ANTHROPOLOGY

MAINS TEST SERIES

TEST NO: 6
 MODEL ANSWERS
1)a) Contributions of Leela Dube:-

Prof. Leela Dube (fondly called as Leeladee) was one of the renowned Anthropologists and pioneers
of feminist scholarship in India along with Irawati Karve, Vina Majumdar, and Lotika Sarkar. She taught
at Sagar University from 1960-75, and held several fellowships at the ICSSR, Teen Murti, the Centre for
Women's Development Studies.
She introduced women’s studies as a discipline into mainstream Sociology and Anthropology.

Books and articles of Prof. Leela Dube

Her work on Lakshadweep island’s matrilineal Muslim community- Matriliny and Islam: Religion and
society in the Laccadives (1969)- was an eye-opener. So was her deconstruction of polyandry in
Himalayan tribes in the context of women’s workload of collection of fuel, fodder, water, looking after
livestock and kitchen gardening in mountainous terrain, resulting into high maternal mortality and adverse
sex ratio. She showed interconnections between factors responsible for social construction of women’s
sexuality, fertility and labour, rooted in the political economy.
Her highly celebrated book Anthropological Explorations in Gender: Intersecting Fields (2001) is a
landmark contribution in feminist anthropology in India. It examines gender, kinship and culture by
sourcing a variety of distinct and unconventional materials such as folk tales, folk songs, proverbs, legends,
myths to construct ethnographic profile of feminist thoughts. She provides a nuanced understanding on
socialization of girl child in a patriarchal family, “seed and soil” theory propagated by Hindu scriptures and
epics symbolizing domination-subordination power relationship between men and women.
Her meticulously researched piece On the Construction of Gender: Hindu Girls in Patrilineal India
(1988), was used by women’s groups for study circles and training programmes. The volume Women,
Work, and Family(1990) in the series on Women and Households, Structures and Strategies, co-edited by
Leela Dube and Rajni Palriwala was extremely useful in teaching women’s studies in Economics,
Sociology, Geography, Social Work and Governance courses.

Her book, Women and Kinship: Comparative Perspectives on Gender in South and South-East Asia (1997)
argued that kinship systems provide an important context in which gender relations are located in personal
and public arena.
The co-edited volume Visibility and Power: Essays on Women in Society and Development by Leela
Dube, Eleanor Leacock and Shirley Ardener ( 1986) provided international perspective on the
anthropology of women in the context of socio-political setting of India, Iran, Malaysia, Brazil, and
Yugoslavia.

Her last publication, a Marathi translation of her last book in English, was Manavashastratil Lingbhavachi
Shodhamohim, which appeared in 2009.

1)b)Socio-economic classification of tribes:-

Majumdar has given this classification based on economy and technological achievements of Indian
Tribes. He classified Indian tribes into eight categories-
 1. Tribes engaged in hunting in forest
2. Tribes engaged in cultivation on hills (Shifting cultivation)
3. Tribes engaged in cultivation in plain areas.
4. Tribes engaged in pastoralism.
5. Tribes engaged in agricultural and non- agricultural works.
6. Tribes engaged in artisan works.
7. Tribes engaged in folk arts.
8. Tribes engaged in service and trade.

Below we discuss them briefly:-

1.Tribes engaged in hunting in forest:-
Distribution:
• Chenchus and Chandis of Andhra Pradesh
• Khadar, Malapatrtam, Kurumba in Kerala
• Onges and Sentinelese in A&N Islands
• Rajis of U.P.
• Barhor, Korwa, Hill Khana of Chotta Nagpur Plateau
• Juangs of Orissa.

1. Tribes engaged in cultivation on hills:

Distribution:
• Tribes of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya. Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland are dependent
on Shifting Cultivation which is called Jhumming in these places.
• Some tribes of Odisha, Asurs, Gonds, Baiga, Munda of MP are also engaged in these types of
cultivation.
• Apart from shifting cultivation, these tribes are also associated with cottage industry.

2. Tribes engaged in cultivation in plain areas:-

- Bodo ,Miri in Assam
- Gonds of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand

3.Tribes engaged in pastoralism.

- Bakarwals , Gaddis of J&K
- Todas of Nilgiri mountains in Tamil Nadu and Kerala
- They are involved in trading of milk, rearing of cattle, sheep, goat, buffaloes, cows, etc. and sell
them in the market.
5.Tribes engaged in agricultural and non- agricultural works:- They are traditional agriculturalist. Due
to land alienation, they started working as agricultural labour on others land. According to one estimate
about 20% of total tribal’s are engaged in agriculture as wage labourers.
Non-agricultural tribal labour force includes those tribals who are working in local factories and mines of
Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, MP, Odisha, WB and tea plantations in Assam and WB. These tribes are
basically agriculturalist by their tradition.
6.Tribes engaged in Artisan Works:- T

-some asurs of Bihar they are traditional

Mat weavers
-Kollam in Maharashtra
-Irulas of T.N. (they catch snakes)

7. Tribes engaged in folk arts:-

Tribes like Bhil, Gonds are engaged in folk arts like Madhubani paintings, Mithila Art . Warli Folk art
is the vivid expression of daily and social events of the Warli tribe of Maharashtra.

8. Tribes engaged in Service and Trade:-

- A small percentage of tribal population is engaged in Government and semi-govt. jobs.
e.g. Meenas of Rajasthan, Khasis, Mizo’s and Nagas of N.E.

1)c)Tribal Panchseel:-

It was given by J.L. Nehru the then PM of India in the 2nd edition of Verrier Elwin’s book “Nitro”. These
are the five guiding principles for developing the tribal areas. These principles are:-
1).The tribal people should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing
anything on them. We should develop them in the lines of their own traditional arts and culture.
2). Tribal rights on their land and forest should be respected.

3).We should try and build up a team of their own people to do the work of administration and other
developmental activities. We may require some technical personnel from outside in the beginning to
administer and train tribal people but we should avoid introducing too many outsiders into tribal territories.

4).We should not over administer these areas or overwhelm them with multiplicity of schemes and policies.
We should not work through rivalry rather work we should work through with them with the lines of their
own socio-cultural institutions in order to avoid conflict of interests.

5). We should not judge the results not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but through the amount
of human character development/ quality that has been achieved/ evolved.

To what extent they have been followed is a matter of debate. But one thing is for sure that we do not want
to impose anything on the tribal’s. Therefore, in order to bring these tribals from primordial way of living
to secular way of living, it is important to draw these tribal’s and integrates them into mainstream of
development.
1)d)Elwin-Ghurye debate:-
The Elwin-Ghurye debate deals with the Elwin and Ghurye’s perspectives on tribes. To be more precise, it
deals with the four issues of-
(i)the framework of tribal question;
(ii) Historical background of tribal voice;
(iii)Nationalist freedom struggle and tribal’s; and
(iv)Constituent Assembly debate on tribal affairs.

(i)The Framing of the Tribal Question: Elwin and Ghurye:-

The autonomy and independence of tribal people in India is restricted by the legal regime laid out in the
fifth and the sixth schedules of the Constitution of India. Their population is distributed over all states,
except the Union Territories of Chandigarh, Delhi and Haryana.
Culturally, the tribal languages of India can be grouped into four major families: the Austric, the Tibeto-
Chinese, the Dravidian, and the Indo-Aryan.

Over years of interaction with the nontribal people, a large majority has converted either to Hinduism or
Christianity or Buddhism or Islam and has also moved away from their tradition of work. Presently, only
those, who live in deep-forest, continue to practice their own religion.

The legal regime laid out in the 5th and 6th schedules has its origins in the Government of India Act, 1935.
Elwin pointed out: “Section 52 and 92 of the Government of India Act, 1935 provided for the reservation
of certain predominantly aboriginal areas (to be known as Excluded or Partially excluded areas) from
operation of Provincial legislature. The governor is given the power to control the application of legislation
whether of the Federal or Provincial Legislature, and make regulations in both these areas.”
After making an assessment to this Act, Ghurye formulated the tribal question which has three views on the
tribal situation-(i) no change and revivalism; (ii) isolation and preservation; and (iii) assimilation. This was
a reflection of how he saw the tribal situation in 1943. He saw them divided into three classes: “First, such
as the Raj Gonds and others who have successfully fought the battle, and are recognized as members of a
fairly high status within Hindu society; second the large mass that has been partially Hinduised and has
come into closer contact with Hindus; and third the Hill sections, which “have exhibited the greatest power
of confrontation to alien cultures that have pressed upon their border.” In this classification he missed out
on Christian influence.

In 1944 Elwin wrote: “Missionaries should be withdrawn from the Partially Excluded areas. We insist that
all education in these areas should be taken over by the Government.

Likewise Elwin, Ghurye also said that :-

“To enable the tribals to live their lives according to their traditions and customs without active
interference from non-aborigines is certainly a desirable end.

In 1950 after debate in the constituent assembly, the partially excluded and the excluded areas became the
fifth and the sixth scheduled areas. Tribal development programs were initiated. On the ground, tribal
people has no choice other than to become part of the mainstream and get assimilated into the Hindu fold
or become part of Christianity.

The Bhuria Committee Report and the subsequent Act of 1996 is an important step towards the realization
of self-rule for tribal people in India. These concerns reason the demand for tribal autonomy in the sixth
schedule areas in the Northeastern frontier regions of India. The Act of 1996 emphasized that traditional
tribal conventions and laws should continue to hold validity. The committee felt that while shaping the new
Panchayati Raj structure in tribal areas, it is desirable to blend the traditional with the modern by treating
the traditional institutions as the foundation on which the modern superstructure should be built.

(ii) Historical background of tribal voice:

 During the regime of the of colonial governance, illegal extortions and the oppressiveness of corrupt
police were the immediate cause of Rampa Rebellion, which started in March 1922 in the East Godavari
district. The most significant rebellions were the Birsa Munda (1874-901) and the Tana Bhagat Movement
(1914-1919). “The amendments made by the government consequent upon the Santhal Rebellion in 1856
were not extended to the Mundas, although they were facing similar problems.

As a consequence of these movements, there was improvement in tribal societies, institutions designed to
introduce reform and stimulate development. The Simon Commission and the government sought solution
to the tribal problem within the existing political structure but the policies framed were unrealistic. Most
funds meant for tribal’s were cornered by the non-tribal’s. Thus the government failed to alleviate the
painful feelings of the tribal’s.
The character of the tribal movement changed under the Government of India Act of 1935. Pan-tribal
organizations emerged to make their voice heard. For instance, the Chotanagpur Catholic Sabha,
Chotanagpur Adivasi Mahasabha.

(iii)Nationalist freedom struggle and tribal’s:-

The Indian National Congress considered the Indian tribal’s as backward and primitive people. Tribal
protest was considered as an indication of their inability to adjust, adapt and change. They were considered
as outsiders.

(iv)Constituent Assembly Debates and Tribal Affairs:-

Here Elwin Ghurye highlights the salient features of the Constituent Assembly debates on tribal affairs in
the following points:-
✓ The Constituent Assembly debates too did not question the validity of both ‘excluded’ and ‘partially
excluded areas’, or the view that tribals were backward.
✓ In view of this situation, it was argued that the principles of political and economic democracy would
create appropriate conditions for justice. These were incorporated in the Directive Principles of State
Policy.
✓ One-man one vote is the principle underlying political and economic democracy. A vote, therefore, is an
instrument to assert and define the political right to economic equality.
✓ Together they determine the economic and the political infrastructure of the industrial production process
and the productive capacities for modern industrial work and enterprise.
✓ Productive capacity is not just the capability to do a job and be employed. It is the preparedness to cope
with the traumas of alienation, differences in the social sphere and with the uncertainties of living in the
modern world of free liberal markets, without either subjugating anybody or being subjugated. Such
preparedness is the most essential requirement of self-rule.
✓ Debates on Article 335 focused on whether or not there should be job reservations for Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes.

