UNIT- IV

POLITICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION:

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According to Redcliffe Brown , “ Political organization of a society is that aspect of the

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total organization which is concerned with the control and regulation of the use of

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physical force ".

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Types of Political Organization in primitive societies:
• Fortes and Evan-Pritchard have classified political systems into two types: stateless
and state. These two terms are synonymously used as acephalous (a Greek word for
"without a head”) society and cephalous society.
(1) Cephalous / Centralized society.
(2) Acephalous / Uncentralised society
Elman Service gives a four -fold scheme of development of human societies on the
basis of socio -economic and political -religion.
• Foragers/Hunter-gatherers: Band society
• Horticulture : tribe
• Pastoralism: Chiefdom

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• Agriculture: State

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Out of the 4, first 3 can be considered as stateless.
ØSTATELESS SOCIETY:
• The stateless societies lack centralized authority, administrative machinery, judicial
Institution, sharp divisions of rank, status or wealth.
• Typically these societies are small-scale, organized into bands or tribes that make
decisions through consensus decision making rather than appointing permanent
chiefs or kings.
1.BAND:
• A band society is a small, and the simplest type of socio-political organization. It

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is an autonomous group of people, generally consisting of a small kin group, no
larger than an extended family or clan. In his book, The Notion of the Tribe,

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1972, Morton Fried defined bands as “small, mobile, and fluid social formations
with weak leadership that do not generate surpluses, pay taxes or support a

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standing army”. Bands are made up of nuclear families that live together and are
loosely associated with a territory on which they hunt.
• Social order is maintained through the informal mechanisms of gossip, ridicule
and avoidance - in other words through public opinion. Some historic examples
include the Shoshone of the Great Basin in the United States and the Bushmen
of Southern Africa.
Bands occur among hunters and gatherers and nomadic tribes. All adult members
make decisions by census. Leaders are usually experienced and skilled elders.
Culprits are judged and regulated by public opinion
Eg: Eskimos where one band contains approximately 100 agnates or affines.

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Religious head plays a role in issues like hunting, settlement, working etc.

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1. Mention the characteristic features of band with suitable examples.
(2017,15M)

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2. TRIBAL POLITICAL ORGANISATION: A
• The tribe is, of course, a larger society tied together by familiar bonds. Family
structures known as lineages, clan, moieties, and phratries form the primary
bonding mechanisms. The local groups that compose a traditional tribal society
are communal and strongly social, with members linked by kinship ties.
• Leadership is personal ‘charismatic ’ and for special purposes only in tribal
society; there are no political offices containing real power, and a "chief " is
merely a man of influence, a sort of adviser. Good examples of tribes are the
Yanomami of Brazil and Venezuela and the Kapauku Papuans of Indonesia .
• Clan based political organisation: Power in this kind of political organisation
vests with Clan head.

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•
A B
A case study In Winnebago red Indians: This tribe contains 12 clans each

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with a specific political function. They are Thunder bird clan that provides
peace, warrior clan that provides war leadership, Beat clan that provides village
and hunt police men, Buffalo clan that works as a camp carrier. Wolf and elk
clans have comparatively lesser political tasks.
• Lineage based political organisation: Eg: Horticultural Tiv tribe of Nigeria, In
this tribes the lineages( Maximal lineages) are divided in to segments called
segmentary lineages or minimal lineages. Each maximal lineage is divided in to
many minimal lineages. Members of a minimal lineage contain 3-5 generations
and consider each other as close relatives. Each minimal lineage is politically
independent.

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• Age-Grade based political organisation: In African and American tribes

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people of same age belong to same age grade though they belong to different

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villages. Each tribe may be divided in to two or more age grades. Each age grade
is associated with specific functions. Eg: In Kipsingis tribe of Africa, men are
divided in to two age grades.
• They are Warriors who defend and enrich the tribe by increasing the progeny of
the cattle and capturing many cattle by attacks on neighbouring tribes; and Senior
elders who are the chiefs organising the army, Preside the counsel of elders to
dissolve disputes. Age grades cut across kinship and territorial lines and serve
different political functions.
• Association based political organisation: Common interest associations like secret
societies, Military clubs like Cheyenne warrior club for communal buffalo hunting.
Clubs punish offenders not to take revenge but to rehabilitate Eg: they are whipped or
their horses ears are cut etc. They operate only during hunting time.
Melanesian big man based political organisation:
• The American anthropologist Marshall Sahlins has studied the big man phenomenon.

