guiding principle of humanity toward his
self-perception and happiness – his ultimate FIVE STAGES OF HUMAN ACT
destiny. (LOVE RATHER THAN LAW)  Stage 1- END OR GOAL
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS- Spiritual Freedom  Intellect- Apprehends a situation and
determines that a particular end is
➢ God is love and love is our destiny. appropriate for the given circumstances.
JEAN PAUL SARTRE- Individual Freedom  Will- Approves a simple violation for that
end
➢ Existence precedes essence.  Stage 2- Can I?
➢ The person first exists, encounters himself  Intellect- Determines that the end can be
and surges up in the world then defines achieved, is within the power agent
himself afterward.  Will- Intention to achieve the end through
➢ Freedom is, therefore, the very core and the some means
door to authentic existence. The person is  Stage 3- How
what one has and is doing.  Intellect- Counsel determines various
➢ On the other hand, the human person who means to achieve the end
tries to escape obligation and strives to be en  Will- Accept these means (or can ask for
soi (on swa) is acting on bad faith (movis fwa). more means)
➢ Sartre emphasizes the importance of free  Stage 4- Choice
individual choice, regardless of the power of  Intellect- determines the best means for the
other people to influence and coerce our given circumstances
desires, beliefs and decisions. To be human,  Will- Election (choice)- selects the means
to be conscious, is to be free to imagine, free the intellect proposes as best
to choose and be responsible for ones’ life.  Stage 5- Command of the Will
Notes to SARTRE’s view  Intellect- Command says “Do the best
means!”
1. Existence precedes essence  Will- Use- exercise control over the body or
2. Subject rather than object mind s needed
3. Freedom
4. Choice VOLUNTARINESS
5. Responsibility
 Human act is a free will act or voluntary
6. Past determinants seldom tell us the crucial
(voluntas).
information
 Animals less than man are incapable of
7. Our acts define us
acting with true voluntariness for they lack
8. We continually make ourselves as we are
intellect and free will.
9. Our power to create ourselves
  Voluntariness appears in every human act
even in human acts of omission in man’s
failure to act when he should act, or least
could act.
 Violence from outside cannot directly affect
the human will.
 There are two kinds of acts:
★ ELICITED ACTS- completed within itself
such as loving, desiring, intending
★ COMMANDED ACTS- completed, on
command of the will, by other powers of
human nature such as studying, walking,
speaking.
 An act which is opposed to the will is
involuntary.(acts from violence)
 When fear is the motive of an act , the act
remains a human act, therefore is voluntary.
 Concupiscence- strong tendency or desire
in the sensitive appetites.
 Ignorance
ROY T. BENNETT
“Every choice comes with a consequence. Once
you make a choice, you must accept responsibility.
You cannot escape the consequences of your
choices, whether you like them or not.”
CAROLINE MYSS
“Never blame another person for your personal
choices- you are still the one who must live out the
consequences of your choices.”
LAW OF CONSEQUENCES is about reality
- Every result or outcome happens for a
reasons
- Let logic be your guide
Intersubjectivity
INTERSUBJECTIVITY
 Term originally coined by the philosopher
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938).
 It is simply stated as the interchange of
thoughts and feelings, both conscious and
unconscious, between two persons or
“subject”.
EMPATHY
 Often confused with sympathy
 Empathy actually requires perspective-
taking.
 When you are being empathetic, you are
doing more than feeling sorry for another
person; you are actually trying to imagine
the situation from that person’s point of
view.
Kinds of Empathy
1. EMOTIONAL EMPATHY- When you feel
something because someone else does.
You may have noticed this when you cried
watching a very sad scene in a movie.
2. COGNITIVE EMPATHY- Involving thinking
more than feeling, means putting yourself in
someone else's shoes. When you talk to a
friend about something that is bothering you
and feel understood by that person, it's
often because your friend was using
cognitive empathy.
3. COMPASSIONATE EMPATHY- This is any
kind of empathy that leads to action. When
you see someone in need and offer that
person some food or money.