1)e)Westernization:-

The concept of Westernization was given by M.N. Srinivas. According to him, it is an exogenous process
of social and cultural change.

Westernization is the impact of western cultures on eastern cultures.

According to M.N. Srinivas, Westernization started only after the advent of the British Rule in India.
 Westernization brings in humanitarian and egalitarian approach. Therefore, it opposes purity and impurity
of caste system. It also oposses untouchability, hierarchy and rigidity in the society, all other social
menances, gender inequality and promotes feminism.

Westernization brought along with it a change in beliefs, ideology, philosophy, value systems.

It upholds democratic principles and values. It is based more on individual choice. Individuals themselves
can choose whether to westernize or not.

It is a moral based choice.

Criticisms:-

(i) Number of people came from outside India before British rule. Therefore, it is comparatively an old
process-taking place since long time.
(ii) There is impact of East on West as well. This concept fails to recognize this.
(iii) Some scholars opined that the term “Desanskritization” to be used instead of Westernization.

2)a) The impact of urbanization and industrialization on tribal population:-

Due the process of urbanization and industrialization in India, tribal’s of India underwent a change not only
in their relationship with land but also in their relationship with the forests. Tribes were greatly dependent
on forest for their day-to-day needs, including food, shelter and medicine. As long as the tribes were in
control of forest and unrestricted use of its produce, they had no difficulty meeting these needs. In turn they
preserved the forest as it was their life support system. Below we discuss the positive and negative impacts
of Urbanization and Industrialization and on Tribal Population of India.

POSITIVE IMPACT OF URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION ON TRIBAL

POPULATION OF INDIA

(1) Social Impact:

(a) Access to the mainstream life of the Indian Society: Due to urbanization and industrialization, the
displaced tribal’s came into contact with the mainstream life of the Indian society. Consequently, they
could avail the benefits of the government education systems, better infrastructure like city roads, markets,
electrified houses, sanitation facilities, health care facilities which were earlier not available to them in their
forest based economy.
Their children are now exposed to better living conditions including education and health care services.
Better sanitation means better health to the community.
The tribal children can also join vocational educational programmes and programmes for skilled
development with the help of the NGOs.

(b) Tribal’s are now aware of Governmental schemes/policies:- With access to education, they can be
aware about the governmental schemes, policies and developmental programmes undertaken for the
development of the tribal’s.

(c)Governmental Support:- The displaced tribal does can get the support from the government during any
natural calamity and manmade disasters.
 (d) Change in life-style: After migration to the cities, induced by displacement due to urbanization and
industrialization, the tribal’s have a change in their life-style in the form of modern dressing habits ,
changes in their food habits and most importantly their interaction with the non-tribal’s. Now, the tribal’s
preferred to eat nutritious food instead of the raw foods from the forest. All these changes have led to an
improvement in their standard of living.
(2) Economic Impact:-
(a) Scope for better income:- The displaced tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization are
compelled to move to the cities. In the cities, they can join jobs as daily wage labourers in the
construction sites as per the MGNREGA, 2005.This can give them better incomes unlike their previous
income from the sale of agricultural produce and the forest based products. Consequently, they are in
contact with the monetary economy.
(b) Benefits of Economic Reforms:- The Economic Reforms in India in the form of Liberalization,
Privatization and Globalization (LPG) Policy, 1991 have generated huge employment opportunities in
the areas of mining and industries. Meanwhile, the tribal’s are also displaced due to these policies of
urbanization and industrialization. As a result, the displaced tribal’s can avail job opportunities, claim
for a compensation for the loss of land from these industries. For instance, in Odisha, tribal’s were
displaced due to industrial activities of NALCO, Mahanadi Coal Fields. The displaced tribal’s can avail
job opportunities, claim for a compensation for the loss of their land and common property resources
from these industries.

(3) Political Impact: The displaced tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization, are made aware of
their rights in relation to the forest, i.e. FRA, 2006. In the urban areas, they can join jobs as per the
MGNREGA, 2005. In relation to their Land Rights, they can be aware of the Land Acquisition Act,
2013. As a result, they can have access to justice and law of the land.

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION ON TRIBAL

POPULATION OF INDIA

In the states of Jharkhand and Odisha- the two Indian states having most of the mining and industrial
activities, the industrial and other development projects that have come up in these states have not made
jobs available to the tribal’s.
The main negative impacts of urbanization and industrialization on the tribal’s are as follows:-

(A) Social Impact

1. Loss of traditional way of life of the tribal’s:- Before the advent of urbanization and industrialization,
tribal’s were leading lives of sustainable subsistence. They depend on traditional agriculture and a
regenerative forest economy. However, with the commercial exploitation of forests through mining, there has
been a shift in the tribal livelihood. Tribal, whose subsistence was dependent on forest produce such as edible
fruits, leafs and tubers, they were gradually deprived of their common property resources. Moreover with the
opening of tribal lands in the wake of industrialization, the tribe caste interaction was intensified. This has
resulted in mark changes in tribal life style, changes in their food habits and dresses and the upsurge of a new
culture. Tribal’s have become pauperized as their own resources base is shrinking and encroached upon by
the industrialists and also by outsiders. The numbers of wage earners in the tribal’s is increasing.

2. Migration of tribal people:- Developmental projects have caused large scale immigration of tribal people in
search of housing and employment. The tribal’s who were the original inhabitants of the forest have lost their
homes and their relationship with the nature. The displaced tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization
 in the states of Jharkhand and Odisha, could not be properly rehabilitated from their independent self-
employment status in agriculture and the forest economy. They have become wondering wage earners in the
informal sector urban economy, their traditional sources of livelihood is now almost lost. The domination of
the upper caste Hindus in the organized sectors jobs of the region leaves them with little scope to enter to the
formal job market.

3. Decline in Joint Family system:- For centuries, tribals were living in joint family system. But, the displaced
tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization are compelled to live in nuclear families. After
displacement, no families were settled together. Even fathers and sons have been given lands in distant
places. There have been cases where brothers have been given lands in places a long distance away from
each other.
4. Displacement and its impact on gender:- The process of displacement has also affected the gender group.
In the tribal society, women are the primary forest product collector. After displacement, the women lost
their traditional occupational activities. The fact is that prior to the displacement, women of the tribal family
used to play primary role in collecting MFP, firewood etc. for their family requirements. Besides this, they
used to take part in agricultural activities as well as kitchen, gardening, livestock rearing, poultry etc. After
displacement, they have lost their source of livelihood and not been able to carry out those domestic
activities because of lack of facilities at the resettled colony. Thus, they are depending on the head of the
family for their maintenance. Further, after losing the economic activities due to the displacement, women
are compelled to do the job of domestic laborer in the households of higher ranked factory employees, while
they were used to work of their own families before displacement.

5. Health Problem:- During the pre-displacement period, the tribal people used to depend on forest for the
medicinal plants for their health care. They used to collects various fruits, roots, leaves and take them while
suffering from any diseases. Though the tribals are not much aware of the modern health system, in the post-
displacement period, they treat their patient in the hospital, which also contribute to the marginalization of
their economic condition. So, one way or the other, the tribal’s are the worst sufferers of the displacement
process due to urbanization and industrialization. Also, in the new environment, the women are suffering
from health hazard, malnutrition and various common diseases.
(B) Economic Impact

1. Compensation to the Displaced Tribal’s:- The industrial authority provided meager amount of cash
compensation to those tribals who lost their agriculture land. The amount that they received was much lower
than the market value because most of the tribal people did not have Patta (Land Document). Moreover, the
socio-economic and cultural life of the tribal had a close link with the forest but no such compensation has
been provided for its losing. After displacement, they became poor and marginalized. The resettled tribal’s are
facing many serious problems. The land that is given to them is uncultivable or water logged in hundreds of
cases. Many more have not been given sufficient land. Many others have been given fragmented or
encumbered land. Most sites do not have adequate drinking water or sanitation or health facilities. None of the
sites have grazing land, fodder, or firewood facilities. The authorities have made no compensation for the
common property resources like forest, fish, water, among others, enjoyed by the tribal’s in their original
village.

2. Problem of resettlement:- The house, which was provided to the displaced tribal people, was of only
one room with attached kitchen. As the family size of the tribal people was bigger than the other communities,
they were unable to accommodate in a single room. Prior to the displacement, they never faced any problem
to maintain their families because all the family members used to contribute to their livelihood through
collecting Minor Forest Products (MFP), agricultural activities, cattle breeding, etc. However, in the post
displacement period, things have changed and the entire family members i.e., children, the old person and
women depend on the only one breadwinner. Meanwhile, the market-oriented occupation has negative impact
on the old and younger generations. Younger generations were not able to accommodate themselves in the
fast growing market economy because they were not skilled enough to get job or to practice business.

3. Food Insecurity:- Food insecurity is one of the major problems for the tribal people after their
displacement. Prior to the displacement, every tribal family used to preserve food for the whole year. Mostly,
they used to preserve Paddy, Ragi, Maize, etc. and the forest products i.e. Mango kernel, Amta, seeds of
Jackfruit, jungle roots etc. After displacement, they have lost their common property resources and
agricultural lands, which resulted in chronic food insecurity among the tribal people. Presently, they have to
buy food items from the market out of the money earned from jobs or wage labour. As the family size is big
and for everything they need to depend on the market, they have been facing many problems to manage
themselves with only one person's income.

4. Unemployment:- During the pre displacement period, the tribal people used to engage themselves in
their traditional occupation like collecting MFP, agriculture, cattle rearing, poultry etc. However, after the
displacement, the majority of the tribal people became unemployed. Even, in the resettlement colony, there
are no such opportunities to carry out their traditional activities and none of them were well educated or
skilled enough to get employment. By giving false hope of employment, the contractors or brokers take these
tribal people to the nearest states as wage labourers, and pay them very little wage and keep them in inhuman
condition.

5. Indebtedness:- The displaced tribal people were in debt to maintain their family expenses. Most of
them were borrowing money from the moneylenders to meet the expenses of their children's marriage, health
care, festivals, etc. Taking advantage of the poor condition of the tribal people, the moneylenders usually
charge high interest.

(C) Socio-Cultural Impact:-

(1) Disintegration/Loss of tribal identity: -The social organization of the tribal people disintegrated due to
the industrialization and displacement. The kinship groups were scattered and there was no more community
solidarity and cultural identity of the tribal people. In the resettlement colony, the displaced tribal’s maintain
social relation with those people who are in their same income category. Even while celebrating traditional,
social and cultural ceremonies, the higher income groups are not willing to participate with the lower income
groups. Thus, in the tribal society, socio-cultural and community solidarity has disappeared by the process of
displacement.

(2) Impact on Socio-cultural Life:- Forest was not only the major source of livelihood but also it was socio-
cultural and religious life for the displaced tribal people. The socio-cultural life of the tribal was intimately
connected with the forest. The tradition, custom, belief and practice are the way of life for the tribal people.
Prior to displacement, tribal people used to worship the forest God and Goddess for the community's well
being, to improve the economic condition of their family, security and happiness. For them, forest was also
the place to develop group solidarity, social relation and to celebrate their cultural festivals. However, due to
the industrialization, they lost the social and cultural base of their life system. The culture, tradition and
customary practices no more existed. They have also lost the community solidarity and social relation. In
addition to this, the sacredness of the forest is no more existed. Although the meager compensation has
provided for the loss of agricultural land, but who will compensate for the loss of their culture, custom,
 practices and the community solidarity? Thus, displacement has adversely affected the social and cultural
practices of the displaced tribal people.
(3) Religious Impact:- Displacement of tribal’s due to urbanization and industrialization, the Tribal beliefs
is being mocked at in the light of other religions like Christianity and Hinduism. Magical cures which the
tribal’s practiced have become out of date and look down upon.
(D) Political Impact:-
(1) Bureaucratic apathy and corruption:- The tragic part for the displaced tribal people was that under the
Panchayati Raj, numerous anti poverty programmes have been implemented but it fails to achieve the
objectives. Consequently, the displaced tribal’s migrate to some other states in search of their livelihood. In
this context, the plan and programme have no meaning for the displaced tribes. In the whole process,
bureaucratic apathy and corruption have been going on in the name of tribal development.