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In his 1963 article "Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man, Chief: Political Types in

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Melanesia and Polynesia", Sahlins says

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society of chiefs
Hierarchy
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Polynesian-type hierarchical
A Melanesian-type big-man system.

Segmented lineage groups

Leadership is ascribed status Leadership is achieved
( Hereditary) Status
Lifetime tenure Temporarily held.
Wields power Uses influence
• Throughout Melanesia, Kapauku of west Guinea, the big man is called Tonowi.
He is the rich man and a self made leader. He marries many wives and as women
maintain herds of pigs his wealth increases. By giving generously, he keeps people
under obligations. His position is neither permanent nor hereditary. His function is
not to command but influence. Acts as a negotiator with neighbouring groups.
Nuers of southern Sudan:

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• The Nuers have been studied by Evans-Pritchard (1940).

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A B
• It is uncentralised, segmentary political organisation.

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• They are nomadic people who mainly subsist on cattle.
• Although they live in small local communities, every individual has ties of
solidarity with other people scattered over an enormous territory.
• Each Nuer has obligations and commitments towards his or her patrilineal kin;
but is also tied to other groups.
• Actually, a Nuer is a member of an agnatic lineage. Several lineages together form
a sub- clan, and several sub-clans form a clan (Fusion & Fission).
• Localized disputes, theft, or homicide were mediated by individuals called kwar
(Leopard skin chiefs), whose words were effective because of their authority
rather than their overt power. He is considered as a sacred person or religious
head.

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• Chiefs could settle a dispute only once those in conflict agreed to a settlement. i.e.
only through legitimacy with out force.
3. CHIEFDOM: H
• Chiefdoms have some formal structure integrating multi community political units
that organizes regional populations through a hierarchy of the chief(s). Chiefdom
is a form of political system or social rganization more complex than a tribe or a
band society, and less complex than a state or a civilization.
• It is a level of political integration in which a society has a more or less
permanent political leader (i.e., a chief). The chief provides direction and
authority for the society as a whole. Sometimes there is an advisory council as
well.

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• Robert L. Carneiro defines chiefdom as "An autonomous political unit

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comprising a number of villages or communities under the “permanent control

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of a paramount chief”.

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• Chiefdoms are characterized by pervasive inequality and centralization of
authority. At least two inherited social classes (elite and commoner) are present,
although an individual might change social class during a lifetime by
extraordinary behavior. A single lineage/family of the elite class becomes the
ruling elite of the chiefdom, with the greatest influence, power, and prestige.
• They are ruled by a paramount chief and a number of village head man. The
classic examples of chiefdom political systems are found among the Luapula
tribe lying along Luapula river between Zambia and Zaire, Tahitians of
Polynesia, Trobriand, Maori of New Zealand and the Ashanti of Ghana.
Ashanti of Ghana:

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• Ashanti is a tribe organized among matriarchal descent groups.

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• The tribe is found in the long track which runs through western Africa.

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HIM
• Each has its ancestor. A
• There are eight matriarchal clans among the Ashantis.

• In a single village, normally, there are plural matriarchal clans.

• Each matriarchal group sends its representative to the village council.
• The village council maintains law and order of the village. This is the local
government of the Ashantis.
• Out of all the Ashanti villages, a certain big village is established as the capital.
• The government found among the Ashantis is a kind of military administration.
4. STATE SOCIETY:
• A state is one of the levels of political integration in which a society has a

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permanent, highly centralized political organization with an elite social class of

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power.
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rulers at the top. The bulk of the people are at the bottom of the pyramid of

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H
• Anthropologist Robert Carneiro (1970) defines the state as "an autonomous
political unit, encompassing many communities within its territory and having
a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men for work or
war, and decree and enforce laws."
• The political organization is a very comprehensive term which essentially
includes legislative, executive and judiciary powers. In a broad way, it is called
government.
• State is the territory in which the government can practice its authority.

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• The State has four elements population, territory, Government and sovereignty.

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Government is a narrow concept and it is an element of the State.

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• The State is more or less permanent but the government is temporary. It changes
frequently.
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• State societies have
Ø Large territories
Ø Administrative machinery like bureaucracy
Ø Judicial institution
Ø Military force to maintain order
Ø High degree of specialization
Ø Class stratification
Ø A system of intensive agriculture

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A B
Ø Commercial exchange and foreign trade.

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• Large, dense populations. Examples: ancient Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq).
• State societies are not divided into groups of kinship and descent but into socio
economic classes or strata with endogamy in each strata.
• State societies are culturally heterogeneous and comprise an amalgam of
culturally diverse groups.
• State societies can be centralized or decentralized.
• Centralisation refers to retention of powers and authority with respect to
planning and decision making with top level. E.g. Kingdom
• Decentralisation refers to dissemination of authority, responsibility and

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accountability to various lower levels. E.g. Democratic government in India.