INTERSUBJECTIVITY
I. Accepting Me, Accepting You
Intersubjectivity:
 Philosophical term that means “being with
others”.
 Relatedness with others
 Accepting others and their differences
 The middle ground between objectivity and
total subjectivity.
OBJECTIVE- truth that is not related to the
subject
SUBJECTIVITY- truth that is relative to the
perspective of a subject
INTERSUBJECTIVITY- Encompasses multiple
subjects and multiple viewpoints or
combination of the two that points to the same
“truth”
  Encompasses multiple subjects and
multiple viewpoints or combination of the
two that points to the same “truth”
Example:
Person A: Sees a large green shooting star
that falls to the NORTH of me.
Person B: Sees a large shooting star that fell
to the SOUTH of her.
Person C: Sees it fall to the EAST.
Person D: Sees it fall to the WEST.
- With some degree of accuracy, we can
determine that the shooting star should
have fallen exactly somewhere
- It differs from one another!!!
Thought community examples:
 Churches
 Professions
 Scientific beliefs
 Generations
 Nations
 Political Movements
II. Accepting Others is not to Impose on
Others
- It is important to accept other’s thoughts
and ideas (though they might be opposed
to yours). This is another manifestation of
accepting others (and their differences).
Views on Accepting Others:
a. PRINCIPLE OF PATERNALISM
→ Paternalism comes from the Latin
“pater” which means to act like a father
or to treat another person like a child
III.
→ “Paternalism” is a gender-neutral
anagram of “paternalism”
 In modern Philosophy and jurisprudence, it
is to act for the good of another person
without that person’s consent, as parents
do for children.
Patterns of Paternalism
1. SOFT and HARD PATERNALISM
SOFT- the view that the only conditions
under which state paternalism is justified is
when it is necessary to determine whether
the person being interfered with is acting
voluntarily and knowledgeably.
HARD- says that at least sometimes we are
entitled to interfere a person’s action even if
he knows of the condition.
2. PURE and IMPURE PATERNALISM
PURE- the class being protected is identical
with the class being interfered with
IMPURE- the class of persons interfered
with is larger than the class being protected.
3. MORAL and WELFARE PATERNALISM
✓ interfering with a person’s freedom of
action for the sake of their moral
character as opposed to their physical
or mental well-being
✓ Paternalism is justified to promote the
moral wellbeing of a person even of
their welfare wouldn’t improve.
b. LEGAL MORALISM
 The view that the law can legitimately be
used to prohibit behaviors that conflict
with society’s collective moral judgments
even when those behaviors do not result
in physical or psychological harm to
others.
 According to this view, a person’s
freedom can legitimately be restricted
simply because it conflicts with society’s
collective morality; thus, legal moralism
implies that it is permissible for the state
to use its coercive power to enforce
society’s collective morality
Accepting People for what they are is
Loving Them.
★ According to the book “the Art of Loving”,
LOVE is the most satisfying fulfillment of
humanity’s most powerful desire: the
desire for interpersonal union.
Four basic elements of a True Love
1. Responsibility- ability to respond to the
needs of others
2. Knowledge- part of love that penetrates
to the core. The relationship that
 transcends our individuality and our
mortality to give meaning to life
3. Care- concern for the life and growth of
others
4. Respect- “to look at” to see a person as a
unique individual
 A main principle of intersubjectivity is
communication, a social process wherein
the community of other people are seen as
embedded within the self. This process
initially occurs with the idea that other
individuals are extensions of the self and
serve as the “alter-ego” of a person’s being
 Stephen Hawking is a physicist and
cosmologist who, despite his rare medical
condition called amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS), made significant
contributions to contemporary studies of
relativity and quantum physics.
 As a child, Oprah Winfrey experienced
living in a poor household and was sexually
abused. Despite this, she motivated herself
to succeed and did so by being one of the
richest women alive today.