(2) Naxalism:- Mineral rich states like Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have weaker property rights and
poor enforcement of law and these lead to retarded development outcomes. Poverty and lack of development
extract a terrible price. And one of them has been the rise of Naxalism in Jharkhand. Tribal’s now see no other
option but to embrace Naxalism in the present model of development. A prime reason for spread of naxalism
has been forced eviction of tribal people from their lands for ‘development projects ’and failure of state to
provide remote areas with facilities for health and education and prospect for dignified employment.
Successive governments including multinational companies have been grabbing mineral rich lands of the 104
million people. This process has impoverished, dispossessed and exiled tribal’s in their own land and has
also driven them to join the Maoist movement, which claims to stand for their well-being and for addressing
their grievances.

(3) Poor Implementation of the FRA, 2006:- There has been no proper implementation of the FRA, 2006 in
all the states of the country. Archaic laws, red tapism and official apathy have led to marginalization of the
tribals who without the title deeds and domicile certificates are branded as encroachers.

What needs to be done?

(i) The needs of the displaced tribal’s must be properly addressed by the Government and the industries
displacing the tribal’s. The tribal’s must be given adequate compensation for the loss of their land and
common property resources. Simultaneously, new sources of employment should be created for them in
their new sites.

(ii) Forest and tribal’s are inseparable entities. They naturally complement each other and have thus evolved
over thousands of years. In this regard, an active partnership of the forest department and the tribal’s with
mutual respect and trust will be beneficial for both in the long run.

Case Study of Mining in Jharkhand

Jharkhand which means 'forest tract' is rich in minerals with huge reserves of coal, iron ore, mica, bauxite,
limestone, copper, chromite, china clay, fire clay, uranium, manganese, dolomite, tungsten, gold. This
region produces 48 per cent of the country's coal, 45 per cent of its mica, 48 per cent of its bauxite, 90 per
cent of its apatite and all of its kyanite. Further, this region is very rich in forests. 84.42 per cent of Bihar's
forest area lies in Jharkhand. For centuries this region has been the homeland of indigenous people such as
the Santals, Mundas, Oraons, Hos, Gonds, Kharias, Bhuiyas, Bhumij, Birhors, Turi, Sadans, Kamar,
Kl'mhars, Kurmis. These indigenous groups comprising 85 to 90 per cent of the total population of
Jharkhand have been the worst hit by the large-scale exploitation of the natural resources of the region
through the development of mines, industries and commercial exploitation of forests. The majority of them
live in a state of semi-starvation throughout the year.Coal is the biggest mining industry of Jharkhand. Prior
to nationalization in 1971 coal was mined in a haphazard manner by private mine owners. After
nationalization the entire coal industry of the region was entrusted to Coal India (CIL) and its subsidiaries.

IMPACT OF MINING:-
(i)Environmental Problems: The exploitation of mineral resources through surface and underground
mining has caused wide ranging environmental problems such as land degradation, air, water and noise
pollution, etc. These problems are accentuated by the multiplier effect of mining in a region which has
acted as a catalyst for urbanization and industrialization. The large-scale mining and allied
 activities going on in the Jharkhand region have caused severe damage to the land resources of the area.
Vast areas of rich forests and agricultural lands belonging to the indigenous people have been laid waste
because of haphazard mining. Underground mining operations, especially of coal, have created unsafe
surface conditions in many areas warranting diversion of roads, railway lines, etc. and the shifting of a
number of townships. It adversely affected ground water table in many areas with the result that the yield
of water from the wells of adjoining villages has drastically reduced. Further, effluents discharged from
mine sites have seriously polluted the streams and underground waters of the area. Today the River
Damodar, considered a sacred river by the Santal tribals, is quite like a sewage canal shrunken and filled
with filth and rubbish, emanating obnoxious odors. Millions of people living along the banks of these rivers
are compelled to drink water which contains the radioactive and chemically contaminated wastes. Mining
and allied operations are causing serious air pollution in the region. Open cast quarries, coal washeries,
thermal power plants, coke-oven plants, cement factories, fertilizer plant, etc. contribute to serious air
pollution.
(ii) Land Alienation and Displacement: The indigenous people have a special relationship with their
land. To separate the indigenous people from their land is tantamount to tearing them apart from their life-
giving source. But, due to policy of Industrialization, 1991 a number of them have been illegally
dispossessed of their land. Many have been forced to leave their homes to work in the brick kilns and stone
quarries of north Bihar, West Bengal, UP, Punjab and other places as contract and even bonded labourers.
One of the major causes of land alienation and displacement in the area is the mining industry, particularly
coal.
2)b)The process of emergence and growth of Anthropology in India:-

Ancient India

• Great epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata

• Manu
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra
• Outsiders: Megasthenese (Greek Ambassador) visited Chandra Gupta Maurya. He gave historical, social,
economical, political and cultural aspects of people of that time.

Medieval India:- Writings of Kabir, Tulsidas and even outsiders. They gave detailed account of people and
society of that time.

Modern India:-According to many scholars it started with establishment of Asiastic Society of Bengal.
According to Majumdar, there are three phases:
(i)Formative Phase (1774-1911)
(ii)Constructive Phase (1912-1937)
(iii)Analytical Phase (1938-Present)

According to L.P Vidyarthi, there are three phases of development of Indian Anthropology:-
(i) Formative Phase (1774-1919)
(ii)Constructive Phase (1920-1949)
(iii)Analytical Phase (1950-Present)
 According to Basu Roy, there are four phases of development of Indian Anthropology.

(i) Formative Phase (1774-1919)

(ii)Constructive Phase (1920-1949)
(iii)Analytical Phase (1950-1989)
(iv)Evaluative Phase (1990 onwards)

According to Gopi Saran, the Formative Phase started later than 1774.

According to Majumdar, these phases of development in different parts of the country are unequal.
Formative Phase:- It started with the establishment of Asiastic Society Sir William Jones and was renamed as
Asiastic Society of Bengal (1784). Later it started publishing a Journal of which Part III was dedicated to
Anthropology.
British Administrators wanted to study about the cultures of Indians for administrative convenience. These
administrators were trained at Hailleburry College, London. Most of the focus was on tribal, customs (living),
monographs, culture.

Some scholars were O-Malley, Thurston, Dalton, Risley, Creek, S.C. Roy, R.P Chand, etc.

Constructive Phase:- Hutton, Malinowski, Red Cliffe brown etc. studied Indian Tribes and Villages, also
influenced Indian Anthropologists.
1920-Bombay University- Anthropology as a paper was introduced in sociology.
1921-Calcutta University- Introduced Anthropology as a separate subject.
Verrier Elwin:- A British missionary who came to India and converted into Hinduism.
M.N. Srinivas, L.P. Vidyarthi, Chattopadhyay, Ananth Krishna Iyer, N.K. Bose, Aiyyapan, etc.
Tribal, caste studies, culture and folklore became very common.
Formative and Constructive phase were mainly under British scholars.
Analytical Phase:-In descriptive Anthropology, there was a paradigm shift to Analytical Anthropology. It was
greatly influenced by American, German and French Anthropologists.
Various aspects were studied analytically.
Scholars were M.N. Srinivas, L.P. Vidyarthi.

Evaluative Phase:- The scope of the subject extended to humanities, earth sciences, behavioural sciences and
many other branches.
Our Indian scholars started giving their own theories to clear the misconceptions regarding caste, tribe, religion
and other aspects of Indian society.

Development of Anthropological branches in India:-

(i) In India, first socio-cultural Anthropology was started.
(ii) Secondly, Physical/ Biological Anthropology was started
(iii) Thirdly, Prehistoric Archaeological Anthropology was started (with excavation done by Brucefoot near
Madras)
Crisis of Anthropology in India:-
(i) Anthropology as a profession has an identity crisis:- As a subject it is not known by many. As a result
of this subject has an identity crisis. Even those of Anthropologists who are qualified also are not recognized
by the people.

(ii)Relevance of Anthropology:-The relevance of Anthropology especially in the third world countries has
become quite irrelevant. Therefore, Modern Anthropologists should cater to the needs of third world countries.
There is a lack of sufficient funding.

(iii)Quantity and Quality:-There are almost more than three dozens of universities in India which are
offering P.G Courses, Ph.D Courses in Anthropology. Every year, the number of Anthropologists is
increasing in India. India is having the 2nd highest Anthropologists after USA. But quality was not focused on.
Field work is missing.

(iv)Collegial partnerships:-Some factions formed in certain universities is preventing the development of

Anthropologists.

(v)Crisis of Anthropology in Micro and Macro studies:- Many a times, macro studies are missing.

(vi)Anthropology of oppressed classes Vs Anthropology of elite classes:-

• Modern Anthropology in India is not focusing on elite classes.
• Not able to understand the changing structure and power of elite classes.
• It is important to study all classes of people.

(vii) Anthropology of past, present, future:-

• Usually focused on past, present, but not more on future.
• Modern Anthropology is focusing on future perspective also.
• Study the past and the present to solve the future problem.
• Crisis in career prospects.
• Crisis in research- funding, government clearances to study the areas.

2)c)The concept of Jamani system, advantages and disadvantages of Jajmani system

Meaning of Jajmani System:

It is the most popular caste based socio-economic interdependent mutualistic system in rural India. It is a
systematically arranged goods and services exchanging system. It is useful to lead life comfortably by
helping each other. This concept was proposed by William Wiser. He proposed this concept after studying
Karimpura village of Uttar Pradesh in 1936.
He explained this concept in his text “Hindu Jajmani System” it is useful to study-
(i) Social structure in rural India
(ii) Interdependence of caste system
 (iii) Pattern of goods and service exchange
(iv) Relationship between agrarian and artisans
(v) Division of Labour in rural India
(vi) Duties and responsibilities of different castes.
(vii) The social organization and social structure at village level

The word Jajmani was derived from he Sanskrit word “Yajman” meaning landlord. It is a socio-economic,
interdependent, mutualistic system for exchanging of goods and services at village level.
It is called as AYA in Mysore by Ishwaran.
Jajmani system is essentially an agricultural based system. Its aim is production and distribution of goods
and services in a proper order. The land owning caste are known as the Yajamans and artesan caste are
known as Kamins. Yajamans should maintain a paternalistic approach towards Kamins.
Kamins include blacksmiths, goldsmiths, weavers, oilseed pressers, leather workers, barbers, washerman
and a wide range of occupationally specialized groups. Providing services free of cost is responsibility of
artesian caste. At the sametime providing protection, food grains and fulfilling all the needs of Kamins is
the duty of Yajamans.
Kamins, Yajaman relationship is permanent and hereditary. One cannot change or substitute this
relationship. The relationship is not an individual relationship. It is a relationship between families. The
Yajamans cannot remove Kamins but Kains may choose their Yajamans.