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Advantages of centralization:
•
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Efficient at pursuing high-level government goals due to the concentration of

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decision-making power.
Saves money because it avoids duplication within the administration.
• Easier and faster to implement political reforms
• It favours equality and consistency across regions since, in theory, decisions are
taken considering the welfare of the whole country and not of a part of it.
• Makes more difficult the development of local clientelist networks.
•Easier to develop uniform regulation and to keep a unified single market for
business (avoid multiplication of paperwork)
Advantages of decentralization:

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It creates checks and avoids the risks of the excessive concentration of power.

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It makes policy more responsive to regional and local needs. This may be
particularly important in ethnically divided countries.
•

•
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One-fit-for all approaches to policy are not always effective. Decentralization
helps customize policies.
Decentralization allows the central government to focus on strategic decision-
making, planning and coordination.
• Decentralization may trigger a healthy competition among different governments
and administrative levels which helps policy innovation.
1. Swaziland
• In this form of society there is a definite territory and the people are ruled by a
few families.
• The ruling families look after the subjects with paternal love and affection.
• Swaziland is a small state in South Africa. The people are known as Swazis,
who are a tribal group.

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B
• In this tribe, there is a king who is throned according to traditional rituals. The
powers of the ruler are supreme.

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• But other family members also have their share in wielding of power.
• Even the military force considers the rulers to be the highest authority.
• Thus, in this society where there is government as well as a state, all the powers
are concentrated within the ruler and his family coterie.
• Coronation follows rules of heredity.
2. Differentiate between state and stateless societies. (2014,10M)
• POWER
o Max Weber , the architect of political sociology. "Power is the ability to enforce
one's own will on others' behaviour. It is the ability to make someone do
something they would otherwise not have done". Thus, according to Weber,
people have power over each other

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B
o Karl Marx. The Marxists look at power as a structural phenomenon. According

Types of power:
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to them, power is found in the division of labour and class stratification.

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1. Legitimate power: Also called "positional power," it is the power of an
individual because of his position. It is usually accompanied by a uniform, a title,
or an imposing physical office. It is the power which is popularly accepted.
2. Referent power: Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract
others and build loyalty. It is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills.
3. Expert power: power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the
people’s need of those skills and expertise.

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4. Reward power: the ability of the power wielder to confer valued material
rewards.

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5. Coercive power: Coercive power is the application of negative influences. It

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includes the ability to demote or to withhold other rewards.
6. Power by manipulation: Power obtained by manipulating the people or keeping
them in false reality by doing wide propaganda.

7. Power obtained by Domination or influence

8. Direct power: Power of the person in the position

9. Indirect power: Power of the people who are related to the person in the position.
4c. How is the construct of power linked to the notion of conspicuous consumption and
its impact on distributive justice? (2020, 15M)

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Max Weber, the architect of political sociology. "Power is the ability to enforce one's own

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will on others' behaviour. It is the ability to make someone do something they would
otherwise not have done". Thus, according to Weber, people have power over each other.

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In Capital, Karl Marx differentiated the classes according to their relation to the means
of production.
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(i) Capitalists/ bourgeoisie or owners of the means of production receiving profit;
(ii) Workers/ proletariat who are employed by owners and receive wages.
The Marxists look at power as a structural phenomenon. According to them, power is
found in the division of labour and class stratification.
Conspicuous consumption: The term coined by an American economist and
sociologist Thorstein Veblen. It is the spending of money on and the acquiring
of luxury goods and services to publicly display economic power. To the
conspicuous consumer, such a public display of discretionary economic power (It is

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total personal income after subtracting taxes and minimal survival expenses) is a

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means of either attaining or maintaining a given social status, Thus, by placing
themselves in higher strata, they can attain or retain power.

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• distributive justice is fair distribution of rewards and costs among the members
of a group.
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Conclusion: Thus, The concept of power is constructed on the foundation of class
stratification, It leads to conspicuous consumption by the powerful higher class and
deprives the people of lower strata from distributive justice.
AUTHORITY
Authority can be defined as the institutionalized power or legitimate power.(or)
specific position in an established government,
• Authority is consent based whereas power is force based. Authority is democratic
• Authority is ability of man to get his proposals accepted but power is capacity of the
man to change the behaviour of others

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Weber’s Three Types of Authority
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Types of Authority:
• Divine right Authority: It is a political doctrine in European history in defense
of monarchical absolutism which ascertained that kings derive their authority
from god.
• Ancestral heritage Authority: Monarchial Governments as in the case of

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kingdoms where the authority comes as an ascribed status.

