INTRODUCTION TO

AGRICULTURE
FISHERIES AND ARTS

Course pack for BSAgriBusiness students

Prepared by:
MARICEL B. VILLANUEVA, MSc

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COURSE OVERVIEW

This course is intended to introduce students to the various aspects of fish, through the exploration of
the fish industries, the roles that fish serve in society, and how cultural background (indigenous and non-
indigenous) may influence the interactions that occur between humans, fish and their environment.
Through practical activities, students will begin tom develop an appreciation of fish management and
safe handling techniques including the external, internal parts and morphology, reproduction and
spawning habits, other related sciences, Philippine geographical setting, minor and major fishery
products, fishery gears, maintaining fi0shery gears, making and repairing nets, fish cultural practices in
the Philippines, factors in selecting fishpond sit, requisite conditions for the fish to be cultivated, fish
propagation in the Philippines and prohibitions and penalties
Emphasis will be placed on the best evidence-based practices regarding the maintenance; health
and welfare of commercial and non-commercial fishes. Students will also begin to develop skills in
scientific communication, critical thinking and inquiry in the context of agri-fisheries
To deliver the desired outcomes of this course, there will be six modules included in the course pack
that include
Module 1: Introduction to Fisheries
Module 2: Fishery Resources of the Philippines
Module 3: Marine Fisheries Technology
Module 4: Inland Fisheries Technology
Module 5: Fish Processing Technology
Module 6: The Philippine Fisheries Code
After completing all modules, learners are expected to:
 brings familiarization of the three major fields of Fisheries
 and with the current local, national, and international fisheries ordinances, laws, and
agreements based on the Philippine Fisheries Code.
Students are encouraged to engage in all activities prescribed in all lessons as this will facilitate
learning, Also, it is expected that discipline, time-management, and time for yourself everyday: a little
time each day is usually much more productive than trying to cram at the last minute.
Your success in this course depends to a great extent on you. Good luck!

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Module No. & Title Module 1: INTRODUCTION

Module Overview Sometimes the strength

within you is not a big fiery
flame for all to see it is
just a tiny spark that
whispers is ever so softly
“You got this. Keep going.”
Hello dear students, in this module, you will be introduced to fish role in
human and how they interrelate and impact the environment; the many
products utilities food fish provide. The coverage also includes the fish
morphology, utilization, management, development, conservation and
allocation, so better be get ready and be amazed by the many facts of
Agriculture fisheries and arts.

Course Description This course provides an understanding of the processes for proper
management of fisheries resources; their production, fertilization, and
conservation. Completion of the course brings familiarization of the
three major fields of Fisheries and with the current local, national, and
international fisheries ordinances, laws, and agreements based on the
Philippine Fisheries Code.
Course Objectives/ This module aims to:
Outcomes Upon completion of this course, each student should be able to:
1. develop an interest in the different fields of fisheries
2. demonstrate understanding of the basic principles of fish capture,
fish culture, and fish processing
3. Acquire basic skills in all areas of specialization in fisheries.

Lessons in the module 1. Fish Morphology

2. Reproduction and Spawning Habits
3. Other Sciences Related to Fisheries

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Module 1 Lesson 1 To breathe underwater, fish have developed special organs called gills.
The gills, found on the side of the fish just behind the head, contain
thousands of capillaries, or tiny blood vessels. Water is constantly
pumped over the gills, which filter the oxygen out of the water and directly
into the fish’s blood. A gill cover, the operculum, is a flexible bony plate
that helps protect the sensitive gills. Gills are also important for excretion
of waste products, particularly ammonia, from the fish’s bloodstream.
Fish have a unique internal organ known as the swim bladder or air
bladder. It is usually found in the abdomen, and it helps fish move up or
down in the water. By adjusting the amount of air in the bladder, fish can
adjust the depth at which they float without continuously having to swim.
In some fish, the swim bladder is also used to produce sounds. Members
of the shark and ray class (elasmobranchs) do not have a swim bladder.