AUTHENTIC DIALOGUE- a form of
interpersonal communication wherein
individuals acknowledge that they are part of a
greater whole and that they resonate with
others within the whole.
Importance of SUBJECTIVITY
• It validates real and authentic subjective
experiences
• It facilitates interaction among individuals
• It enables individuals to look at others
equally, regardless of any physical or socio-
demographic factor.
• It promotes a sense of community and unity
among individuals.
• It emphasizes that anyone can contribute to
society.
Man the Social Animal
SOCIAL ANIMAL- is a term used to describe
creatures that are greatly interactive with other
members of its species, with an individual
animal’s success highly dependent on the
overall cohesion and propagation of the group.
 Aristotle, the Greek philosopher writes
“Man is a social animal. He who lives
without society is either a beast or God".
 Professor Park says, “Man is not born
human but to be made human”.
Man can be called a social animal for the
following reasons:
1. MAN IS SOCIAL BY NATURE
- Human nature is such that it cannot but
live-in society. Man’s nature impels him to
live in society.
2. DEVELOPMENT OF SELF
- The human infant, at his birth, is not fully
aware of his own “self”. He develops the
idea of self through the interaction with
others.
- Charles H. Cooley says that the very idea
of “self” or “I” can arise only in relationship
with other people.
- G. H. Mead says that at first, the child
performs the role of others with his
parents and other persons at home. Then,
gradually he takes the role of other
persons such as playmates, friends etc. In
this way self-develops.
3. SOCIAL HERITAGE DETERMINES
HUMAN PERSONALITY
- Man is social because he depends on
social heritage which is a mixture of
customs beliefs and deals.
- Society preserves social heritage and
transmit it from one generation to another.
4. NECESSITY MAKES A MAN SOCIAL
- Necessity compels man to live in society.
- Man has a variety of needs. If he leads a
cooperative life with his fellow beings in
society he can easily get his needs
fulfilled.
Theories of Society
The origins of the term are ancient and
are derived from two words; ‘social’ from the
Latin socius and ‘theory’ from the Greek
theoria (Harrington 2005)
According to Platonic concept of society,
specifically his book, The Republic, he divided
the society into three social classes, namely:
 PRODUCING CLASS- includes the
farmers, merchants, and
laborers/workers
 GUARDIAN CLASS- includes the
soldiers and police force
 RULING CLASS- includes
Philosophers-thinkers, Rulers, and
Kings that is selected to lead the entire
society
Philosophers define society as:
1. Aquinas: man is naturally a political being
and as such seeks to live in the
community or society.
2. Machiavelli: Society should be ruled
absolutely by powerful person and
individual members of the society must
follow in order to establish an orderly
community
3. Hobbes and Locke: the state had arisen
out of a voluntary agreement, or social
contract
THEORIES OF SOCIETY
1. CRITICAL THEORY- Critical theorists
including Hegel rejected the "objective",
scientific approach. They sought to frame
theories within ideologies of human
freedom.
2. MARXISM- Karl Marx wrote and theorized
about the importance of political economy
on society and focused on the "material
conditions" of life. His theories strongly
centered around capitalism and its effect
on class-struggle between the proletariat
and bourgeoisie.
Social Influences
SOCIAL INFLUENCE
- occurs when one's emotions, opinions, or
behaviors are affected by others.
- takes many forms and can be seen in
conformity, socialization, peer pressure,
obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales,
and marketing.
In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman
identified three broad varieties of social
influence.
1. Compliance is when people appear to
agree with others but actually keep their
dissenting opinions private
2. Identification is when people are
influenced by someone who is liked and
respected, such as a famous celebrity.
3. Internalization is when people accept a
belief or behavior and agree both publicly
and privately
Cialdini’s “Weapons of Influence”
Robert Cialdini defines six "Weapons of
Influence" that can contribute to an individual's
propensity to be influenced by a persuader:
1. Reciprocity: People tend to return a favor
2. Commitment and consistency: People
do not like to be self-contradictory.
3. Social proof: People will be more open to
things that they see others doing.