Advantages of Jajmnai system:-

1. Security of occupation:-Since this is hereditary system, the kamin is assured in case of jajmani system.
He knows that if he breaks his family occupation he shall not be able to earn his livelihood.
2. Economic Security:-It provides economic security to Kamins as the Jajman looks after all of their needs.
The kamins are assured of their economic security. In every monetary crisis the jajman helps the Kamins.
They extend all possible help to the Kamins. So, there is economic security in the Jajmani system.
Disadvantages of the Jajmani system:-
1.Source of exploitation:-Jajmani system is exploitative. The agricultural castes, which are invariably
upper castes seek the services of the occupational castes. The exploitation of lower castes continues
under the grab of paternal ties.

2. Like the caste system, this system has become a source of suppression, exploitation and
discrimination. Oscar Lewis has pointed out in his study that Jajmani system in Rampur village whereas
in the past it was based on personal relationship, in the present times it is has become an instrument of
exploitation of Kamins by Jajmans.

3. Feeling of superioriry and inferiority:-In this syste, the Kamins are considered low whereas the Jajmans are
placed high. This has resulted in social inequality and feeling of superiority and inferiority in the minds of
both Jajmans and Kamins. Because this system is based on heredity, the Kamin cannot take part in other jobs
or occupations and the advantage of latest scientific developments to improve their economic conditions. This
system has resulted in lowering the economic standard of the kamins. They are treated as inferior. They are
sometimes exploited and abused by the Jajmans. This is a system which is based on the sense of high and low.

4. Supported by the caste system:- The caste system is the basis of the Jajmani system. So, this system suffers
from all the evils of the caste system. Dr. Majumdar found in his study that the conditions of the kamins are
miserable and the upper castes subject them to great harassment and trouble. They are all ill-treated by the
jajmans.
Jajmani system in the present day context:-

In present day situation, reasons for decline include-

Land reforms, education, employment opportunities, urbanization, migration, industrialization, modernization,
government policies, schemes, Capitalistic economies, etc.

3)a)The tribal way of living seems to be one of the major determinants of education among the various
tribal groups in India due to the following reasons:-

Education (Low literacy & poor educational facilities):-

Many of the problems of tribal like land alienation, indebtedness, bonded labour, poverty, unemployment,
underemployment, poor health and nutritional status is due to resistance of tribal community for a cultural
change and also lack of basic competence in education. In spite of universalization of primary education in
1950, National policy on education and various government schemes likes Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, Mid-day
Meals Schemes, Schemes for education of schedule tribes, etc, though increased the enrollment of tribal yet it
didn’t show any drastic change and they have never been truly empowered.

It has been found that tribal children hardly appreciate the geography of the country, civilization, history, etc.
Education remains to be a major challenge and low literacy levels accompanied by poor educational facilities
needs special attention.

Case Study

Literacy rates of Scheduled Tribes far below the national average, says parliamentary panel
The literacy rate as per Census 2011 is 73 percent but for STs is 59 percent only. "The overall literacy gap
amongst the various groups and STs has come down from 19.77 percent in 1961 to 14.03 percent in 2011, a
scrutiny of state-wise literacy data reveals that in most of the north eastern states like Meghalaya, Mizoram and
Nagaland, STs are at par with the general population."While in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil
Nadu and West Bengal, which have sizeable ST population in remote areas, the literacy gap is as high as 18 to
26 per cent," the committee has noted. .It has also exhorted the government to view the large disparity in
literacy rates of STs in these states, which have lagged in almost all socio-economic parameters, and promote
educational development for STs on a "mission mode".
Factors Affecting Tribal Education

1. Education make the tribal’s deviant from their traditional societies: An important factor which affects
the education of the tribal children is that education make their off-spring deviant, insolent and separate them
from the rest of their society. Some factors like most of the tribal children are engaged in crucial family work
like cattle grazing, labor on work sites, collecting fire wood and other minor forest products, stone quarrying,
mining and home based work such as processing forest products. The level of utilization of technology in the
tribal area has remained abysmally low.

2. Lack of Interest in Formal Education - The other problem faced by them was lack of academic help from
the teachers, non -availability of teachers is the major reason.
3.Environment of Family- The surrounding or Environment is one of the important factors influenced for the
development of the person. Most of the tribal are illiterates and tribal fathers are addicted to alcohol and other
beverages which adversely affect the economic status of the family.

4. Lack of transport facilities: There are no adequate bus facilities to reach School. They have to walk a
longer distance to reach their school. In the young age the students find it difficult to walk several miles and
learn. Most of the teachers working in tribal school have to travel 4 to 5 hours per day. Hence, they give
priority to Government jobs in forest department like forest guide; ranger. The lack of transport facilities is the
major reason for their absenteeism to school.

5. Poor Health: poor health is a major reason for their absenteeism. Lack of resources, combination of
poverty, imbalanced diet, climatic conditions, lack of medical facilities, myths. These are some of the reasons
for frequent illness among tribal children.

Suggestions by XaXa:-

✓ The purpose of education anywhere including in tribal areas should provide children an understanding
about environment & society in which their civilization.
✓ There is a marked generation gap want education in tribal society. This is reflected in disparity in literacy
dropout rates, enrollment in higher education, etc. Hence, there is a need for greater focus to encourage
education in tribal communities with special attention on girls.
✓ The state must develop certain mechanism to this effect.
✓ The educational scenario in tribal areas is marked by poor infrastructure. So, providing adequate
infrastructure, teachers, teaching aids, basic facilities like electricity, water, boundary walls & toilets is
absolutely essential for functioning of schools & also from security & safety perspective for children.

In view of deteriorating of education in tribal areas where Sarva Siksha Abhiyan have hardly been of any
help. Recourse should be taken for right of children to free and compulsory education act 2009, which
provides for compulsory enrollment of all children between the age groups 6-14 years. Keeping in view the
difficulties of adjusting to a new cultural environment, teachers for such schools in tribal areas should be
recruited locally. Along with teaching staff the administrative staff should have regular orientation course
to appreciate the tribal culture and ways of life. To facilitate such training the “centers of training” should
be located in tribal areas.

➢ There should be a separate cadre of teaching and administrative staff who will serve among tribal
schools over longer periods.
➢ Inclusion of local culture, folklore, history in the curriculum can help in building confidence of tribal
children and enhance the relevance of education in their life’s.
➢ Music and dance are central part of tribal life. Hence, story-telling, theater, painting, music & dance
performances should be promoted.
➢ Similarly sports like football, archery and other popular local sports are extremely beneficial and
therapeutic for children should be promoted.
➢ Recognizing that tribal have certain cultural genius, different aspects of indigenous knowledge should
be documented, researched and promoted.
 ➢ For developing a better understanding about tribal culture there should be appropriate number of tribal
cultural academics in regional centers.
➢ An important step in the direction of teaching tribal history and culture in schools of both tribal and non-
tribal children should be taken. Residential schools are setup specifically for nomadic tribal children.
Basic principals should include:-
a) Residential schools are setup in place where whether is least harsh.
b) Special security for children including girls for whom these should a women warden.
c) Parents of children should be brought to institution so that they are informed about education and quality
of life of their children.
d) There should be proactive efforts by tribal affairs officials of state to approach every family, to help them
make an informed choice to send their children to schools.
e) Holidays should be fixed in such a way that children can meet their family when the family returns to the
place where they celebrate festivals.

3)b)The role of media in bringing social change in India before independence and post
independence:-

Media and Social Change: The word ‘media’ is derived from the word medium, signifying mode or carrier.
Media is intended to reach and address a large target group or audience. The word was first used in respect
of books and newspapers i.e. print media and with the advent of technology, media now encompasses
television, radio and internet.

Social Change or social development means the changes in nature, the social institutions, and the social
behaviour of a society. It is any event or action that affects a group of individuals that have a shared value
or characteristics.
Kingsley Doris "By social change is meant only such alternations as occur in social organization i.e. the
structure & functions of society".
In this chapter, we shall see how media has bought social change in Indian society during: (a) the role of
media and social change during the Colonial India, (b) the role of media and social change during the first
decades after independence and (c) finally the role of media and social change in the context of
globalization and the present day.

(a)The Role of Media in bringing Social Change before independence:

The first modern mass media institution began with the development of the printing press. In India, the
first products of the press were restricted to an audience of literate elites. It was only in the mid 19 th
century, with further development in technologies, transportation and literacy that newspapers began to
reach out to a mass audience. People living in different corners of the country found themselves reading or
hearing the same news. This was in many ways responsible for people across a India to feel connected and
develop a sense of belonging or ‘we feeling’. At the same time, these newspapers like Amrita Bazar Patrika
(English), Kesari (Marathi), Mathrubhumi (Malayalam), were also used to express the behaviour of the
British towards the Indians under the Colonial Rule. The 19th century social reformers often wrote and
debated in newspapers.
But, these newspapers either in English or vernacular were not very widely circulated as the literate public
was limited. Yet their influence far out stripped their circulation as news and information was read and
spread from commercial and administrative hubs like markets and trading centers as well as courts and
towns. The print media carried a range of opinion, which expressed the ideas of the Indians under the
Colonial Rule for a ‘free India’. 􀀁

(b) The Role of Media in bringing Social Change in the first decades after independence: 􀀁
In independent India, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, called upon the media to function
as the watchdog of democracy. The media was expected to spread the spirit of self-reliance and national
development among the people. The media –particularly the newspapers and radio was seen as a means to
inform the people of the various developmental efforts. The media was also encouraged to fight against
oppressive social practices like untouchability, child marriages and witch- craft.
At the time of independence there were only 6 radio stations located in the major cities catering primarily
to an urban audience. By 1950 there were 546,200 radio licenses all over India. The All India Radio (AIR)
programmes consisted mainly of news, current affairs and discussions on development. Over the years,
AIR has developed a formidable infrastructure for radio broadcasting in India. It operates a three-tiered –
national, regional, and local – service to cater to India’s geographic, linguistic and cultural diversity. It has
covered more than two- third of rural households.
Television programming was introduced experimentally in India to promote rural development as early as
1959. Later on, the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) broadcasted directly to community
viewers in the rural areas of six states between August 1975 and July 1976. These instructional broadcasts
were broadcasted to 2,400 TV sets directly for 4 hours daily. Meanwhile, television stations were set up
under Doordarshan in 4 cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar and Amritsar) by 1975. Three more stations in
Kolkata, Chennai and Jalandhar were added within a year.
Every broadcasting centre had its own mix of programmes comprising news, children’s and women’s
programmes, farmer’s programmes as well as entertainment programmes. As programmes become
commercialized and were allowed to carry advertisements of its sponsors, a shift in target audience was
evident. Entertainment programmes grew and were directed to the urban consuming class. During 1984-85
the number of television transmitters increased all over India covering a large proportion of the population.
There was substantial advertising revenue for Doordarshan as did the broadcasting of the epics Ramayana
(1987-88) and Mahabharat (1988-90). People in rural areas accumulated in a particular household to watch
these Epics.

(C) The role of Media in bringing social change in the context of globalization and present day
situation:

(i)Increase in the level of awareness:- Today, the level of awareness of the common people has increased.
Media has contributed a lot in increasing the general knowledge, current affairs of the common people.

(ii)Development of Public Opinion:- Media of today is playing an outstanding role in creating and
shaping of public opinion and strengthening of society. Media discussion/other programmes highlights the
issues, hold cross-discussions and identify the reasons, different segments of society on key issues are
brought out. In this way, media helps in developing public opinion of people in different issues.
Since the introduction of television in our country in late 70’s, visual media became a very potential tool in
informing the current news to the society, entertaining the people and shaping up of public opinion.

