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Chapter 2 - Antimicrobial Therapy For Head and Neck Infection
Chapter 2 - Antimicrobial Therapy For Head and Neck Infection
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Current Diagnosis & Treatment Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, 4e
Chapter 2: Antimicrobial Therapy for Head and Neck Infection
Monica Fung; Peter V. ChinHong
INTRODUCTION
A summary of empiric antimicrobial therapy for common conditions encountered in otolaryngology can be found in Table 2–1. In general, when
culture and susceptibility data are finalized, it is important to use the narrowest agent possible. This may not only be cost effective in many cases but
will also decrease selection pressure for the development of antimicrobial resistance. Note that a history of an allergy to penicillin in the past is not
reliable. Only a small proportion of patients (< 5%) with a stated history of penicillin allergy actually experience an adverse reaction when challenged
with the drug. If there are concerns, penicillin skin testing may be a helpful procedure to truly identify patients at risk of a true IgEmediated reaction.
All others can be safely prescribed βlactams leading to a wider choice of agents and enhance our ability to use targeted therapy when possible.
Table 2–1
Examples of initial antimicrobial therapy for selected conditions in head and neck infection.
Suspected Clinical
Involved Organisms Empiric Treatment Comments
Diagnosis
Infections of the Ear
If drug resistance is suspected, a higher dose spontaneous resolution of illness
of amoxicillin or amoxicillin–clavulanate (90 (less likely with S pneumoniae).
mg/kg/day in 2–3 divided doses for children For recurrent otitis, the insertion of
or 875/125 mg PO twice daily for adults) may ventilating tubes may be necessary.
be used. While generally not recommended,
If βlactam allergy, alternative agents include antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent
cefdinir or levofloxacin/moxifloxacin recurrent acute otitis media in
depending on allergy severity. children may be considered.
Duration: 7–10 days
Infections of the Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
Infections of the Oral Cavity and Pharynx
ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS
PENICILLINS
Penicillins are a large group of βlactam antibiotics. All share a common nucleus (6aminopenicillanic acid) that contains a βlactam ring, which is the
biologically active moiety. These drugs work by binding to penicillinbinding proteins on the bacterial cell wall, which inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis.
They also activate autolytic enzymes in the cell wall, resulting in cell lysis and death.
1. Natural Penicillins
This class includes parenteral penicillin G (eg, aqueous crystalline, procaine, and benzathine penicillin G) and oral formulations (eg, penicillin V).
Adverse Effects
The most common side effect of agents in the penicillin family is hypersensitivity, with anaphylaxis presenting in 0.05% of cases.
Clinical Uses
These drugs are most active against grampositive organisms, but resistance is increasing. Natural penicillins are still widely used for streptococci,
such as in streptococcal pharyngitis. They are also used for Treponema pallidum and other spirochetes, and actinomyces.
2. Aminopenicillins
This extendedspectrum group includes ampicillin, which is administered intravenously, and amoxicillin (only oral formulation in the United States).
These agents are susceptible to destruction by βlactamases produced by staphylococci and other bacteria.
Adverse Effects
A maculopapular rash may occur in 65% to 100% of patients with infectious mononucleosis who are prescribed amoxicillin. This symptom is not a true
penicillin allergy.
Clinical Uses
In addition to having the same spectrum of activity against grampositive organisms as the natural penicillins, aminopenicillins also have some activity
against gramnegative rods. Because of its pharmacokinetics, amoxicillin is active against strains of pneumococcus with intermediate resistance to
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penicillin, but not against strains with highlevel resistance; it is therefore a firstline drug for the treatment of otitis.
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3. PenicillinaseResistant Penicillins
This class includes methicillin, dicloxacillin, and nafcillin. They are relatively resistant to βlactamases produced by staphylococci, but do not overcome
penicillin allergy.
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Clinical Uses
In addition to having the same spectrum of activity against grampositive organisms as the natural penicillins, aminopenicillins also have some activity
against gramnegative rods. Because of its pharmacokinetics, amoxicillin is active against strains of pneumococcus with intermediate resistance to
penicillin, but not against strains with highlevel resistance; it is therefore a firstline drug for the treatment of otitis.
3. PenicillinaseResistant Penicillins
This class includes methicillin, dicloxacillin, and nafcillin. They are relatively resistant to βlactamases produced by staphylococci, but do not overcome
resistance due to methicillinresistant strains.
Adverse Effects
Nafcillin in high doses can be associated with modest leukopenia, particularly if given for several weeks.
Clinical Uses
These agents are used as antistaphylococcal drugs because they are less active than the natural penicillins against other grampositives. They are still
adequate in streptococcal infections.