4. Authority: People will tend to obey
authority figures.
5. Liking: People are more easily swayed by
people they like.
6. Scarcity: A perceived limitation of
resources will generate demand.
The Filipino Society
PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO
- This is the shared sense of identity and
consciousness of the 'other'.
- It means treating others with respect and
dignity as an equal, not someone below
the individual.
FAMILY ORIENTATION
- The basic and most important unit of a
Filipino's life is the family.
JOY AND HUMOR (BIRO)
- This famous trait is the ability of Filipinos
to find humor in everything.
 - It sheds light on the optimism and
positivity of Filipinos in whatever situation
they are in so as to remain determined in
going through struggles or challenges.
FLEXIBINITY, ADAPTABILITY,
CREATIVITY
- they are known to follow a Natural Clock
or Organic sense of time doing things in
the time they feel is right.
- They are present-oriented: which means
that one attends to a task or requirement
at the time it is needed and does not worry
much about future engagements
FAITH And RELIGIOSITY
ABILITY TO SURVIVE
- They have the extraordinary ability to
make something out of almost nothing.
HARD WORK AND INDUSTRY
- With resourcefulness comes hard work.
Filipinos are very determined and
persevering in accomplishing whatever
they set their minds to.
HOSPITALITY
- Foreigners who come to visit the
Philippines speak of Filipinos going out of
their way to help them when lost, or the
heartwarming generosity of a Filipino
family hosting a visitor in their poverty-
stricken home.
 Among these are strong religious faith,
respect for authority, and high regard for
amorproprio (self-esteem) and smooth
interpersonal relationships.
Filipino values are, for the most part,
centered at maintaining social harmony,
motivated primarily by the desire to be
accepted within a group. The main sanction
against diverging from these values are the
concepts of "Hiya", roughly translated as 'a
sense of shame', and "Amor proprio” or 'self-
esteem'. Social approval, acceptance by a
group, and belonging to a group are major
concerns. Caring about what others will think,
say or do, are strong influences on social
behavior among Filipinos.
Human person as oriented towards
their impending death
Life
- It pertains to the significance of living or
existence in general.
- The meaning of life as we perceive it is
derived from philosophical and religious
contemplation of, and scientific inquiries
about existence, social ties,
consciousness, and happiness.
Origin of Life
1. CREATIONIST- believe that life was brough
by a supreme being or a god.
2. EVOLUTIONISTS- believe that everything
is in the cosmos, including life, can be
explained in terms of the interaction of
matter.
Happiness
- State of mind
- He or she is happy or “is in a good mood”
- Having a satisfying life that goes well for
the person living it
- Eudemonia (good spirit) - person’s state
of well-being or happiness.
Death
- Is the cessation of all biological functions
that sustain a living organism.
- Phenomena which is commonly bring
about death include biological aging,
predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide,
homicide, starvation, dehydration and
accidents or trauma resulting in terminal
injury.
- Bodies begin to decompose shortly after
death.
Senescence
- Refers to a scenario when a living being is
able to survive all calamities, but
eventually dies due to causes relating to
old age.
 Signs
 Respiratory arrest
 Cardiac arrest
 Pallor mortis - paleness which happens in
15-20 minutes after death.
 Livor Mortis - a setting of the blood in the
lower (dependent) portion of the body.
 Algor Mortis- the reduction in body
temperature following death.
 Rigor mortis- the limbs of the corpse
become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to
move or manipulate.
 Decomposition- the reduction into simpler
forms of matter, accompanied by a strong,
unpleasant odor.
Different views on death
Ancient View- Most of the ancient people
attributed death to the agency of gods, elves,
demons or evil spirits who are jealous of
human achievements and beautiful human
features, or who are offended by man’s sins.
Views of Greeks to death
Ideas about the afterlife were never uniform
amongst the Greeks.