(iii)Supports Democracy:- Media acts as the watchdog of democracy to protect public interest against
malpractice and create public awareness.
Today when politicians are taking full advantage of their positions, evils of naxalism and crime syndicate is
making the life of the common man miserable, taxpayer’s money is siphoned out for the personal gain of
the influential and ordinary people are a mere spectator-media has a greater responsibility in these issues.
 As the fourth pillar of democracy along with judiciary, executive and legislature, media of today has an all
embracing role to act against the injustice, oppression, misdeeds and partiality of our society. Media
supports democracy by bringing out the democratic norms and inculcating the same to the general public.
Providing live coverage of parliamentary proceedings, activities of politicians, programmes on democracies
are the few examples.

(iv)Relevant information are available over the internet, smart phone:- Another example of media as
social change is that today we get the information like the CBSE Examination Results, advertisement for
various vacancies for employment, their exam results, etc over the internet, smart phone. This has helped
the common people a lot by imparting them the required information.

(v) Changes through social media:- The World Wide Web and web 2.0 technologies have given rise to
electronic media where even a common person can express their views through blogs, website posts and
social media like Facebook and twitter. Coupled with traditional print media, all these audio- video and
social media caters to a richly diversified media industry in India.

(vi) Other benefits:- Media helps in fighting against corruption, nepotism, cronyism (partiality in
awarding jobs) of institutional machinery and carrying out harsh campaign against them. Way back in
independent India in various scams from commonwealth to 2G spectrum case, Satyam Scam, Adarsh
Housing Society Scam, thanks to television and print media which acted as a catalyst to government
action compelling government to swing into action including suspending officials, ministers and putting
them into jail.
(vii) Employment Opportunities: Presently, In India, the Media Industry has given employment to a
section of the Indian Population.
Conclusions: Without media, the news of government schemes and benefits would have never reached the
targeted audience. Indian media in post independence era has grown up phenomenally and today comprises
of more than 50,000 newspapers, hundreds of television and radio channels.

Case Study:-The Community Radio Experience of Jharkhand

A new chapter is opened in the history of Jharkhand with the emergence of Chala Ho Goan Mein – the
weekly community radio program aired on AIR – Daltonganj in Palamau district of Jharkhand.

Jharkhand state which emerged from Bihar is nationally well known for all the low levels of the social
sector indicators of poor literacy, dismal health scenario, poor infrastructural facilities, and low levels of
skills and lack of sustainable livelihoods. There is rise of extremism in the region. The most influencing
factor is the out-of-date administration system in the region. The development programs of government
don’t reach the needy due to various inherent lacunae in the system. Thus the poor and impoverished are
subjected to severe hardships.
The geographical disparities, social disparities, the nexus between the zamindars, the politicians and the
bureaucrats being strong, the poor are not able to penetrate into any developmental schemes for their
region..

In the above context the emergence of a community radio program which could voice their needs, concerns
and issues effectively has been a boon to the region.
Community Radio initiative is changing the lives of the people by enabling them to reflect, discuss, write
and produce their own radio programmes on issues close to their heart. The village reporters, drawn from
the community, facilitate the process. The initiative has been welcomed by all, and especially those who
did not initially believe they would listen to their own voices on the radio. Further, the region has untapped
talent of personnel who are engaged in writing songs, scripts and dramas. The Palamau region is steeped in
darkness as there is no electricity in majority of the villages. The only recourse to the outside world is the
radio.
Alternative for India Development (AID) has been working in the region from the year 1989 onwards
through various programs on education, health, livelihood, micro women groups and enterprises on the
development side. It has also been actively involved in organizing the village groups on various issues of
importance such as land reform, corruption.AID has been using the medium of audio-video shows, dramas
and cultural programs through mobile units for organizing the masses.
Initially it was planned to narrow cast the programs for 3 months and then go for the broadcast of the
program in All India Radio – Daltonganj. There was visible enthusiasm even during this phase and
finally when the first episode was broadcast on 5th August 2001 there has been no looking back.
On every Sunday at 7.20 p.m. AIR Daltonganj broadcasts the sponsored program Chala Ho Goan Mein.
The striking difference between the regular AIR programs and this community program starts with the
local dialect of Maghi used in the program to the maximum extent. This dialect is typical in Central Bihar
and now it is part of Jharkhand in Palamau and Garwah districts. Secondly the range of issues of local
importance which are broadcast in the radio week after week as brought in value addition to the program.
Thirdly the local ownership, involvement and participation of the villagers in designing and devising the
concepts and themes for the program has definitely brought in participation of the people in right earnest
for their own development.
Earlier phase the program was a mixture wherein the drama, songs, discussions and interviews were on
different issue. During the second phase, attempts were made to bring out issue based episodes so that the
subject could be dealt at length in various formats. It aims to carry out programs focusing the problems of
the villagers and countering interviews with the Block development officials on their reactions to the
issues. Interviews with doctors on seasonal diseases and the cautions and precautions to be followed are
also aired from time to time. An attempt is also being made to increase the number of listeners by
providing around 400 FM radio sets among the Women SHG’s, remote villages where radio sets are not
available and also to the Gram Sabhas. .
The programme has highlighted some cases of Gram Sabha where the combined efforts of the community
have brought about certain changes useful for the entire community. These stories have inspired other
villagers to reconstitute their Gram Sabha and fight for their rights. The popularity of the programme has
forced the government officials to listen the programme as it contains the grievances of community and
presents the real situation of the area.
There has been demand for the repeat broadcast of the several episodes and there is constant demand from
the villagers to cover their village. The cultural wing of AID which goes around various villages in
Palamau and Garwah districts through its mobile audio and video units has now equipped itself with the
radio episodes and the popular episodes are once again used for narrow casting in the villages along with
other audio and video programs.
In a very short time the program has commanded popularity, its spread over effect is much larger and lot of
letters are received from the neighbouring districts of Gaya in Bihar and Surguja in Chhattisgarh states as
well..
People’s voices and problems related to non-governance of various government programs were played with
the government officials and their reactions were also recorded and broadcast. This provided opportunity
for right to expression and right to information from the local authorities.

3)c)Indian village as a social system:-

Social system is an organization of individuals into groups or structures that have different functions,
characteristics, origin or status. For example, a social system might break a larger population down into
family groups, races, religious affiliations, gender, wealth categories and social classes.

Indian village can be seen as a social system. These villages have their own social structure which is
formed out of the following units:-
(1)Village Pattern (2)Family (3)Lineage and Kinship (4)Caste System (5) Changes in the Caste System
(6)Religion (7)Internal Organization (8)Economic System (9) The Issue of Village Autonomy
(10)Changes in Village Power Structure and Leadership
If a scientific and a proper study of the Indian village as a social system is to be made, these units have to
be studied in details. Let us discuss them one by one.

(1)Village Pattern:- Rural people live in settled villages. Three main types of settlement patterns have
been observed in rural areas:

( i) Nuclear villages:- The most common type is the nucleated village found all over the country. Here, a
tight cluster of houses is surrounded by the fields of the villagers. An outlying hamlet or several satellite
hamlets are also found to be attached to some villages in this case.

(ii)Linear villages:- there are linear settlements in some parts of the country, e.g. in Kerala, in Konkan and
in the delta lands of Bengal. In such settlements, houses are strung out, each surrounded by its own
compound. However, there is little to physically demarcate where one village ends and another begins.

(iii) Scattered villages:- the settlement is simply a scattering of homesteads or clusters of two or three
houses. In this case also physical demarcation of villages is not clear. Such settlements are found in hill
areas, in the Himalayan foothills, in the highlands of Gujarat and in the Satpura range of Maharashtra.
Further, we find that the size of village population is small and density of population low in comparison
with towns and cities.

(2) The Family:- Family is one of the most important social institution which constitutes the
rural society. It caters to needs and performs functions, which are essential for the continuity, integration
and change in the social system, such as, reproduction, production and socialization. Broadly speaking
there are two types of family:-
(a) A nuclear family consisting of husband, wife and unmarried children, and
(b) A joint family or extended family comprising a few more kins than the nuclear type.
Important dimensions of ‘jointness’ of family are Coresidentiality, commensality, coparcenary and
fulfillment of obligation towards kin and sentimental aspect. Coresidentiality means that members of a
family live under the same roof. Commensality implies that they eat together i.e., have a common kitchen.
Coparcenary means that they have joint ownership of property. Further, generation depth encompasses
three generations or more, i.e., grandfather, father and the son or more. Members of the family also have
obligations toward their kin. Moreover, they have a sentimental attachment to the ideal of joint family.
Rural family works as the unit of economic, cultural, religious, and political activities. Collectivity of the
family is emphasized in social life, and feelings of individualism and personal freedom are very limited.
Marriage is considered as
inter-familial matter rather than an inert-personal affair. It is governed by rules of kinship. It is the agency
that controls the religious activities particularly in the rural society.

(3)Lineage and Kinship:- Within the village, a group of families tracing descent from a common ancestor
with knowledge of all the links constitute a lineage; and the children of the same generation behave as
brothers and sisters. They form a unit for celebrating major ritual events. Sometimes the word Kul is used
to describe these units. Usually these families live in closeness and a guest of one (e.g. a son-in-law) could
be treated as such in all these families. They are also exogamous. These relations can be spread over to
several villages for each caste.

(4)Caste System:- India’s caste system is among the world’s oldest forms of surviving social stratification.
The caste system divides Hindus into four main categories - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the
Shudras.
At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and intellectuals and are believed
to have come from Brahma's head. Then came the Kshatriyas, or the warriors and rulers, supposedly from
his arms. The third slot went to the Vaishyas, or the traders, who were created from his thighs. At the
bottom of the heap were the Shudras, who came from Brahma's feet and did all the menial jobs. Outside of
this Hindu caste system were the Dalits or the untouchables.
Each caste has its own social rules regarding things it can take or not take, use or not use.
Some of the activities of the castes relate to the wider social setting which is based on the principle of
ascription, birth determining the membership of a person and the status of the group. Each group in certain
ways represents a segment of the society, and regulates its affairs. This has been called the segmental
division of society.

The Jajmani System:- A very important feature of traditional village life in India is the ‘jajmani’ system.
The term ‘jajman’ refers to the patron or recipient of specialised services and the term ‘jajmani’ refers to
the whole relationship. In fact, the jajmani system is a system of economic, social and ritual ties among
different caste groups in a village. Under this system some castes are patrons and others are serving castes.
The serving castes offer their services to the landowning upper and intermediate caste and in turn are paid
both in cash and kind. The patron castes are the landowning dominant castes, e.g., Rajput, Bhumihar, Jat in
the North, and Kamma, Lingayat and Reddi in Andhra Pradesh and Patel in Gujarat. The service castes
comprise Brahmin (priest), barber, carpenter, blacksmith, water-carrier, leatherworker etc. The jajmani
relations essentially operate at family level (Mandelbaum 1972). A Rajput land-owning family has its
jajmani ties with one family each from Brahmin, barber, carpenter etc., and a family of service caste offers
its services to specific families of jajmans. However, jajmani rules are enforced by caste panchayats. The
jajmani relationship is supposed to be and often is durable, exclusive and multiple. Jajmani tie is inherited
on both sides i.e. patron and client (the Jajman and the Kamin). The relationship is between specific
families. Moreover, it is more than exchange of grain and money in lieu of service. On various ritual
occasions, such as marriage, birth and death, the service-castes render their services to their jajman and get
gifts in addition to customary payments. In factional contests each side tries to muster the support of its
jajmani associates. Hence the jajmani system involves interdependence, reciprocity and cooperation
between jati and families in villages. But the jajmani system also possesses the elements of dominance,
exploitation and conflict (Beidelman 1959 and Lewis and Barnouw 1956). There is a vast 37 difference in
exercise of power between landowning dominant patrons and Rural Social Structure poor artisans and
landless labourers who serve them. The rich and powerful jajmans exploit and coerce the poor ‘kamins’
(client) to maintain their dominance. In fact, there is reciprocity as well as dominance in the jajmani
system.