4. Penicillins and βLactamase Inhibitor Combinations
The addition of βlactamase inhibitors to aminopenicillins and antipseudomonal penicillins can prevent inactivation by bacterial βlactamases. These
agents inactivate βlactamases produced by Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Bacteroides fragilis,
extending the activity of the parent drug to include these organisms. Amoxicillin/clavulanate (Augmentin) is given orally. Ampicillin/sulbactam
(Unasyn) and piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn) are administered intravenously.
Adverse Effects
Amoxicillin/clavulanate is associated with some gastrointestinal intolerance, particularly diarrhea, which is decreased if administered twice a day.
Clinical Uses
Amoxicillin/clavulanate is the firstline agent for bacterial sinusitis because it covers βlactamaseproducing H influenzae. Ampicillin/sulbactam and
piperacillin/tazobactam are used as general broadspectrum agents, with piperacillin/tazobactam having more broadspectrum activity covering
Pseudomonas. By contrast, ampicillin/sulbactam has no activity against pseudomonads. Both are not active against methicillinresistant S aureus
(MRSA) and atypical organisms such as chlamydia and mycoplasma.
CEPHALOSPORINS
1. FirstGeneration Cephalosporins
These agents generally have good activity against aerobic grampositive organisms (group A streptococcus, methicillinsensitive S aureus, and viridans
streptococci) and some communityacquired gramnegative organisms (Proteus mirabilis, Escherichia coli, and the Klebsiella species). Agents in this
class include the orally administered cephalexin (Keflex) and the parenteral cefazolin (Ancef).
Adverse Effects
In general, cephalosporins are safe. However, patients with a history of immunoglobulin (IgE)mediated allergy to a penicillin (eg, anaphylaxis) should
not be administered a cephalosporin. Patients with a history of developing a maculopapular rash in response to penicillins have a 5% to 10% risk of a
similar rash with cephalosporins.
Clinical Uses
Oral firstgeneration cephalosporins are commonly used for the treatment of minor staphylococcal and streptococcal infections such as in cellulitis.
Intravenous firstgeneration cephalosporins are the drugs of choice for surgical prophylaxis in head and neck surgery if oral or pharyngeal mucosa is
involved, such as in laryngeal tumor resection.
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2. SecondGeneration Cephalosporins
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This is a heterogeneous group that includes cefuroxime (Zinacef), cefoxitin (Mefoxin), and cefotetan (Cefotan). In general, they provide slightly more
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Oral firstgeneration cephalosporins are commonly used for the treatment of minor staphylococcal and streptococcal infections such as in cellulitis.
Intravenous firstgeneration cephalosporins are the drugs of choice for surgical prophylaxis in head and neck surgery if oral or pharyngeal mucosa is
involved, such as in laryngeal tumor resection.
2. SecondGeneration Cephalosporins
This is a heterogeneous group that includes cefuroxime (Zinacef), cefoxitin (Mefoxin), and cefotetan (Cefotan). In general, they provide slightly more
gramnegative coverage than the firstgeneration cephalosporins, including activity against indolepositive Proteus, Klebsiella, Moraxella catarrhalis,
and the Neisseria species. They have slightly less grampositive activity than the firstgeneration cephalosporins. Cefoxitin and cefotetan also have
activity against many strains of Bacteroides.
Clinical Uses
In patients with a mild allergy to ampicillin or amoxicillin, cefuroxime is an alternative agent for the treatment of otitis because it has activity against β
lactamaseproducing strains such as H influenzae and M catarrhalis.
3. ThirdGeneration Cephalosporins
Examples of these agents include orally administered cefixime (Suprax), cefpodoxime (Vantin), and intravenously or intramuscularly administered
ceftazidime (Fortaz), ceftriaxone (Rocephin), and cefotaxime (Claforan). In general, these agents are less active against grampositive organisms,
including S aureus, but most streptococci are inhibited. Of these, ceftriaxone has the most reliable pneumococcal coverage. They all have expanded
gramnegative coverage. Ceftazidime has good activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Ceftriaxone is the firstline agent for gonorrhea (given
together with azithromycin).
Adverse Effects
Ceftriaxone is associated with a dosedependent gallbladder sludging (which can be seen by ultrasound imaging) and pseudocholelithiasis; both of
these disorders can be found particularly in patients who are not eating and who are receiving total parenteral nutrition.
Clinical Uses
Because of their penetration into cerebrospinal fluid, thirdgeneration cephalosporins are widely used to treat meningitis. Ceftriaxone can be used to
treat meningitis caused by susceptible pneumococci, meningococci, H influenzae, and enteric gramnegative rods. Ceftriaxone is also used for the
treatment of gonorrhea, including pharyngeal disease. Ceftazidime is considered a firstline agent for Pseudomonas.