Lesson No. and Title Lesson 1: Fish Morphology

Learning Outcomes After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to
1. Identify the different external and internal parts of the fish.
2. Explain the internal and external parts of a fish
3. Value the importance of knowing the fish morphology
Time Frame 1 hour
Introduction Welcome to lesson 1 of module 1! This lesson introduces you to Fish
Morphology. As an expert/ specialist in fish in the future, you must know
and understand the history and sciences behind under water. Lesson 1
provides you with the reading activities and analysis to deepen your
understanding and connectivity about fisheries and arts. It is also
essential to express your thoughts and beliefs about the fish ecosystems
and share them with the class. So enjoy the start reading
Activity
Let’s Review!

Fish has external and internal parts that we need to identify, Scientists
measure and describe the external features of fishes to identify species,
assess age and health, and learn about structure and function. Scientists
work with a variety of types of fishes to do this. They might use a fresh fish,
or they may use photographs, scientific drawings, or other kinds of detailed
images–even fish fossils.
In performing the activity familiarize the fish anatomy external and internal
then label missing part of the given picture below to activate your memory.

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Analysis 1.List down all the missing parts of the given picture above
__________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________
__________ __________ __________ __________

2. What was the activity about? expound our answer in not more 50 words
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

3. Do you agree that fish without gills can perform normally the same with
normal fish? Support your answer.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Abstraction What is Fish

Okay, you probably know what a fish is, right? I mean they are scaly little buggers that swim
in the water, and some taste pretty good. What else is there to know? Well, for starters, there
are nearly 28,000 species of fish and there is a lot of variation amongst them. For example,
some are enormous, like the 40-foot whale shark. Others don't look like fish at all, like the
hagfish.

The hagfish does not look much like a fish

Some like rivers, others prefer lakes, and some inhabit the oceans. While there are exceptions,
most fish share the following characteristics and/or structures:

 Are vertebrates (have a backbone)

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  Use gills instead of lungs
 Have a brain, eyes, and a mouth
 Have fins
 Are ectotherms (cannot regulate their own body temperature)
 Have a protective scale covering

Of course there are always a few exceptions to the rule (hagfish do not have vertebrae, lungfish
have lungs, etc.). But you get the general idea.

External Anatomy
When describing the basic anatomy of an organism, it is useful to have some common terms
to help with orientation. Just as a map uses north, south, east, or west to help determine the
location, orientation words are useful in describing anatomy. Table 4.3 defines common
anatomy terms, Fig. 4.18 shows their orientation on three different animals.

Fig. 4.18. Common orientation terms applied to three different animals: a billfish, a horse, and a person.

Table 4.3. Anatomy position words

Anatomy Word ...of the organism
Anterior The head end...
Posterior The tail end...
Dorsal The back
Ventral The front or belly
Lateral The side or flank

Scientists measure and describe the external features of fishes to identify species, assess age
and health, and learn about structure and function. Scientists work with a variety of types of
fishes to do this. They might use a fresh fish, or they may use photographs, scientific drawings,
or other kinds of detailed images–even fish fossils.

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Fig. 4.19. A gyotaku print of a longtooth grouper

Image courtesy of J.G. Wang, Flickr

One way to document details about a fish is gyotaku. Gyotaku (pronounced gee yo TAH koo)
is a traditional Japanese method of printmaking, which uses the whole fish. This method can
produce an accurate image of a fish (Fig. 4.19).
Gyotaku is a relatively new art form that developed in Japan, probably in the early- to mid-
nineteenth century. Gyotaku means ‘fish rubbing.’ Gyotaku is valued from both a scientific and
artistic perspective. The detail captured in gyotaku, especially in historical prints, is an
important source of information for scientists who want to know the size and external features
of fish in the past. The color and artistic arrangement of gyotaku prints made by skilled artists
also make them valuable pieces of art. The oldest known gyotaku print, made in 1862, is
owned by the Homma Museum in Sakata, Japan.

Body Form

Perches are the most common type of bony fishes. As a result, people often use the
words perch-like to describe a generic fish shape. (Fig. 4.21 A). Fusiform is the
scientific term used to describe the perch’s streamlined, torpedo shaped
body. Compressiform means laterally flattened (Fig. 4.21 B). Depressiform means
dorso-ventrally flattened (Fig. 4.21 C). Anguilliform means eel-like (Fig. 4.21 D).
See Table 4.4 for additional descriptions of fish body shapes.