(5)Changes in the Caste System:- The main traditional avenues of social mobility were Sanskritisation,
migration and religious conversion. Lower castes or tribes could move upward in the caste hierarchy
through acquisition of wealth and political power. They could consequently claim higher caste status along
with Sanskritising their way of life. Important changes have taken place in the caste system in rural areas
in the contemporary period due to the new forces of industrialisation, urbanization, politicization, modern
education and legal system, land reforms, development programmes and government policy of positive
discrimination in favour of the lower castes. Occupational association of caste has marginally changed in
rural areas. Brahmins may still work as priests. In addition, they have taken to agriculture. Landowning
dominant castes belonging to both upper and middle rung of caste hierarchy generally work as supervisory
farmers. Other non-landowning lower castes, including small and marginal peasants, work as wage
labourers in agriculture. Artisan castes, namely, carpenters and iron-smith continue with their traditional
occupations. However, migration to urban areas has enabled individuals from all castes including
untouchables to enter into non-traditional occupations in industry, trade and commerce, and services.
The Brahmins have lost their traditional dominance in South India. Kamma and Reddi in Andhra, Lingayat
and Okkaliga in Karnataka, and Ahir, Jat and Kurmi in North India have emerged as the new dominant
castes at local and regional levels through acquisition of economic and political power.

Some traditional backward castes e.g. Nadar, Vanniyar of Tamil Nadu and Mahar of Maharashtra also have
improved their social status. In his study of Sripuram village in Tanjore district, Andre Beteille (1971)
noticed the phenomenon of status incongruence. Traditionally, the upper castes owned land and
monopolised political power in the village. But now, due to various institutional changes, they have lost
control in political affairs to intermediate rural social structure castes without losing their land to any
substantial extent. Thus, we find that caste has undergone adaptive changes. But, its traditional basic
features, i.e. connubial (matrimonial), commensal (eating together) and ritual, still prevail in rural areas.
The core characteristics of the castes, which have affected the social relations, are still operative

(6)Religion:- Like caste and family, internal organization, etc. religion is an important unit of the Indian
village as a social system. In fact, religion means worship of the super natural power. This super natural
power means God and other Gods and deities. The worship of supernatural power and these deities form an
important part of the Indian village life. Villagers in India have their own Gods and deities.

(7)The internal organization:-Each village has an internal organization which governs and determines the
social and individual life of the people living in a particular village.
Normally every village has a Panchayat and its head is elected with the consent of almost all the adult
members of the village. The Panchayat looks after the issues in a village such a revenue, law and order,
caste relations, etc. Generally, there is a village Panchayat, a village Nyay Panchayat, Panchayat of
different castes and certain other social, religious and political group’s voluntary groups.
These internal organizations are intended at helping the villagers by maintaining their religious customs
and traditions which play a vital role in the smooth working of the villager’s and their village life.

(8)Economic System:-Economic system has now come to occupy an important place in every social
structure. In fact, economic system determines not only the social structure but various other things like
means and the system of production, the system of consumption, the system of distribution, profit sharing,
etc.
According to Raymond Forth, social activities and economic activities are inert-related; they both have a
mutual relationship.
In fact, the economic system very much determines the social structure. According to an economic
conditions, the activities of a person is determined. This is very much true even to the village life in
particular and the rural society in general.
The economic system in the Indian villages is based in the following two factors:-
(a)Functional specialization
(b)Inter-dependence
(a)Functional specialization:-We have seen earlier that in the Indian village society, different castes have
different occupations and functions. In other words, the economic activities of the villagers are determined
by their social conditions. A particular social group has performed particular type of economic activities.
For example, the social group or the caste that is known as the washer man is responsible for washing the
clothes. They have the monopoly over washing of the clothes and hence they are prohibited from taking
any of the other occupations. In this manner, they have a functional specialization.
(b)Inter-dependence:- The functional specialization in the Indian Villages is not free from
interdependence of the people. As people belonging to a particular caste do a particular thing, members of
other castes or social groups have to depend on them for fulfillment of their economic needs for earning
their livelihood but they also help the members of other social groups to do their job and earn their
livelihood.

(9)The Issue of Village Autonomy: - In the beginning, the studies by Maine (1881), Metcalfe (1833), and
Baden Powell (1896) gave an exaggerated notion of village autonomy. The Indian village was portrayed as
a ‘closed’ and ‘isolated’ system. In a report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons, Charles
Metcalfe (1833), a British administrator in India, depicted the Indian village as a monolithic, atomistic and
unchanging entity. He observed, “The village communities are little republics, having nearly everything
that they want within themselves and almost independent of any foreign relations”. Further, he stated that
wars pass over it, regimes come and go, but the village as a society always emerges ‘unchanged, unshaken,
and self-sufficient’. Recent historical, anthropological and sociological studies have however shown that
Indian village was hardly ever a republic. It was never self-sufficient. It has links with the wider society.
Migration, village exogamy, movement for work and trade, administrative connection, interregional
market, inter-village economic and caste links and religious pilgrimage were prevalent in the past,
connecting the village with the neighbouring villages and the wider society. Moreover, new forces of
modernization in the modern period augmented inter-village and rural-urban interaction. But despite
increasing external linkages village is still a fundamental social unit. People living in a village have a
feeling of common identity. They have intra-village ties at familial, caste and class levels in social,
economic, political and cultural domains. In fact, village life is characterized by reciprocity, cooperation,
dominance and competition.

(10)Changes in Village Power Structure and Leadership: - Marginal changes of adaptive nature have
occurred in power structure and leadership in villages after gaining independence due to various factors e.g.
land reforms, panchayati raj, parliamentary politics, development programmes and agrarian movements.
According to Singh (1986), upper castes now exercise power not by traditional legitimization of their
authority but through manipulation and cooption of lower caste people.

4)a)Effect of globalization on tribal societies:-

Globalization means integrating one’s economy with the world’s economy. In India, Globalization began
with the introduction of the New Economic Reforms, 1991.

In the 1980s, India was facing a macroeconomic crisis that required immediate attention. The, then new
Government of P.V. Narashima Rao moved swiftly with his Finance Minister, Manmohan Singh
announced a programme of macroeconomic stabilization and structural adjustments. These programmes
have been in the form of "Garibi Hatao" (eradicate poverty), self-employment creation (SEC), Food for
Work (FFW), asset building programmes and wage employment creation (WEC) programmes. These
programmes were mainly targeted towards the poor or very poor families on the basis of income threshold.

Impact of Globalization on Tribal’s in India

(A)Positive Impact

(i) Tribal population come in contact with the mainstream population:-Due to globalization,
tribal’s have come in contact with the mainstream population. As a result, they are availing the benefits of
 modern education, health, their housing pattern an material used for housing construction has changed,
they live in electrified houses.
In case of cosmetic goods they used some changes occur. They use shampoo, talcum powder and other
cosmetic leaving herbal and traditional cosmetic. Because of rising the price and diffusion of culture of
other caste people (neighbor people) most of them leave to wear their own dresses and wear the modern
dresses, flowered ornaments are replaced by metal ornament to decorate. Their culture and rituals are also
starts to change. Some new system have introduce in their marriage. The young educated people do not
want to wear the traditional dresses and play their traditional instrument and dance at their festivals. TV,
movie, video, cinema have been introduce as entertainment element. They also avail banking facilities and
modern amenities.

(ii) Tribal markets:- Prior to globalization, tribal’s sold their forest based products in unpacked from. Goods
were exchanged in a barter economy. After globalization, they have come in contact with monetary
economy. Presently, tribal’s sell their forest based products like tamarind, blackberry, mahua drinks in
various attractive forms of packets and bottles. Presently, various committees are set up to look after tribal
markets and marketing of tribal products. Apart from the traditional weekly markets, tribal products like
mahua flowers are also sold online by platforms like Amazon.

(iii) Increasing awareness of government schemes:- After globalization, Scheduled Tribes in India are
becoming aware of the reservation policies of the government for the STs, other government schemes and
welfare measures for the uplift of the STs. They are becoming more aware about their political rights.
(iv)Transformation of Tribal Life and Economy:- Globalization is not merely for the development of
technology and the economy. At the same time it stands for an exchange of culture, language at the global
level. Therefore the Orissa tribal culture became very popular, because of dance, handicrafts such as
wooden product, stone product and some other hand maid product sale in the global market.

(B)Negative Impact
(i) Displacement of Tribals: It is estimated that owing to construction of over 1500 major irrigation
development projects since independence, over 16 million people were displaced from their villages, of
which about 40 per cent belong to tribal population

(ii)Land Alienation of Tribals: Land is very important component for tribal development. It occupies
their source of livelihood. But the globalization trend has alienated tribal’s from their mainstay.

(iii)Problems of Indebtedness: The global economy has overburdened the tribal’s with various debts due
to inadequate livelihood resources. The lack of education, purchasing power and lack of resources for
engaging in gainful activity has led to indebtedness for tribal communities.

(iv)Privatisation of PSUs: One of the ways of globalization in India is disinvestment or privatization of

PSUs. The profit making enterprises like BALCO, which are in the tribal belt, have been privatized.
Privatization of these enterprises has adversely affected the tribal people and disturbed the regional balance
in terms of industrialization. For instance, tribal population largely dominates in the state of Chhattisgarh.
The land on which BALCO stands is the tribal land that was bought or leased to the company, which was a
public sector undertaking. The rising power of neo-colonialism through the G-8 directly and the IMF, WB,
IBRD etc as agencies, have created favourable conditions for the evasion and extraction of natural
resources from the ecologically fragile territories of tribal people. Consequently, all the massive steel
plants, BALCO, NALCO, heavy engineering concerns most river basin development schemes and
hydropower projects, a chain of forest-based and ancillary industries and an increasing number of highly
polluting industries are being located in this region. Despite intense industrial activity in the central Indian
tribal belt, the tribal employment in modern enterprises is negligible. The tribal’s are forced to live in
juxtaposition with alien capitalist relations and cultures, with traumatic results. They are forced to work in
low paid, insecure, short-lived and destitute labour market. Their economic and cultural survival is at stake.
Nearly 60 per cent of these large dams are located in central and western India where about 80 per cent of
the tribal’s live here. Approximately one in every ten tribal’s has been displaced by different developments
projects.

Case Study:-
Some case studies were done to bring out the impact of globalization on the tribal communities in India.

1. Narmada people’s (Adivasi) struggle :- Living in the mountains and plains of the Narmada river
valley, stretching for 1,300 km through Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra, they struggle against
displacement, state repression, and the destruction of natural resources resulting from the Narmada Valley
development projects –Sardar Sarovar Dam. The Narmada Bachao Andolan was formed to fight not only
for rights over economy, environment, and livelihood, but also for personhood, for humanity itself.

3. Orissa State:- Several Adivasi communities are spread over the Eastern Ghats across the southern
and eastern region of the Indian sub-continent. The effects of globalisation have had far reaching
consequences in the Eastern Ghats. Tribal’s have missed their old home lost their fields, trees.
3. Andhra Pradesh:- It is the first state in Asia to directly invite the World Bank to implement its
Structural Adjustment Programme. Under the new economic policies of the state, revenues are to be earned
from lucrative sectors like sale of liquor. When tribal women opposed to allow the liquor mafia to set up its
outlets in the tribal villages, they were brutally punished. The state government is going ahead with its
liberalization policies in these remote tribal areas by inviting multinationals and NRIs for taking up
tourism, mining, film, agro-based and other industries in the name of tribal development.