4. FourthGeneration Cephalosporins
Cefepime (Maxipime) is currently the only available fourthgeneration cephalosporin. It has activity against Enterobacter, Citrobacter, and
Pseudomonas species and similar activity to ceftriaxone against grampositive organisms.
Clinical Uses
Cefepime is typically used for gramnegative organisms resistant to other cephalosporins, such as Enterobacter, Citrobacter, and Pseudomonas. It is
also used empirically in patients with febrile neutropenia.
5. FifthGeneration Cephalosporins
Ceftaroline (Teflaro) is a fifthgeneration cephalosporin. It has activity against grampositive organisms, including MRSA, and gramnegative organisms
with the notable exception of P aeruginosa.
Clinical Uses
Based on clinical studies, ceftaroline can be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections, or communityacquired
pneumonia where MRSA is suspected.
6. Cephalosporin and βLactamase Inhibitor Combinations
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Ceftolozane/tazobactam (Zerbaxa) combines a novel cephalosporin with an established βlactam βlactamase inhibitor. Ceftazidime/avibactam
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(Avycaz) couples a wellknown cephalosporin with a novel nonβlactam βlactamase inhibitor. Both have activity against multidrugresistant gram
negative bacteria including P aeruginosa, but are notably less reliable against Acinetobacter and Stenotrophomonas species. With regards to gram
Clinical Uses
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Based on clinical studies, ceftaroline can be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections, or communityacquired
pneumonia where MRSA is suspected.
6. Cephalosporin and βLactamase Inhibitor Combinations
Ceftolozane/tazobactam (Zerbaxa) combines a novel cephalosporin with an established βlactam βlactamase inhibitor. Ceftazidime/avibactam
(Avycaz) couples a wellknown cephalosporin with a novel nonβlactam βlactamase inhibitor. Both have activity against multidrugresistant gram
negative bacteria including P aeruginosa, but are notably less reliable against Acinetobacter and Stenotrophomonas species. With regards to gram
positive organisms, both provide some antistreptococcal but very limited antistaphylococcal and no antienterococcal activity. While both agents have
in vitro activity against some anaerobic bacteria, they do not reliably cover Bacteroides and Clostridium species.
Clinical Uses
These agents are approved for complicated urinary tract infections and intraabdominal infections (with metronidazole). Both are commonly used to
treat infections caused by multidrugresistant gramnegative organisms, including P aeruginosa and extendedspectrum βlactamase
Enterobacteriaceae.
OTHER βLACTAM DRUGS
1. Carbapenems
Carbapenems include imipenem (Primaxin), meropenem (Merrem), and ertapenem (Invanz). Meropenem and imipenem are broadspectrum
antibiotics that cover most gramnegative organisms, grampositive organisms, and anaerobes, with the exception of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia,
Enterococcus faecium, and MRSA and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Ertapenem has a narrower spectrum of activity, with no coverage against
Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, or Enterococcus faecalis. Meropenem has recently been combined with novel βlactamase inhibitor vaborbactam
(Vabomere), which increases its activity to include carbapenemaseproducing Enterobacteriaceae.
Adverse Effects
Patients allergic to penicillins may be allergic to imipenem and meropenem. Imipenem is associated with seizures, particularly if used in higher doses
in elderly patients with decreased renal function, cerebrovascular disease, or seizure disorders. Meropenem is less likely to cause seizures and is
associated with less nausea and vomiting than imipenem.
Clinical Uses
Imipenem and meropenem should not be routinely used as a firstline therapy unless treating known multidrugresistant organisms that are sensitive
to these agents. However, in an appropriate patient who has been hospitalized for a prolonged period and who may experience infection with
organisms resistant to multiple drugs, imipenem or meropenem may be used while awaiting culture results.
2. Monobactams
Monobactams (aztreonam [Azactam]) have activity limited to gramnegative organisms, including Pseudomonas.
Adverse Effects
Despite the structural similarity of aztreonam to penicillin, crossreactivity is limited and the drug can be given to those with a history of penicillin
allergy, including IgEmediated reactions.
Clinical Uses
Aztreonam is useful for the treatment of confirmed pseudomonal infections in patients with allergies to penicillin and cephalosporins.