Fig. 4.21. (A) Perch (fusiform-torpedo shape)

Fig. 4.21. (B) Angelfish (compressiform-flat side to side)

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Fig. 4.21. (C) Flounder (depressiform-flat top to bottom)

Fig. 4.21. (D) Eel (anguiliform-eel like)

Table 4.4. Fish form and function: body shape

Anguiliform (eel shape) Maneuvering in crevasses

Fusiform (bullet, or torpedo Lowering frictional resistance

shape) in fast swimmers

Depressiform (broad shape Lying on or below the surface

and flat top to bottom) of the sand

Compressiform (tall, thin Entering vertical crevices

shape and flat side to side)

Bottom heavy for sitting on

Vertically flattened shape that the bottom, not casting a
is somewhat depressiform shadow
(flat top to bottom)

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 Fusiform (bullet, or torpedo
shape), which is also General all-purpose shape
sometimes called perch like

Elongated shape that is Ambush predators

somewhat anguiliform (eel
shape)

Fish Fins

Fig. 4.9. (B) Anatomy of a soldierfish, Myripristis berndti

Image by Byron Inouye

The first anatomical structures many people identify on a fish are the fins. In fact,
“appendages, when present, as fins” is part of one of the scientific definitions of a
fish. Most fish have two kinds of fins: median and paired.
Median fins are single fins that run down the midline of the body. The dorsal fin is
a median fin located on the dorsal side of the fish. The anal fin and caudal fin are also
median fins. Paired fins are arranged in pairs, like human arms and legs. The pelvic
and pectoral fins are both paired fins. (Table 4.5).
Median Fins
Median fins, like the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, can function like the keel of a boat
and aid in stabilization (Fig. 4.22 A). Median fins can also serve other purposes, like
protection in the lion fish (Fig. 4.22 B).

Fig. 4.22. (A) The keel of boat stabilizes the boat, similar to a fish’s anal fin

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Image courtesy of Brother Magneto Flickr

Flared to make the fish look

Spiny and soft-rayed dorsal fin.
bigger

Reduces drag in fast swimming

Tucked dorsal fin
fish

Locking spiny dorsal fin Locking fish into coral crevices

Very long dorsal fin Snake-like locomotion

Three dorsal fins Locomotion

No dorsal fin Snake-like locomotion

Caudal (Tail) Fin

The caudal fin is known commonly as the tail fin (Table 4.6). It is the primary appendage used
for locomotion in many fishes. The caudal fin is also a median fin (Fig. 4.22 A).
The caudal peduncle is the base of the caudal fin. Peduncle means stem, and the caudal
peduncle is where the strong swimming muscles of the tail are found. Together, the caudal fin
acts like a “propeller” for the fish, and the caudal peduncle acts like a motor.

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Table 4.6. Fish form and function: Caudal fin features

Slow swimming, accelerating, and

Rounded tail
maneuvering

Truncated (triangular) tail Turning quickly

Lunate (moon shaped) tail Continuous long distance swimming

Rapid swimming, somewhat

Forked tail
sustained with bursts of speed

Slow or rapid swimming with bursts

Heteroceral (taller upper lobe) tail
of speed

Paired Fins
Fish have two sets of paired fins: pectoral and pelvic (Fig 4.25). The pectoral fins are vertical
and are located on the sides of the fish, usually just past the operculum (Table 4.7). Pectoral
fins are similar to human arms, which are found near the pectoral muscles. Many fish, such as
reef fish like wrasses (Fig. 4.25 B), use their pectoral fins for locomotion.

