Theories of Personality PRELIMS

INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

 The subject Theories of Personality is a survey of the major theories of
personality and the theoretical and practical issues involved in the scientific study
and understanding of personality formation and dynamics (CMO No. 34, Series
of 2017). Specifically, it deals with the salient features, concepts, designs or
structures, principles and explanations of personality formation.
 The intended outcome of the course is to understand and apply the major facets
of the personality theory in understanding human behavior. The theories are
usually categorized into five (5) approaches namely psychodynamic,
behavioral/social learning, humanistic, trait, and cognitive approach.
I. What is Personality?
 Etymologically speaking, the term personality was derived from the Latin word
“persona” which means a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek drama.
This surface view of personality, of course, is not an acceptable definition. When
psychologists use the term “personality,” they are referring to something more
than the role people play.
o Personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique
characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s
behavior.
o Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of
behavior over time, and stability of behavior across situations. It may be
unique, common to some group, or shared by the entire species BUT the
pattern is different for each individual (consistency & stability of behavior
over time)
o Characteristics are unique qualities of an individual that include such
attributes as temperament, physique, and intelligence.
o Behavior is any action/ response to internal and external stimuli.
o Note: No Exact Definition

II. What about a Theory?

 Theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical
deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses.
 Set. A single assumption can never fill all the requirements of a good theory
 Related. Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypotheses nor
possess internal consistency
 Assumptions. not proven facts but accepted as if they were true
 Logical Deductive Reasoning. to deduce a clearly stated hypothesis
 Testable. must suggest the possibility that scientists
III. Theory and Its Relatives
 Philosophy. Theory is related to philosophy, but it is a much narrower term.
Philosophy encompasses several branches, one of which is epistemology, or the
nature of knowledge.
 Speculation. Theories rely on speculation, but they are much more than mere
armchair speculation. (Must be tied to empirical data and science), Science is the
branch of study concerned with observation and classification of data and with
the verification of general laws through the testing of hypotheses.
o Theories are useful tools employed by scientists to give meaning and
organization to observations. In addition, theories provide fertile ground for
producing testable hypotheses
 Hypothesis. Although theory is a narrower concept than philosophy, it is a
broader term than hypothesis. (Specific guess that can be tested using scientific
method), A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction specific enough for its
validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method.
o A theory is too general to lend itself to direct verification, but a single
comprehensive theory is capable of generating thousands of hypotheses.
 Hypotheses, then, are more specific than the theories that give them birth. The
offspring, however, should not be confused with the parent.
o Using deductive reasoning (going from the general to the specific), a
scientific investigator can derive testable hypotheses from a useful theory
and then test these hypotheses.
o Using inductive reasoning (going from the specific to the general), the
investigator then alters the theory to reflect these results.
 A taxonomy is a classification of things according to their natural relationships.
Taxonomies are essential to the development of a science because without
classification of data science could not grow.
o Mere classification does not constitute a theory. However, taxonomies can
evolve into theories when they begin to generate testable hypotheses and
to explain research findings.
 Relationship between theory and science. Theories are useful tools employed by
scientists to give meaning and organization to observations. In addition, theories
provide fertile ground for producing testable hypotheses.
IV. Why Different Theories?
There are different theories because of the following differences of the theorists:
o Personal background
o Childhood experiences
o Interpersonal relationships
o Philosophical orientations
o Unique ways of looking at the world
 o Data chosen to observe
o Personalities
 Theories are built not on proven facts but on assumptions (assumed to be true)
that are subject to individual interpretations
 Reflection of their personal background, their philosophical orientation, and the
data they chose to observe
 Its usefulness depends on its ability to generate research and to explain research
data and other observations
Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories of Personality
 Psychology of science
- The empirical study of scientific thought and behavior (including theory construction) of
the scientist.
- The personalities and psychology of different theorists influence the kinds of theories
that they develop.
 the psychology of science examines how scientists’ personalities, cognitive
processes, developmental histories, and social experience affect the kind of
science they conduct and the theories they create.
 An understanding of theories of personality rests on information regarding the
historical, social, and psychological worlds of each theorist at the time of his or
her theorizing.
 distinguished between science as process and science as product.
 The scientific process may be influenced by the personal characteristics of the
scientist, but the ultimate usefulness of the scientific product is and must be
evaluated independently of the process.
(summarize)
 Psychology of science is the empirical study of the personal traits of scientists
(theorists). The psychology of science studies both science and the behavior of
scientists; that is, it investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s
psychological processes and personal characteristics on the development of her
or his scientific theories and research.
V. What Makes a Theory Useful?
 It generates a number of hypotheses that can be investigated through research,
thus yielding research data
 Organizes research data into a meaningful structure and provides explanation for
the results
1. Generates Research -
  A useful theory will stimulate both descriptive research and hypothesis testing.
 Descriptive research provides a framework for an evolving theory whereas
hypothesis testing expands our knowledge of a scientific discipline.
2. Is falsifiable
It must generate research that can either confirm or disconfirm its major tenets.
 A negative result will contradict the theory and force the theorist to either discard
it or modify it
 A theory that can explain everything explains nothing
3. Organizes data
 It should be able to fit current research data into an intelligible framework and to
integrate new information into its structure.
4. Guides action
 Practical tools that guide a road map for making day-to-day decisions.
 Example: what kind of psychotherapy technique is going to be used to the client?
5. Is internally consistent
 Includes operational definitions that define concepts in terms of specific
operations to be carried out by the observer. (logically compatible)
6. Is parsimonious
 When two theories are equal on the first five criteria, the simpler one is preferred.
(straightforward theories)
VI. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity
 Personality theories differ on basic issues concerning the nature of humanity.
Each personality theory reflects its author’s assumptions about humanity. These
assumptions rest on several broad dimensions that separate the various
personality theorists.
 The following are the six dimensions as a framework for viewing each theorist’s
concept of humanity.