• Some common beliefs included
- At the moment of death, the psuche
(soul) left the body through the
mouth
- The corpse which remains is not
important
- All souls go to Hades
Egyptian view of death
• Egyptians believed that the body will be
used in the afterlife even if your innards
were removed and stored in canopic jar
- When you died your soul or ba would
fly out of your body and spark your
double (ka), which would then travel to
the other world.
- However, it would need to return to
your body, since without the physical
body, the ka would die. Since your
body had to be preserved for the re-
entry, the Egyptians developed
embalming.
• Pharaohs who were destined to join the
other gods– not only would need a body,
but all the other accouterments of
status, from gold to slaves.
• Pyramids served to house this
paraphernalia of eternity.
Chinese view of death
Death rites and Filial piety
 Ancestor worship is strongly linked to
filial piety
 One of the most important aspects of
expressing filial piety was to perform the
correct death rites.
 Aimed at moving ancestor/ deceased to
ancestral realm and negotiating courts
of hell
Gods, Ghosts and Humans: A Permeable
Border
At death, the dead person joins the ranks of
dead:
1. If correct rituals are performed they
become an ancestor
2. Especially meritorious people join divine
bureaucracy – become a God (Also
possible for other reasons)
3. Incorrect rituals means the person
becomes a hungry ghost, vampire, etc.
Heavens and Hells
Another popular belief was that the dead must
pass through the 10 (numbers vary) Courts of
Hell
- One must pass through for judgement
and be tried and punished according
to misdeeds, after this one can
become an ancestor
- Such hells are also found in Buddhist
tradition – someone passes through
them before rebirth
- Funerary rituals can help reduce time
spent here and reduce punishments
 Islamic view of life after death
Life after death
- It is called “akhirah”
- For a Muslim not to believe this would
make life meaningless
- Everything that happens in our lives is a
test – not accidental
- On Yawmuddin (day of judgement)
everyone will be judged (not just
Muslims)
- Human beings are Allah’s greatest
physical creations
- Muslims consider themselves from
animals as we know will die
- Every soul (ruh) is unique with free will
(although Allah teaches us we cannot do
everything we want as he is in control)
- The body is thought to be “vehicle for
the soul.” The soul will be judged as it is
our consciousness.
We are judged on:
→ our character
→ our reactions to good and bad events in
life
→ our way of life
→ We do not know why things happen, the
point is reacting to them in the right way
→ Non-believers go to hell and so do bad
Muslims Sometimes Allah is merciful to
certain sinners
Buddhist view of death and rebirth
Nirvana
- The supreme aim of the Buddhism is to
obtain Nirvana or Enlightenment.
- A state of liberation or illumination from
the limitation of existence
- It is obtained through the extinction of
desire.
- Those who have obtained the state of
Nirvana are called Buddhas.
Death and the Impermanence of Life
To Buddhism death is not the end of life,
it is merely the end of the body we inhabit in
this life, but our spirit will still remain and seek
out trough the need of the attachment,
attachment to a new body or a new life.
The Six (6) Realms of existence
1. Heaven- In Buddhism there are 37 different
levels of heaven where beings experience
peace and long-lasting happiness without
suffering in heavenly environment.
2. Asura- A spiritual state of Demi-Gods but
not happy state experienced by the gods in
the heaven above the state. They are
consumed with jealousy.
3. Human Life- In Buddhism we can be
reborn into human life over and over.
Anything can happen, as if found in human
life and society all around us as we are
familiar with the day-to-day human world in
myriad of possibilities.
4. Hungry Ghost- This spiritual realm of those
who committed excessive amount of evil
deeds and who are obsessed with finding
food and drink which they cannot
experience and thus remain unsatisfied and
tortured by the experience
5. Animals- This realm is visible to humans
and it is where the spirits of humans are
reborn if they killed animals or have
committed a lot of other evil acts.
6. Hell- This realm is not visible to humans. It
is a place where beings born there
experience a constant state of searing pain
and the various types of hell realms read
like a variety of horrific torture chambers.
Judaism: Jewish view of death
View of Judaism
- In Judaism life is valued above almost
all else.