Table 4.7. Fish form and function: Pectoral fin features

Fringe-like pectoral fins Probing substrate

Spiny pectoral fins Propping on substrate

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 Hand-like pectoral fins Crawling on substrate

Wing-like pectoral fins Soaring and swimming

No pectoral fins Snake-like swimming

Normal size pectoral fins Maneuvering

The pelvic fins sit horizontally on the ventral side of the fish, past the pectoral fins
(Table 4.8). Pelvic fins are similar to legs. Just like human legs, pelvic fins are
associated with the pelvis of the fish.
Table 4.8. Fish form and function: Pelvic Fin Features

Sucker-like pelvic fins Grabbing rocks by sucktion

Thickened rays on pelvic fins Sitting on substrate

Moderate sized pelvic fins Locomotion

Unique and Specialized Fins

Paired fins are most commonly used for maneuvering, like the oars on a rowboat. However,
both the pectoral and pelvic fins can also be highly specialized like those of the flying fish
(Fig. 4.26 A). Unique combinations of other fins can also help fish to be even more
specialized, like the pectoral and anal fins of a box fish (Fig. 4.26 B; see Table 4.9) .

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Fig. 4.26. (A) Flying fish with highly specialized pectoral and pelvic fins for flying

Fig. 4.26 (B) Spotted boxfish with specialized dorsal and anal fins for moving its boxy body

Table 4.9. Fish form and function: Combinations of Fins

Modified to increase
Dorsal and anal fins
propulsion

Pectoral and tail fins Modified for soaring in air

Spines and Rays

Scientists use fins to help identify and classify fish species. In more evolutionarily advanced
fish, the fins are supported by bony structures: spines and soft rays. Spines are simple,
unbranched, structures. Soft rays are compound, segmented, and branched structures (Fig.
4.27).

Fig. 4.27. (A) The elongated dorsal fin of a common carp, with 1 spine and 15-22 soft rays.

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B) A dorsal fin drawing of a soldierfish’s second dorsal fin, showing fin spines (unbranched)
and rays (branched and softer than spines).

The Mouth
The mouth is at the front, or anterior end, of the fish. The mouth can reveal a lot about the
fish’s feeding habits (Table 4.10). The size, shape, and placement of the mouth, combined
with the type of teeth, provide critical information about the feeding habits of a fish (Table
4.11).
For example, a fish with a mouth on the bottom of its head often feeds by digging in the
bottom sediment (Fig. 4.28 A). A fish with a mouth oriented upward usually feeds in the
water column, or even above the water (Fig. 4.28 B). When a fish has its mouth open, the
front lip may slide down and out from the mouth. This sliding action of the mouth can help the
fish create a vacuum and quickly suck in a big mouthful of water, which hopefully also
includes prey!
Fig. 4.28. (A) A bottom facing mouth indicates bottom feeding preferences in the
sturgeon. (B) An upward facing mouth shows the surface feeding adaptation of the arowana.

Table 4.10. Fish form and function: Mouth Features

Jawless Scavenging or parasitic behavior

Tweezer-like snout Poking into crevices

Suction tube Slurping in prey

Large mouth Swallowing large prey

Tiny and turned up Capturing plankton

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 Tiny and turned up Capturing plankton

Table 4.11. Fish form and function: Teeth Features

Pointed Stabbing

Comb-like Scraping material off rocks

Heavy and flat, molar like Grinding

Fused like a beak Scraping hard materials off rocks

Incisor-like Cutting

Broom-like Filtering

Steak knife-like Serrated for sawing

Eyes

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The eyes of fish resemble human eyes (Fig. 4.29). At the front of each eye is a lens, held in
place by a suspensory ligament. The lens focuses images of objects on the retina. To bring
near and far objects into focus, the lens retractor muscle moves the lens back and forth.

Fig. 4.29 Eye of a bigeyed sixgill shark (Hexanchus nakamurai)

The retina is a light-sensitive membrane rich in nerves that connect to the optic lobes of the
brain by optic nerves. When light shines on the nerves of the retina, the optic nerves send
impulses to the optic lobes. Because fish have no eyelids, their eyes are always open.

Some elasmobranchs, and most teleost fishes, have color vision. Some fishes can also see in
ultraviolet (UV) light. UV vision is especially useful for reef fishes. UV vision helps fishes in
foraging, communication, and mate selection.
Elasmobranchs, and some teleosts, also have a tapetum lucidum. The tapetum lucidum is a
shiny, reflective structure that reflects light and helps vision in low light situations. The tapetum
lucidum is what makes the eyes of sharks and deep sea fish, as well as land mammals like
cats and cows, shine at night.
Fish eyes are usually placed just dorsal of and above the mouth. Just like the mouth of a fish,
the size, shape, and position of the eyes can provide information about where a fish lives and
what it feeds on. For example, fish predators often have eyes facing forward in order to provide
better depth perception. Prey fish, on the other hand, often have eyes on the sides of their
bodies. This gives them a larger field of view for avoiding predators. (Table 4.12).