Determinism people’s behaviors are determined by

forces over which they have no control

vs. Free choice people choose to be what they wish to be

Pessimism people doomed to live miserable,

conflicted, and troubled lives
vs.Optimism people grow into psychologically healthy,
happy, fully functioning human beings

Causality behavior is a function of past experiences

vs. Teleology explanation of behavior in terms of future

goals or purposes

Conscious people are ordinarily aware of what they

are doing and why they are doing it

vs. Unconscious people act without awareness of

underlying forces

Biological personal characteristics are result of

heredity (Nature)

vs. personal characteristics are

Social influences environmentally determined (Nurture)

Uniqueness focus on the individuality of the person

vs. Similarities focus on the common characteristics of

people

 determinism versus free choice

o Are people’s behaviors determined by forces over which they have no
control, or can people choose to be. Can behavior be partially free and
partially determined at the same time?
o Some personality theorists take extreme positions on this issue. Others
express more moderate views, arguing that some behavior are
determined by past events and some can be spontaneous and under our
control
 pessimism versus optimism.
o Are people doomed to live miserable, conflicted, and troubled lives, or can
they change and grow into psychologically healthy, happy, fully functioning
human beings? In general, personality theorists who believe in
determinism tend to be pessimistic (Skinner was a notable exception),
whereas those who believe in free choice are usually optimistic.
o Are we basically good or evil?
 Causality versus teleology
o causality holds that behavior is a function of past experiences, whereas
teleology is an explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or
 purposes. Do people act as they do because of what has happened to
them in the past, or do they act as they do because they have certain
expectations of what will happen in the future?
o Past/Present/future
o Historical determinism: the view that personality is basically fixed in the
early years of life and subject to little change thereafter
 conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior.
o Are people ordinarily aware of what they are doing and why they are doing
it, or do unconscious forces impinge on them and drive them to act without
awareness of these underlying forces?
 biological versus social influences on personality.
o Are people mostly creatures of biology, or are their personalities shaped
largely by their social relationships? A more specific element of this issue
is heredity versus environment; that is, are personal characteristics more
the result of heredity, or are they environmentally determined?
o Nature vs Nurture
 uniqueness versus similarities.
o Is the salient feature of people their individuality, or is it their common
characteristics? Should the study of personality concentrate on those traits
that make people alike, or should it look at those traits that make people
different?
VII. Research in Personality Theory
 The reliability of a measuring instrument is the extent to which it yields consistent
results
 Validity is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure.
 Case Studies and Clinical Research – Interview, Case Histories
 Laboratory studies and Experimental Research – Experiments, Observation
 Personality Questionnaires, Assessment Tools and Correlation Research –
Standardization, statistical tools.
Approaches of Personality Theories
 Theories of personality cover a wide range, from those providing a broad
application to many different behaviors to those limited to certain types of
behavior. Each theory possesses some ability to explain a certain aspect of
personality, and each explanation is at least somewhat accurate.
 For convenience, the various personality theories covered in this course have
been placed into five (5) categories. Each of these categories, or approaches to
personality, is distinguished from the others largely by its assumptions and its
focus, as well as by the methods it uses to assess personality, and treat problem
behaviors.
1. Psychodynamic - this approach holds that behaviors are influenced by unconscious
processes. According to this approach, we are victims of unconscious sexual and
aggressive instinct that constantly influence our behavior. Likewise, this approach
assumed that childhood experiences shape our personality later in life.
2. Behavioral/ Social learning - this approach holds that behaviors are influenced by
rewards, punishments, and models by means of imitation. According to this approach,
we act the way we do because of our environment, not because of our personal choice