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personality, knowledge and riches B
• Authority of elite: Authority of a small group of individuals based on their

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• Characteristics
Accountability
H of authority: Legitimacy, Dominance, Rationality,

• According to Frederick, authority creates power but it is not the power by it

self.
LEGITIMACY
• According to Dahl, Legitimacy means the quality of rightness,
• De-facto government becomes De-jure on acquiring legitimacy.
• In political science, legitimacy is the popular acceptance of an authority, usually
a governing law or a régime.

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IM B
• Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for governing.

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• British social philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) said that the government is

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not legitimate unless it is carried on with the consent of the governed.“
• The American political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset said that legitimacy
also "involves the capacity of a political system to engender and maintain the
belief that existing political institutions are the most appropriate and proper ones
for the society."
• The American political scientist Robert A. Dahl explained legitimacy as a
reservoir; so long as the water is at a given level, political stability is maintained,
if it falls below the required level, political stability is endangered.
Types of legitimacy: The three types of political legitimacy described by
German sociologist Max Weber

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1. Traditional legitimacy: Derives from societal customs and traditions.

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2. Charismatic legitimacy: Derives from the charisma of the leader.

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3. Rational-legal legitimacy: Derives from a system of institutional procedure

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based on public trust that the government will be legal and rational.
Negative and Positive legitimacy based on whether legitimacy draw on actors or
their actions, Abulof classified legitimacy in to
1. Negative political legitimacy (NPL): It is about the object of legitimation
(answering what is legitimate). Hobbes and Locke focused on NPL
2. Positive political legitimacy (PPL): It is about the source of legitimation
(answering who is the ‘legitimator’). Rousseau focused on PPL (The people as the
legitimator)
Types of legitimacy: By David Easton

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• Ideological legitimacy: Derived from ideology.

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• Structural legitimacy: Derived from a particular social structure like monarchy

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or democracy etc.
• Personal legitimacy: Derived from personal charisma.
• Max Weber proposed that democracy was unnecessary for establishing legitimacy,
Communism, Fascism, Monarchy etc. also had legitimacy.
SOCIAL CONTROL :
• Karl Mannheim’s definition of social control: social control is the sum of
those methods by which a society tries to influence human behavior to
maintain a given order.

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• Nature of social control:
o Social control is an influence.

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HI A
o The influence is exercised by the society.

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o The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole
Need of Social control:
• To maintain old order (but it may hinder social progress).
• To establish social unity.
• To regulate or control individual human behaviour.
• To provide social sanction to breach of social ways of behaviour.
• To check cultural maladjustment when people move to the other culture especially
during the transition period.
• Obedience to social decisions.
• Means of social control: E. A. Ross described a number of means to obtain social

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control. They can be mainly of two types formal means and informal means.

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Informal means:

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• Belief (Belief in god works as a means of social control preventing people

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from doing unwanted things)
• Social suggestions (Ideal humans like rama, Literature, Educational
curriculum including biographies, mythological stories and advertisement
E.g. regarding population control, traffic rules etc. )
• Ideologies : Eg: Varnashram, Karma theory, rebirth etc
• Folk ways : Habits of individuals common to a group. They are the foundation of
group culture. They will be followed unconsciously.
• Mores: E.g: Monogamy, Endogamy. Mores are the folk ways that are considered
by a group to be of great significance.

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• Customs: Folk ways and more that have persisted for a long time are called

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customs.

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• Religion : Religion is an attitude towards super natural power Eg: Superstition,

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Animism, totemism, ritualism and magic. These beliefs work as a very efficient
means of social control.
• Art and literature: Teach people the norms and values that create control in the
society songs or paintings on ideal humans etc.
• Humours, Satire and cartoons indirectly suggest the values, ethics and norms
helping in establishing the social control.
• Formal means : Law, Education, Coercion (use of force to achieve social
control), Violence (Social control by punishing with injury, imprisonment and

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death penalty), Non violence: Strike, Boycott and non cooperation.