Table 4.12. Fish form and function: Eye Features

Tiny eyes, head length

approximately six times longer than Receiving high intensity light
eye width

Large eyes, head length

Receiving low intensity light or
approximately three times longer
spotting predators
than eye width

Average eyes head length three to

Receiving normal intensity light
five times longer than eye width

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 Receiving low light from above often
Tubular eyes
in deep water

Eyes on dorsal side of the fish Seeing above

Nostrils
The sense of smell is well developed in some fishes. Water circulates through openings in the
head called nostrils. Unlike humans, fish nostrils are not connected to any air passages. Fish
nostrils serve no role in respiration. They are completely sensory.
The largest part of a fish’s brain is the olfactory lobe, which is responsible for the sense of
smell. Smell is the response to chemical molecules by nerve endings in the
nostrils. Chemoreception is the scientific term for what nerve cells do to help an organism
smell (see Table 4.13).
Taste Receptors
Taste is another form of chemoreception. Fish can taste inside their mouth. Many fishes, like
goatfish and catfish, also have fleshy structures called barbels around the chin, mouth, and
nostrils (see Table 4.13 and Fig. 4.30). In some fishes, these barbels are used for touch and
chemoreception.
Fig. 4.30.

Fig 4.30.(A) Goatfish with chemosensory barbels that can taste and smell

(B) Catfish with non-chemosensory barbels, which cannot taste or smell

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(C) Blenny with non-chemosensory cirri, which cannot taste or smell
Not all barbels have chemoreception. The barbels of some fish, like catfishes, are not equipped
for chemical reception (Fig. 4.30 B). Some fish also have fleshy tabs called cirri on the head
(Fig. 4.30 C). Cirri are not sensory organs.

Table 4.13. Fish form and function: Chemosensory Adaptation and Camouflage

Probing for food in sand. Can detect

chemicals for smelling and tasting (but
Barbels note that not all fishes’ barbels can
detect chemicals—like catfish barbels
are cannot taste or smell)

Detecting chemicals for smelling and

Tubular nostrils
tasting

Camouflage (although they resemble

Cirri on head by eyes chemosensory organs, they do not
respond to chemicals)

Lateral line
Most fish have a structure called the lateral line that runs the length of the body—
from just behind the head to the caudal peduncle (Fig. 4.31). The lateral line is
used to help fishes sense vibrations in the water. Vibrations can come from prey,
predators, other fishes in a school, or environmental obstacles.
Fig. 4.31.

(A) Location of the lateral line on a shark

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(B) Location of the lateral line on a fish and englarged view of a lateral line, showing the lateral line tube reaching through
pores in the fish scales
The lateral line is actually a row of small pits that contain special sensory hair cells
(Fig. 4.32). These hair cells move in response to motion near the fish. The lateral
line sense is useful in hunting prey, escaping predators, and schooling.
Fig. 4.32.

Lateral line, close-up of pits with hair cell

Ampullary receptors
Ampullary receptors are sense organs made of jelly-filled pores that detect electricity. They
can detect low frequency alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). Ampullae detect
electricity emitted by prey as well as the small electrical fields generated by a fish’s own
movement through the earth’s magnetic fields. Researchers think that this may help fishes use
the Earth’s magnetic field for navigation. Fishes that have ampullae include sharks, sturgeon,
lungfish, and elephant fish. The ampullae of sharks are known as Ampullae of Lorenzini—
named for Stefano Lorenzini, who first described them in 1678 (Fig. 4.33).