Globalization have serious impact on the Adivasi lives whose right over access to natural resources,
livelihood opportunities, right to primary education and health, protection from atrocities and human rights
abuses and the right to uphold their traditional and customary practices, are under series threat due to the
changes in laws and policies. The most serious threat to the Adivasi people on the country today is the
pressure on the Fifth Schedule. Both Central and Several state governments are seriously making efforts to
amend the laws prescribed under Fifth Schedule and their corresponding state laws in order to allow private
and corporate players to take over tribal and forest lands.
All laws and polices relating to Scheduled Areas – the Land Transfer Regulations Act, 2002, the Forest
Act,2006, the Environment Protection Act, 1986, the Land Acquisition Act, 2013 are all under immediate
threat to amendment. While these laws clearly portray the need for protection of people and resources the
new polices call for exploitation of resources at the cost of tribal people.
Conclusion:-

Globalization affects tribal’s differently. Globalization is good for rich people with assets and skills. But it
is bad for the poor people like Tribal’s and Dalits. For the tribal’s, globalization is associated with rising
prices, loss of job security and lack of health care. The past history shows that the tribal’s have been
pushed to corners owing to economic interests of various dominant groups.

The tribal way of life is very much dictated by the forest right from birth to death. In spite of the protection
given to the tribal population by the constitution of India, tribal’s still remain the most backward ethnic
group in India.

Urban and educated tribal’s may benefit from the increased opportunities for work that come with the
influx of foreign companies and investments. These employment avenues are complemented by greater
opportunities to receive education and skills training of a higher quality. The new technologies that define
this era, in particular the computer and internet may be accessible to this group of tribal’s. Conversely,
poor, uneducated, credit-constrained, informal and agricultural sector tribal does will benefit much less.

4)b)A detailed account of social, political and economic status of religious minorities in India:-

In India, the numerical strengths of some of the communities are more overwhelming than the others. Such
communities have been designated as majority religious communities (example: the Hindus).

The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) was established by the government to facilitate the same, in 1992.
It was instituted under the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Six religious communities have been
designated as minorities by the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. These six communities are –
Muslims (13.4 per cent), Christians (2.3 percent), Sikhs (1.9 percent), Buddhists (0.8 percent), Zoroastrians (0.07
percent), and Jains (0.36 percent).
The basic criterion for a community to be designated as a religious minority is the numerical strength of the said
community.

Muslims are in majority in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep and in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The
proportion of Muslims to total population is above the national percentage of 13.4 per cent in Assam (30.9 per cent),
West Bengal (25.2 per cent), Kerala (24.6 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (18.55 per cent), Bihar (16.5 per cent) and
Jharkhand (13.8 per cent). In absolute numbers, Uttar Pradesh (30.7 million), West Bengal (20.2 million), Bihar
(13.7 million), and Maharashtra (10.70 million) have the largest Muslim population.

Due to limited land ownership, most Muslims are engaged in non-agricultural occupations. Being self-employed and
often in the unorganized sector, they lack any kind of social security. Further, Muslims have traditionally been
engaged in skilled occupations like weaving, spinning, artisanship and tailoring. Many are also street vendors.
These professions have suffered maximum reversals due to globalization; as such, more and more Muslim families
are being left without a source of livelihood. The self-employed are unable to get credit to expand and run their
micro and’ small enterprises.
While Muslims have the highest sex ratio of any social group in India and infant mortality is relatively lower among
them, the nutrition level of children is low.

The highest percentages of Christians to total population are in Nagaland (90 per cent), Mizoram (87 per cent), and
Meghalaya (70.03 per cent). There are also significantly large numbers of Christians in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. Sikhs constitute 60 per cent of the population of Punjab.
Buddhists are categorized into traditional Buddhists and neo-Buddhist’s.
Traditional Buddhists are, by and large, from tribal communities inhabiting the hilly areas of Ladhakh, Himachal
Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and the north-eastern states. The highest percentage of Buddhists is in Sikkim
(28.1 per cent) followed by Arunachal Pradesh (13 per cent). In absolute numbers, Maharashtra reported 58.38 lakh
Buddhists, the highest in the country. Parsis number just 69,000, and reside mostly in Maharashtra.
Among all the religious communities, Muslims are the most socio-economically underdeveloped and
politically under-representative community in the Indian society, It has been noted that the underprivileged
sections of this numerically significant minority group has not received social and political support from
the state, if their position is compared with their counter part in the Hindu community (Dasgupta, 2009).
Owing to minority status and for various other socio-cultural reasons, they are suffering from various social
problems, viz. fear psychosis, insecurity, orthodoxy and traditionalism. Because of early marriage among
these illiterate masses and ignorance about birth control, the rate of birth is high which add fuel to the
problems. Muslims have high rate of illiteracy and unemployment. Many of their children are depending
upon Madarasas for education. Muslims, therefore, need to be encouraged to go for employment-oriented
education in large numbers so as to be competitive. The Madrasa system should also be modernized.
Special incentives may be introduced for girl students.
Muslims are predominantly engaged in self-employment and their participation as regular worker
especially in the tertiary sector in urban areas is low as compared to other socio religious communities.
Other Minority groups are in a better condition. The literacy rate amongst the Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists,
Parsi’s and Jain’s are high. They have better health conditions. Their economic condition is also better than
the Muslims. Compared to the Muslims, they have better housing facilities.

Articles of the Indian Constitution relating to Religious and Linguistic Minorities

Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment
Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession practice and propagation of religion
Article 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs: Subject to public order, morality and health, every
religious denomination or any section.
Article 27: Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion: No person shall be
compelled to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment of expenses for
the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination.
Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities: 1. Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of
India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to
conserve the same. 2. No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by
the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of
them.
Article 30: Right to minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.

Some of the Problems faced by Religious Minorities in India:-

In spite of the provisions of the constitutional equality, religious minorities in India, often experience some
problems among which the following may be noted-

(i)Problem of Preserving Distinct Social and Cultural Life:- The issue of identity also becomes
prominent. The minority communities have felt disoriented and displaced due to their fear of being
engulfed by the overwhelming majority. They feel threatened by the proposition of losing their own
identity to the majority religious community.

(ii) Problem of Separatism: Some of the demands put forward by some religious communities in some
areas are not acceptable to others. This has widened the gap between them and others, Examples: The
separatist tendency present among some Muslim extremists in Kashmir and their demand for the
establishment of Independent Kashmir is not acceptable to others. Such a demand is regarded as anti-
national. Similarly, some of the Christian extremists in Nagaland and Mizoram are demanding separate
statehood for their provinces. Both these demands are supportive of “separatism” and hence cannot be
accepted. Supporters of such demands have been causing lot of disturbances and creating law and order
problems in the respective states.

(iii) Problem of Identity:- Because of the differences in socio-cultural practices, history and backgrounds,
religious minorities have to grapple with the issue of identity. This give rise to the problem of adjustment
with the majority community.

(iv) Problem of Communal Tensions and Riots:- Communal tensions and riots have been incessantly
increasing since independence. Whenever the communal tensions and riots take place for whatever reason,
minority interests get threatened.

Government of India Initiatives for welfare of the Minorities:- The Government has taken various
steps to improve socio-economic and educational status of minority communities.

(i)Prime Minister’s New 15 Point Programme:- It is for the Welfare of Minorities programme covering
various schemes/ initiatives of different Ministries/ Departments
 (ii) Upgrading the Skills and Training in Traditional Arts/ Crafts for Development(USTAAD):- the
scheme aims at upgrading Skills and Training in preservation of traditional Ancestral Arts/Crafts of
minorities.

(iii) Hamari Darohar- The Scheme aims to preserve rich heritage of minority communities in context of
Indian culture.

(iv) Minority Cyber Gram (MCG) : The MCG programme seeks to introduce digital literacy skills in
identified minority clusters in India

Conclusion: The development and well being of these religious minority communities rests on the
amendments to existing laws, schemes, programmes and the better implementation of the same. Immediate
attention is required to protect the rights of these communities and to improve their conditions of welfare.

4)c)The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)has been a game changer in bringing social change at the
grass root level due to the following reasons:-

After 73rd Constitutional Amendment, 1992, Part IX was added, Schedule XI was added. It is in line with
Article 40 of the Indian Constitution (formation of Village Panchayats).
Committees include:-
(i) Ashok Mehta Committee
(ii)Balwant Roy Committee
Local Self Government:-
PRI aims at decentralization of power at grass root level, strengthening democratic institutions at grass root
level.
Social change:-

(i)Agricultural Development

• Conducting land surveys and playing an instrumental role in land reforms.

• allotting pass books, pattas
• Conversion of waste land to agricultural lands
• Distributing land to Scheduled Caste and Women
• Providing fertilizers and pesticides to farmers.
• Providing seeds
• Providing irrigational facilities
• Educating farmers on various cropping pattern
• Soil testing surveys.

(ii)Industrial development:-
 • Promotion of cottage industries, MSEs- more number of employment.
• Promoting Self Help Groups

(iii) Infrastructure development:-

• Construction of roads, tanks, digging canals, wells.

• Water harvesting facilities
• Providing drinking water
• Construction of toilets-promote hygiene
• Construction of schools, community halls, hospitals, electricity.

(iv)Economic Development:-

• Promoting industries through SHG- micro credit facilities

• Financial institutions
• Agriculture and cattle development- dary development
• Employment rate is increased- able to curb the seasonal unemployment
• Wage employment-MGNREGA

(v)Political development:-

• Promoting grass root level democracy

• Promoting youth leadership and women, SCs, Sts in decision making process by providing reservations.

(vi)Social development:-

• Helps in curbing illegal Khap Panchayats

• Equal rights to men and women, SCs, STs, etc.
• Abolition of boycott, untouchability.

Advantages, Disadvantages, limitations of PRIs:-

Advantages:-

(i)It strengthens democracy at grass root level.

(ii)PRIs will help in performing various diversified functions at the grass root level.

(iii)It encourages local leadership.

(iv)They also act as training grounds for good citizenship.

(v)They also provide lot of scope for new experiments in socio-economic development of the people.

(vi)It promotes decentralization.

Disadvantages:-
 (i)It can lead to regionalism.

(ii) National interests may take backseat and may result in failing to address national problems.

Case Study of Panchayati Raj and Social Change

Haryana: Homes in Bibipur village get nameplates bearing daughters' names: After Prime Minister
Narendra Modi appreciated Haryana's Bibipur village sarpanch's effort in 2012 to save the girl child, all
homes in the village are getting nameplates bearing the name of the daughter of the house.
The initiative is a part of Modi's 'Digital India with Laado' campaign. Panchayat representatives will visit
every household in the village putting up nameplates with names and e-mail IDs of the daughters. The
Bibipur panchayat marked the beginning of the campaign by replacing nameplates at 30 houses.
The sarpanch said, "Today in Bibipur village two programs were conducted. In the first one we selected 30
houses where some members were digitally educated and some were not. These were usually male
dominated houses. So the second thing we did was we made templates with the names of daughters to be
placed outside houses. This initiative is going to be a historic one for the 'beti bachao' movement." The
expenses for replacing the nameplates would be borne by the village panchayat, the sarpanch said.

5)a)The issue of land alienation in tribal groups is multipronged and its effects are multi-dimensional
due to the following reasons:-

Land is primary resource for tribal; it has become a source of problem in tribal life. Throughout history of
Indian civilization tribal have been losing their lands. Generally tribal held on land ownership is based on
community, clan & family. Because of those resources as a common properly tribal have been frequently
denied of their rights over land.