- Death is viewed as a tragedy, even
when it occurs early in life or through
unfortunate circumstances.
- Death is seen as a natural process.
- Death is like life, has meaning and is
part of divine plan.
 - Jews have a firm belief in an afterlife
where who has lived a worthy life will be
rewarded
Death
- Mourning practices in Judaism are
extensive but they are not an expression
of fear or distaste of death.
- Jewish 2 purposes of mourning: to show
respect for the dead (kavod ha-met) and
to comfort the living (nihum avelim)
Care for the dead
The body is never left alone until after
burial, as a sign of respect.
- Shomerim - the people who sit with the
dead body, from the root Shin-Mem-
Resh, meaning “guards of keeper”
- Chevra Kaddisha - an organization to
care for the dead (the holy society)
- The presence of the dead body is
considered a source of ritual impurity.
- In preparation for the burial, the body is
thoroughly cleaned and wrapped in a
simple, plain linen shroud.
- The body must not be cremated.
- The body is never displayed in funerals
- Jewish law requires that a tombstone be
prepared, so that the deceased will not
be forgotten and the grave will not be
desecrated.
Mourning Practices
Jewish mourning practices can be
broken into several periods of decreasing
intensity.
- Keriyah - the tearing of clothing.
- Aninut – the period when the mourners
sole responsibility is caring for the
deceased and preparing for the burial.
The family should be left alone and
allowed the full expression of grief.
- Se’udat havra’ah - meal of condolence.
First meal of the mourners. The meal
traditionally consist of egg (a symbol of
life) and bread.
- Shiva - the next period of mourning
(seven because it last for seven days.).
It begins on the day of the burial and
continues until the morning of the
seventh day after the burial.
Kaddish
- It is commonly known as the mourner’s
prayer
- It is routinely recited at many times, and
the prayer itself has nothing to do with
the death or mourning.
Christian view of death and birth
The sleep of death
- Death is a sleep.
- The New Testament speaks of the “that
are fallen asleep in Jesus” (1 Thes.
4:14)
- The term “sleep” is used in the
scriptures to describe the state of the
body in death.
- Only the body of man sleeps in Death.
This is revealed in Daniel 12:2 “sleep in
the dust of the earth.”
Back to dust
- The Bible also realistically speaks of the
decomposition of the body. When Adam
and Eve sinned they were deprive of the
tree of life hence of physical immortality
(Gen. 3:22; Rom. 5:12). It is therefore,
man’s lot to return to the dust of the
ground (Gen.3:19 ; Eccl. 12:7)
The sentimental journey
- Death is a departure. It occurs when the
spirit leaves the body (Jas. 2:26).
- Paul thought of death as a departure
(Phil. 1:23)
Blissful Reunion
- Death is a reunion of righteous loved
ones. It is written of the patriarch
 Abraham, “ Abraham gave up the ghost,
and died… and was gathered to his
people” (Gen. 25:8)
Face to face with Christ
- For those who die in Christ, death is the
union with the Lord. Jesus informed the
dying thief, “Today you shall be with me
in paradise” (Lk. 23:43). And as
previously observed, Paul longed to
depart to be “with Christ”
The Agony of Defeat
- For the wicked, death begins at the
eternity of suffering.
- Though it is not a popular theme in
contemporary society, the doctrine of
hell is still a vital part of the Bible.
- At death, all who lived in rebellion to
God will enter a spirit state
characterized by pains, trouble and
sorrow. (Psa. 116:3)
Filipinos view on death
- Filipinos traditions that surround death
and dying are a blend of indigenous,
Spanish, and American influence that
makes the Filipino tradition unique.
- One of this tradition is called “atang” it is
a feast prepared by the bereaved family.
- A novena - is a catholic prayer session
that consist of the reciting of the original
prayer ad the use of rosary prayer
beads .
Socrates on Death
~ Possibility#1- Dreamless sleep
~ Possibility#2- Passage to another life