or direction.
3. Humanistic - in this approach, people are assumed to have a great deal of
responsibility for their actions. This approach stresses that although we sometimes
respond automatically to events in the environment and may at times be motivated by
unconscious impulses, we have the power to determine our owndestiny and to decide
our actions at almost any given moment. We have free will. Likewise, this approach
explained that a behavior is in response to the frustration of some basic needs.
4. Trait approach - the focus of this approach is to identify types or categories of traits
that describe a large number of people and that can be used to predict behavior. It
assumes that all people fit into one of the categories, that all people within a category
are basically alike, and that the behavior of people in one category is distinct from that
of people in the other categories.
5. Cognitive approach - this approach describes differences in personality as
differences in the way people process information. When people demonstrate
noticeable different patterns of behavior it is the result of differences in the way they
perceive the world and in the way they organize and utilize this information.
Key Terms and Concepts
 The term “personality” comes from the Latin persona, or the mask that people
present to the outside world, but psychologists see personality as much more
than outward appearances.
 Personality includes all those relatively permanent traits or characteristics that
render some consistency to a person’s behavior.
 A theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to formulate
testable hypotheses.
 Theory should not be confused with philosophy, speculation, hypothesis, or
taxonomy, although it is related to each of these terms.
 Personality theories cover certain distinct perspectives: psychodynamic,
humanistic, trait/dispositional, behavioral/learning/social-cognitive
 Six criteria determine the usefulness of a scientific theory:
(1) Does the theory generate research?
(2) Is it falsifiable?
 (3) Does it organize and explain knowledge?
(4) Does it suggest practical solutions to everyday problems?
(5) Is it internally consistent? and
(6) Is it simple or parsimonious?
 Each personality theorist has had either an implicit or explicit concept of
humanity.
 Concepts of human nature can be discussed from six perspectives:
(1) determinism versus free choice,
(2) pessimism versus optimism,
(3) causality versus teleology,
(4) conscious versus unconscious determinants,
(5) biological versus social factors, and
(6) uniqueness versus similarities in people.
Outline of Theories
Psychodynamic Theories
 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis
 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology
 Melanie Klein: Object Relations Theory
 Karen Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory
 Eric Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
 Harry stack Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory
 Erik Erikson: Post−Freudian Theory
Humanistic/Existential Theories
 Abraham Maslow: Holistic Dynamic Theory
 Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
 Rollo May: Existential Psychology
Dispositional/Trait Theories
 Gordon Allport: Psychology of the Individual
 *Hans Eysenck, McCrae, and Costa’s Trait and Factor Theories
 Raymond Cattell: 16 personality Factors
Learning/Cognitive Theories
  Burhuss Frederic Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
 Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
 Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory
 Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs
Alternative outline
Trait Theories
 Gordon Allport: Psychology of the Individual
 Raymond Cattell: 16 personality Factors
 *Hans Eysenck: Biological Based Factor Theory
 McCrae, and Costa’s: Five Factor Trait Theory
Psychodynamic Theories
 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis
 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology
 Karen Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory
 Erik Erikson: Post−Freudian Theory
Behavioral Theory
 Burhuss Frederic Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
Humanistic
 Abraham Maslow: Holistic Dynamic Theory
 Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
 Eric Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
Cognitive Theory
 Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
 Rotter and Mischel : Cognitive Social Learning Theory
 Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs
Object Relations Theory
 Melanie Klein: Object Relations Theory
 Margaret Mahler : Security To Autonomy
 Heinz Kohut : Development of the Self
 John Bowlby : Separation Anxiety
 Mary Ainsworth : Attachment Anxiety
 *Peris : Gestalt Therapy
 *Rollo May : Existential Psychology