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Karl Mannheim categorized social control as

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1. Direct social control: Family, kin group, neighborhood etc
2. Indirect social control: Customs, traditions etc
Kimball Young classified Social control as
1. Positive social control: By reward appreciation etc
2. Negative social control: By fear of punishment
Cooley classified social control into
• conscious social control and
• unconscious social control.
Hayes Classified social control in to

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1. Control by sanction
2. Control by socialization and education
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Agencies of social control:

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• Social institutions like family, kinship, Economy, political, religion etc.
3. Discuss different social control mechanisms in simple societies.
(2016,15M)
• Note: Can also write about political organizations and customary law as
they work to achieve social control.
LAW AND JUSTICE IN SIMPLE SOCIETIES:
4. How does customary law function in tribal society? Discuss its different
sources. ( 2018, 15M )
5. Discuss the nature of Law and Justice in simple societies citing suitable

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examples. (2014, 20M)

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• Customary law: The rules, practices and customs of indigenous & local

HI A
communities which are an intrinsic and central part of the way of life of these

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communities. Customary laws are embedded in the culture of a society. They
govern their behavior and are actively practiced by all members of the society.
Nature of Customary law (or) primitive law:
Ø Customary laws are not mentioned in any book, they are transmitted through oral
tradition, therefore it is difficult to know all customs of a land.
Ø Primitive law is governed by kinship ties.
Ø Primitive law is based on moral principles and public opinion.

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Ø The oath and ordeals are main mode of evidence in primitive law.

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Ø Punishment is awarded in the shape of fine, compensation,

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A
excommunication, isolation, communal feast etc.

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Ø Breach of law is taken as to affect not only to an individual but also to
the whole tribal society.
Difference between customary (primitive) & modern law:

Character Customary law Modern law

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Planning and legislation Do not exist Exist
Importance to Ethics norms and
B IND Exist Do not exist
public opinion

HIM A
Civil and criminal law differentiation Do not exist Exist

Importance to sin and supernatural Exist Donot exist

power
 Importance to the intention behind Do not exist Exist
committing a crime
Collective responsibility Exist Do not exist
Grades of punishment Do not exist Exist
Imprisonment Do not exist Exist
Police force and court of law

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B
Administration of the law is based on kinship ties Territories

HIM A
E.g. Among khasi, the wealth is two types.
1. Hereditary/ancestral (Nongtymmen): Only Khatduh the youngest daughter
inherits this property from the mother.
2. Non hereditary (Nongmei-nongpa) : Distributed among the siblings.
Khasi men are unhappy with this customary law.
“ Syngkhong Rympei thymmai” is a group fighting against the matrilineal
system and particularly this practice.
• Law: A social norm whose violation beyond permissible limitations evokes
a formal procedural response initiated by a group that possesses the socially
recognized privilege right determining guilt and imposing sanction up on
the wrong doer.

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• Justice: The quality of righteousness or equitable ness.

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• Law and custom: Primitive law cannot be considered apart from the

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totality of the customary rules governing human behaviour. Law is a make,

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custom is a growth.
• Law needs a special agency for enforcement and custom does not.
• Law is specific customs are not specific.
• Law is flexible, it can be made amended abolished etc. but not the custom.
• Customs fade and disappear with out formal abolition and with out recognition by
any authority but law disappear only when abolished by a recognised authority.
• Law is more idealistic than custom
• Law generally deals with matters which are vital to the life of the society where
as customs deals with general way of life

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• Both law and custom supplement and complement with each other. That is law

A B
plays a role in achieving social control in the situations where the custom cannot

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work and vice versa.
• Custom is an important source of law. That is law is made based on the
customary rules of the society.
• Customs facilitate the practice of law.
• In modern societies customs cannot guide line the human conduct Eg:
Untouchability, Dowry, Satisahagamanam, child marriage, Female infanticide and
foeticide
• Customs lack an authority
• Customs cannot be amended to the changing conditions

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• Uniform rules cannot be made as different societies follow different customs.

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A B
• The purpose of law is to maintain social order and achieve justice, whereas

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customs may not achieve social justice.
Sources of law:
Primary sources/ Customs:

Customs without sanctions

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Customs with sanctions

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Legal customs A
Conventional customs

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Local custom
General customs
• Legal customs are strict rules meant to be followed by everyone, recognized by
the court and are made a part of law.
• Conventional customs are the established usages.
• For the conventional customs to be legal customs, they must be

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Ø Immemorial
Ø Certain

B IND
Ø Reasonable
Ø Compulsory
Ø Moral HIM A
Ø Having unanimity of opinion
Ø Consistent with other customs
Secondary sources: Scientific, rational and ideological reasons.
• Note: Sanction= penalty for disobeying a rule.
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4. Political organization and Social Control: Band, tribe, chiefdom,

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kingdom and state; concepts of power, authority and legitimacy; social
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control, law and justice in simple societies.
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