Fig 4.33.(A) Ampullae of Lorenzini in a shark’s head

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(B) Ampullae of Lorenzini pores on the snout of a tiger shark
Fig 4.33. (A) Ampullae of Lorenzini in a shark’s head (B) Ampullae of Lorenzini pores on the snout of a tiger shark

Some fishes can also generate their own electrical fields. These fishes have both
ampullae type receptors and tuberous type receptors. The tuberous receptors are most
sensitive to the electric organ discharge of the fish itself, which is important for object
detection. The tuberous type of receptor is usually deeper in the skin than ampullae.
Some fishes that produce electricity also use it for communication. Electric fishes
communicate by generating an electric field that another fish can detect. For example,
elephant fishes use electrical communication for identification, warning, submission,
courtship, and schooling (Fig. 4.34).

Fig 4.34 The elephant fish use electric impulses to communicate.

Ears
Sound travels well underwater, and hearing is important to most fishes. Fishes have two
inner ears embedded in spaces in their skulls. The lower chambers, the sacculus and the
lagena, detect sound vibrations. (See Fig. 4.35.)

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Fig 4.35. Inner ear of a fish

Fig 4.35. Inner ear of a fish

Each ear chamber contains an otolith and is lined with sensory hairs. Otoliths are
small, stone-like bones (See Fig. 4.36). They float in the fluid that fills the ear
chambers. Otoliths lightly touch the sensory hair cells, which are sensitive to sound
and movement.

Fig. 4.36. (A) Otolith (ear bone) of an American barrelfishImage courtesy of NOAA Ocean Explorer

Fig. 4.36. (B) A pair of otoliths from a 160lb eight-banded grouper

Fig. 4.36. (A) Otolith (ear bone) of an American barrelfish (B) A pair of otoliths from
a 160lb eight-banded grouper

Like the otoliths in human ears, otoliths in fis

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Internal Anatomy
Now let's go over some of the internal anatomy of a fish.

The internal organs of the fish perform the basic function of the body such as respiration,
digestion, and sensory function. The brain, stomach, liver, and kidneys are same as in man
for the fish and perform the same function. Some organs are different; man has lungs to
breathe whereas fish has gills for the same purpose. The name and function of the internal
organs are listed below with their functions.
Spine
The fish body is built on this main structural framework. This unit is connected to the skull at
the front and to the tail at the back. Numerous vertebrae that are hollow make up the spine.
These vertebrae house and protect the subtle spinal cord.

Lateral Line
Lateral line is one of the fish sensory organs which help the fish to detect vibration in the water
and to format their direction of source.

Swim Bladder or Air Bladder

Swim bladder is hollow and gas filled organ. It allows the fish to conserve energy by enabling
neutral resilience in water. Fishes that is deep in the water needs to release air from their swim
ladder when they come up this is due to the difference in atmospheric pressure that circulate in
the water surface. Fishes that do not possess an air bladder sink to the bottom of the water if
they stop swimming.

Gills
Gills help the fish to breathe under the water. Gills are the weak organ and it should not be
touched by the hand when the fish is alive.

Pyloric Caeca
This organ is present at the junction of the stomach and intestine. It has a finger like projection
and its function is to secrete enzymes that help in digestion. It also helps to absorb the digested
food.

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Vent
This organ is used to eliminate the waste from the fish body.
Gonads
Gonads are the reproductive organs for the fish. In female fishes the bright organ that contains
collection of eggs is clearly identifiable during the spawning period. The male reproductive organ
is much smaller and less white in color. It produces milt for fertilizing the eggs.

Muscles
This organ is also used for locomotion. This part is usually eaten by man as it contains certain
vitamin deposits. Muscles compose the bone of the fish.

Structure and Function in Fishes

As a result of the large number of fish species and the diversity among them, there are few
aspects of fish organ systems that are precisely conserved between all species. However,
there are some general themes that can be found in nearly all fishes, and these will be
outlined, with exceptions indicated, in this section. The major organ systems of fishes are
outlined in Figure below, and can be used as a reference for some of the descriptions that
follow.

[Figure 2]
The major internal organs common to most fish species. (1) Liver, (2) stomach, (3) intestine, (4) heart, (5) swim bladder, (6)
kidney, (7) testicle, (8) ureter, (9) efferent duct, (10) urinary bladder, and (11) gills.