Land alienation is a very ancient phenomena started long ago. However 1st phase of land is started
with state formation and incorporation of tribal territories by medieval rulers. Kings of medieval period to
earn more from the land. have taken land from tribal and distributed to non-tribal for agriculture purposes.
For example, in Tripura non-tribal were invited by the king to cultivate the land in tribal areas, depriving
the tribal from their land & livelihood.

2nd phase of land alienation started with the advent of British rule by banning shifting cultivation,
deforestation, and promoting specific kinds of crop cultivation by non-tribal inside tribal areas.

3rd phase of land alienation started after independence, due to various development activities and projects
taken up by the government which has directly resulted in displacement of tribal people,. According to many
scholars it is a sociological phenomenon and it is because of de- peasantization.

Karl Marx says, “Alienation is fundamentally a particular relation of property involving involuntary
surrender and antagonist to other”. According to him in a catalytic society an alienated man live in an
alienated nature &he performs an estranged labour and product of his labour becomes alien to him.

Land alienation among tribal is based on serfdom, slavery, capitalism. As a consequence of land
alienation tribal who are involved stage different types of protests:-
1) Silence of tribal or non-violent protest, partly because of shock and partly because of their philosophy
and belief on welfare nature of state. Example- Kolas of Mirzapur.
2) Violent protests there are incidents of violent attacks, leading to many tribal deaths. In Kerala these
protests resulted in death of many tribal.
3) More protests are carried out by voluntary agencies or NGO’s, example- Shakti (NGO in A.P) is staging
the voice of tribal communities to protect them from non-tribal communities.
4) Tribal people in India are involved in Pastoralism, agriculture shifting cultivation, handicrafts, service &
trade and also as labourers. All these occupations involve direct or indirect dependency on land.

Causes of land alienation:-

a) Tribal dependency on land.
b) Improper planning by the government.
c) Improper implementation of various policies, schemes, etc.
d) Tribals lack access to land records- wherever pattas were give, land was not given and wherever land
was given, pattas were not given.
e) Illegal Benami transactions and land transfers.
f) Encroachments both by public sector and private sector.
g) Manipulation of land records- manipulating local government officials through bribing, red tapism and
nexus between politicians-bureaucrats-businessman.
h) Red tapism
i) Illegal marital alliance/ concubinages
j) Factitious adoptions of non-tribal by tribal.
k) Climate change
l) Development projects
m) Tribes displacing tribes- Case study:-
Recognition of lambdas as Scheduled Tribes in 1977 in A.P, who are not Schedule Tribes in other states,
has led to large scale migration of these tribes into A.P. They are spread in district of Kurnool, Nalgonda,
Warangal, Aliabad, Khamman, Prakasham, etc. In other districts their presence is low. The worst affected
tribal groups because of this are Chenchus. The other tribes affected by this migration of lambdas’ include
Koyas, Kollam, and Gonds. Hence land alienation within tribes is a serious problem. In some areas which
should be arrested and special protection should be provided to local tribes by process of categorization of
tribes both for purpose of preventing land alienation for lesser developed tribes and for more equal
distribution of resources.

Consequences of land alienation:-

(i)Nature-Man-Spirit gets affected.
(ii)Migration to no-tribal areas
(iii) Employed in non-tribal areas where the tribal’s faces problems of under paid, work for longer time.
(iv)Poor shelter, lack of access to basic amenities.
(v) Deterioration of health
(vi)Decrease in life span.
(vii) Culture of tribal’s may face threat of extinction.
Suggestions from XaXa report on land displacement & enforced migration:-

1) The new legislation for Right to Fair Compensations and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 is progressive in the sense that it is the force to legally
mandate rehabilitation of project affected persons. However, it fails to address the “need for
minimizing of acquisition of land and resources”. Since the objective of this act which seeks to address
concerns of whose livelihood are affected simultaneously aims at facilitating land acquisition for
industrialization and urbanization which are not supporting such policies , such policies result in more
displacement. Example: Central India for mining and North East India for construction of dams.
2) The 2013 act have provisions for safeguarding food security and states that multi-crop illegal land will
not be acquired except as a last resort. However, there is no mention of need to protect tribal land and
community resources. Here suitable provisions are required to be incorporated in the act to safeguard
tribal land and community resources in scheduled areas and this causes acquisition by non-tribal
including private companies. The definition of public purpose in new law is very wide which will only
lead to greater acquisition and displacement in scheduled area. The definition of ‘public purpose’ in
new law is very wide which will only lead to greater acquisition and displacement in schedule area.
Therefore, the definition of Public Purpose is to be limited.
3) Government agencies acquiring land with ultimate purpose to transfer it to private companies should be
kept outside of the new law.
4) It also recommended that every Gram Sabha should have powers to prevent alienation of tribal land and
further measures should be explained by tribal themselves. The stringent provisions adopted by “A.P.
scheduled areas Land transfer regulation act-1959” should be adopted by other states, mainly the
provision that facilitates the formation of Self Help Group, cooperative societies. Therefore, it should
be responsibility of state to facilitate the formation of cooperative for tribal for above purposes.
5) The Gram Sabha’s consent should be mandatory for acquisition of land by government, for
governments own use as well. Moreover, the act doesn’t have provisions to this effect that exploitation
of natural resources in scheduled areas must be with Gram Sabha’s consent, which should be rectified.
There has been an inadequate recognition in policy that land represents an inalienable resource passed
through generations in tribal communities who don’t have any skills or education. Hence, loss of land
and common property resources can be compensated only by proper rehabilitation and resettlement
which envisages restoration of livelihood, health and educational facilities along with skill development
for whole family and community of tribal that are affected by development.
6) Land and water resources polluted by industrial and mining projects in tribal areas require attention.
Collective measures by public and private sector should be taken to treat this polluted land and water
resources of tribal region.
7) It the view of large scale discontent amongst tribal regarding rehabilitation and resettlement, a high
level fact finding/enquiry committee should be setup to investigate quality of rehabilitation settlements.
It would be desirable if state recognizes the socio-economic needs of tribal and weaker sections and
engages them.
 It is also recommended that there should be no reduction in areas declared to be Scheduled Areas as this
will harm the interest of already deprived tribal. It is also recommended; the Census and National Survey’s
should gather data on phenomenon of seasonal migration, migration of children of across social groups &
poverty induced migration.

8) Priority should be given to Schedule Tribes in the settlement of selling the surplus land.
9) In relation to PESA-1996 and loss of all scheduled areas should be suitably amended to ensure Gram
Sabha participation in identification and restoration of land of tribal’s.
10) Plenary provisions could be given to Gram Sabha to fight cases of tribal land alienation collectively, as
an individual tribe cannot face prolonged legal battles given their socio-economic condition.
11) The Gram Sabha should be empowered to restore alienated land on detection pending the long legal
battle in order to potentially discourage a prospective non-tribal buyer of land in scheduled areas.
12) Government should also provide legal training, literacy and awareness program for youth and women
on state and customary laws contextualized with modern process and with participation of NGO’s.

A Case Study of Land alienation in Mayurbhanj District of Odisha

Mayurbhanj is one of the tribal dominated districts, lying at the Northern border of Odisha. The percentage
of Scheduled Tribes in the district in nearly 58.56%. The Santals, Hos, Bhunyas, Bhumijas, Bathuris and
Gonds are the basic tribal population of the district. Land alienation here is very common. Due to poor
economic conditions and illiteracy the tribes are not able to understand the vicious circle thrown by their
non-tribal exploiters. According to The Tribal Research Bureau, surveys and studies are conducted to
analyze the relationship between the tribals and non-tribals who settled down in tribal areas e.g. an
untouchable caste, Dom and Pano, the first non-tribals to settle down on the hills, live in intimate
relationship with the Kandhas and Saoras of South Orissa. Similarly, milkmen oilman and others live with
the Juangs and Paudi Bhunyas of North Odisha. In many cases, this relationship of the tribals with the non-
tribals leads to the tribal land alienation by the non-tribals. Indebtedness among the tribals is a chronic
malady.
Forms of Land Alienation:-
1. Manipulation of Land Records: The tribals were never legally recognized as owners of the lands which
they cultivated. This contributed a lot to the problem of land alienation.
2. 'Benami' Transfers: large scale transfers of ownership of the Adivasis' , Jaung’s lands are being allowed
to go out of hands through illegal and benami transactions, collusive civil proceedings etc., in which land
remains to be in the names of the original owners who are reduced to the level of share croppers.
3. Leasing or mortgaging of the Land: To raise loans for various needs, the tribals have to give their land as
mortgage to the local moneylenders or to the rich farmers.
4. Encroachment is another form of dispossessing the tribals of their lands and this is done by the new
entrants in all the places where there were no proper land records. Bribing the local Patwari for
manipulating the date of settlement of land disputes, ante-dating etc., are resorted to claim the tribal lands.
5. Concubinage or marital alliance is another form to circumvent the law and grab tribal lands at no cost at
all.
6. Fictitious adoption of the non-tribals by the tribal families is also another method to alienate the lands of
the tribals.
The problem of land alienation is always interpreted as the handiwork of certain individuals like the
moneylender, traders, land lords, etc. without understanding the class connection of these individuals.
The two major steps by the Govt. of Odisha to prevent land alienation of the tribals are,
 (i) Orissa Scheduled Areas Transfer of Immovable Property (by STs) Regulation, 1956, provides for the
control and check of the transfers made by the scheduled tribes to the non-scheduled tribes in the
Scheduled Areas.
(ii) Also outside the Scheduled Areas, alienation of land of the scheduled tribes has been restricted under
Orissa Land Reformed Act, 1960.
Conclusion:- To eradicate the problem of land alienation of tribals, the tribals should be educated and
made them aware of their judicial systems, organize them for political participation, create opportunity for
equality, prepare them for self-governance to guarantee their rights to traditional natural resources and
provide them land rights.

5)b)The bipolar and multi polar concepts of various traditions:-

The bipolar concepts of various traditions:-

Little Traditions and Great Traditions are concepts given by Robert Redfield.

Little Tradition Great Tradition

Practiced by people living in smaller
geographical territory- small size population.
The population is non-elite
Non-Urban/ Rural
Do not have written evidences
They are transmitted orally
Considered as superstitious beliefs because
they are not well established
primitive
Example: festivals of a small tribe
Followed by only a particular group
Practiced by people living in larger
geographical territory- large size population.
The population is elite
Urban
Have written evidences
They are transmitted orally as well as by
written forms
Considered to be superior
Well established by the religious backing,
relatively modern
Example: Diwali, Dussehra
Followed by different groups

This is a bi-polar concept. This bi-polar concept was severely criticized by S.C. Dube. In place of it, Dube
gave the Multi-polar concept. It has six fold classifications of cultures. They are as:

(i) Classical Cultures

(ii) Regional Cultures
(iii) Local Cultures
(iv) Western Cultures
(v) Emergent National Cultures
 (vi) Sub Cultures

Yogendra Singh accepted this six fold classifications of cultures but questioned the criteria of
classification.

(i) Classical Cultures -are derived/ sourced from written texts like Vedas, Upanishads, etc.
(ii) Regional Cultures -are practiced in particular region- all the communities take part in it. Example: Ganesha
Festival.
(iii) Local Cultures- are practiced in small areas generally living in isolation.
(iv) Western Cultures- when we are trying to imitate western practices.
(v) Emergent National Cultures- these are because of rivivalistic/ reformistis/ re-interpretating/ naturalistic
movements that are originating in the same region. They develop a sense of patriotism, national feelings.
(vi) Sub Cultures- within a particular society, there are cultures specific to particular caste/ religions etc.

5)c)A detailed account of various indigenous and exogenous processes of socio-cultural change in
India:-