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Respiratory System
Most fish obtain oxygen from the aqueous environment in which they live by using a pair of
gills located on each side of the pharynx. Fish gills consist of many elongated strands of tissue
that contain tiny capillaries carrying blood. An example of fish gills are shown in Figure below.

[Figure 3]
An example of fish gills. Notice the many layers of fine, elongated, reddish tissue that are packed together to
make up the gill structure. This structure provides an extensive surface area over which oxygen can be
absorbed.

Water is taken in through the mouth and passed over the gills. Here, oxygen is absorbed into
the blood within the capillaries through a process known as countercurrent
exchange. Countercurrent exchange is the process of transferring a substance enriched in
one pool of fluid to a different pool that has a much lower concentration of that substance. In
fish, blood flowing through the capillaries flows in the opposite direction of the water that is
pumped over the gills from the fish’s mouth. The flow of blood and water in opposite directions
is a critical component of the counter current exchange process. How does countercurrent
exchange work? Figure below illustrates the process of oxygen transfer in fish gills by
countercurrent exchange. Because the water and the blood are flowing in opposite directions,
pools of blood with very low oxygen content (because these pools have not yet encountered
the water) are constantly coming in contact with pools of water that have higher oxygen
contents.

The difference between the concentrations of oxygen in the two fluids is called a gradient, and
the oxygen will diffuse along this gradient from the fluid with higher oxygen levels to the fluid
with lower oxygen levels. If the fluids were flowing in the same direction (concurrent exchange,
which is also shown in Figure below), this diffusion would continue until both fluids had the
same amount of oxygen. If, for example, the water started off with 100% oxygen and the blood
with 0% oxygen, then the final concentration of both would be 50% oxygen if they were flowing
in the same direction. This is not the case with countercurrent exchange because the blood is
always coming in contact with fresh incoming water that has a greater concentration of oxygen,
even when the blood has reached a 50% level. This allows fish to accumulate high
concentrations of oxygen from their aquatic environments.

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[Figure 4]
A comparison of the process of countercurrent exchange with that of concurrent exchange. In countercurrent exchange, two
fluids containing different concentrations of a diffusible substance flow in opposite directions to each other, as shown in the
figure. In the case of fish respiration, the fluid in the top row of the countercurrent model is water, and the fluid on the bottom
is blood. The substance being exchanged is oxygen. Notice that for the entire distance over which the two fluids are in contact,
the oxygen concentration in the water remains slightly higher than in the blood (near 0% versus 0% at the left and 100%
versus near 100% at the right). This means that the net flow of oxygen will always be from the water to the blood in this
system. Compare that to the concurrent exchange model above. When both fluids are flowing in the same direction, there will
be no net gain of oxygen by the blood (nor net loss of oxygen by the water) once the oxygen levels have equilibrated to about
50-50 between the water and the blood.

After water has passed over the gills it is released through an opening covered by a protective
barrier called the operculum. Two ways that fish maintain water flow over their gills are 1) by
swimming rapidly with their mouths open and 2) by taking water in through the mouth and
using muscle contractions to force it back over the gills when they are not able to generate a
current by rapid swimming.

Although the vast majority of fish species obtain oxygen from water using gills, there are a
number of fish species that are also capable of breathing air. The ways that these species
obtain oxygen from air are highly varied. Some, such as various species of catfish, take in air
and absorb oxygen through the lining of their digestive tracts. Others, like the mudskipper
shown in Figure below, absorb oxygen through their skin, much like non-vertebrate chordates.
Mudskippers are particularly unusual fish because they actually spend most of their lives
outside of water, hobbling along muddy flats. Most of the species that are capable of breathing
air are facultative air breathers, meaning that they can breathe air if it is necessitated by
circumstances such as living in shallow waters that sometimes dry up temporarily. However,
there are also some species that are obligate air breathers. Obligate air breathers, like
lungfish, must breath air at certain intervals or they will suffocate.

[Figure 5]

An air-breathing fish called the mudskipper.

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An important respiratory-like feature that is found specifically in ray-finned, bony fish is
the swim bladder, or gas bladder. This internal, balloon-like organ is shown in Figure below.
By filling the bladder with gas, these fish can ascend to lesser depths without having to swim,
and, by releasing gas from the bladder, they can descend. The swim bladder is necessary to
prevent fish from sinking because fish tissue is denser than water. In some species, the
bladder is connected to the gut, and the fish fills it with air by taking in a large gulp of air at the
surface of the water. In most species, the gas bladder is associated with a special gas gland
that can cause oxygen to be released from the bloodstream into the bladder in order to fill the
organ and increase

[Figure 6]
A dissected fish. The organ labeled with the number 2 is the swim bladder, a balloon-like organ found in bony fishes that is
used to help the fish maintain buoyancy in the water. Most fish tissues are denser than water, and, without the means to stay
afloat, fish would sink.

Lungs were first derived from the swim bladder and not the gills. There are many species that
have both gills and a gas bladder or gills and a primitive lung, however, there are
no animals that have both a gas bladder and a lung, supporting the idea that the lung may be
a derivative of the gas bladder.

Circulatory and Excretory System

Fish have a fairly simple closed-circulatory system with a two-chambered heart. In a closed
circulatory system blood flows throughout the body contained inside of blood vessels. In fish,
blood flows in one continuous loop from the tissues to the heart to the gills and back to the
tissues. The two chambers of the fish heart are called the atrium and the ventricle. Both of
these chambers have thick, muscular walls. Blood flowing in the veins from the body tissues to
the heart first enters a sac-like compartment called the sinus venosus. From there it enters the
atrium. Blood collected in the atrium is passed into the ventricle, where it is pumped into a
tube-shaped region of the heart called the bulbus arteriosis that connects the heart to the
aorta. The aorta is a large artery that brings the blood from the heart to the gills, where it
becomes oxygenated. Oxygen-enriched blood then travels through blood vessels to the
tissues of the organism.

Most fish have a pair of kidneys that carry out excretory functions. The kidneys filter waste
material from the blood and concentrate it for release from the body. Some waste is also
released by diffusion through the gills.

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 Digestive System
Fish have complete digestive systems that include various glands and organs in addition to
the digestive tract itself. For example, most fish have a pancreas that secretes
digestive enzymes into the stomach to help break down ingested food. Many also have a liver
that aids both in digestion and in the storage of digested nutrients. A common feature of the
fish digestive tract is the presence of one or more finger-like organs, which extend from the
stomach, called pyloric caeca. The pyloric caeca, shown in Figure below, function in both the
digestion and absorption of nutrients.

[Figure 7]
Pyloric caeca. White arrows point to the finger-like sacs called pyloric caeca that extend from the fish digestive tract and aid
in digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Jawed fish initiate digestion using their jaws to grind up their food before passing it through
the esophagus to the stomach. Fishes that lack jaws have tooth-like projections surrounding
their mouth region, but these projections have only a limited ability to break up food. They are
primarily used to pull chunks of food from the bodies of prey

The topic was indeed knowledgeable! In a piece of paper (A4 bond paper), your task is to
Application draw the external and internal parts of the fish and label it, identify and discuss at least 3
important parts of internal organ of a fish.

Assignment  Create a reflective journal of the topic fish morphology and should be submitted as
/Agreement you return your module ( output should be in hand written and place in A4 bond
paper and place in blue folder )
 Study in advance Lesson 2 of module 1 for additional inputs and in preparation of
your next activity
Well-done! So, you have completed the activities and tasks for lesson 1. It is expected that
Closure you have gained insights and meaningful experience. Now you are already prepared to move
to lesson 2 of this module Enjoy and keep working!

References https://manoa.hawaii.edu › biological › structure-and-fu...

& links https://www.ck12.org

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 https://australian.musu\eum>learn>animals>fishes>pa

https://www.dkfindout.com>...>Fish>What

https://www.dec.my.gov>docs>ifnyfdlo

Note:
 Students are required to answer and perform the task expressed in highlighted part.
 Do not forget to write your name, section and date submitted
 Points will be added if the students submit on time of their output
 All output for the whole semester should be place in A4 bond paper
 Each student will submit dark blue folder with transparent cover for individual data
keeping.

Prepared by:

MARICEL B. VILLANUEVA, LPT, MSc

Fisheries Instructor

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