QUINOLONES
This class has a broad spectrum of activity and generally low toxicity. Quinolones include the newer fluorinated agents such as ciprofloxacin (Cipro),
levofloxacin (Levaquin), and moxifloxacin (Avelox). The drugs inhibit bacterial DNA synthesis by blocking the action of the enzyme DNA gyrase. In
general, quinolones have moderate grampositive activity, especially levofloxacin and moxifloxacin, and good gramnegative activity, with ciprofloxacin
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and levofloxacin providing the best activity against P aeruginosa, although resistance has been increasing. Only moxifloxacin has moderate anaerobic
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activity (eg, B fragilis and oral anaerobes). In contrast to ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, moxifloxacin has poor activity against P aeruginosa.
Adverse Effects
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QUINOLONES
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This class has a broad spectrum of activity and generally low toxicity. Quinolones include the newer fluorinated agents such as ciprofloxacin (Cipro),
levofloxacin (Levaquin), and moxifloxacin (Avelox). The drugs inhibit bacterial DNA synthesis by blocking the action of the enzyme DNA gyrase. In
general, quinolones have moderate grampositive activity, especially levofloxacin and moxifloxacin, and good gramnegative activity, with ciprofloxacin
and levofloxacin providing the best activity against P aeruginosa, although resistance has been increasing. Only moxifloxacin has moderate anaerobic
activity (eg, B fragilis and oral anaerobes). In contrast to ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, moxifloxacin has poor activity against P aeruginosa.
Adverse Effects
The most commonly reported side effects are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Prolongation of the QT interval has been observed in fluoroquinolones
as a class. Tendonitis and tendon rupture have been reported, particularly in patients taking glucocorticoids or who have concomitant liver or renal
failure. There is also a possible adverse effect on joint cartilage, which has been noted only in animal studies.
Clinical Uses
Because of their broad spectrum, quinolones should not be typically used as firstline agents in relatively minor infections such as sinusitis, otitis, and
pharyngitis when there are less expensive alternatives with narrower spectrums available. Ciprofloxacin has been used for the treatment of
complicated soft tissue infections and osteomyelitis caused by gramnegative organisms. Ciprofloxacin, administered as 500–750 mg twice daily for at
least 6 weeks, is used for the treatment of malignant external otitis. Ciprofloxacin has also been used to eradicate meningococci from the nasopharynx
of carriers. Because of its superior activity against Pneumococcus, levofloxacin can be used when drugresistant Streptococcus pneumoniae is
suspected in cases of sinusitis. However, quinolones are not reliable in the treatment of MRSA or enterococcal infections.
SULFONAMIDES AND ANTIFOLATE DRUGS
Sulfonamides are structural analogs of paminobenzoic acid (PABA) and compete with PABA to block its conversion to dihydrofolic acid. Almost all
bacteria, with the exception of enterococci, that use PABA to synthesize folates and pyrimidines are inhibited by these agents. Mammalian cells use
exogenous folate and are unaffected. Antifolate drugs such as trimethoprim block the conversion of dihydrofolic acid to tetrahydrofolic acid by
inhibiting the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase. Typically, these agents are used in combination, such as trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (eg, Bactrim,
Septra) to treat a variety of bacterial and parasitic infections.
Adverse Effects
At high doses, some antifolate drugs also inhibit mammalian dihydrofolate reductase (pyrimethamine and trimetrexate) so that these drugs are
typically coadministered with folinic acid (leucovorin) to prevent bone marrow suppression. Adverse effects to sulfonamides, usually mild rashes or
gastrointestinal disturbances, occur in 10% to 15% of patients without AIDS; in patients with AIDS, these adverse effects are experienced in up to 50%
of patients and include rash, fever, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia, all of which may be severe enough to discontinue therapy.
Clinical Uses
Sulfonamides are the drugs of choice for infections caused by Nocardia. Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (eg, Bactrim, Septra) is often used for the
treatment of mild MRSA infections, such as skin and soft tissue infections.
ERYTHROMYCINS (MACROLIDES)
This class includes erythromycin, azithromycin (Zithromax), and clarithromycin (Biaxin). They inhibit protein synthesis of bacteria by binding to the
50S ribosomal subunits. In vitro data demonstrating an effect on cytokine production suggest an antiinflammatory effect as well.
Adverse Effects
Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may occur, particularly with erythromycin, which can cause uncoordinated peristalsis. Azithromycin and
clarithromycin cause milder symptoms. Reversible ototoxicity can occur after high doses of these agents, especially with concomitant hepatic and renal
insufficiency. Macrolides (especially erythromycin and clarithromycin) inhibit cytochrome P450 and can significantly increase levels of oral
anticoagulants, digoxin, cyclosporin, and theophylline with concomitant use. Levels should be monitored and doses appropriately adjusted.
Clinical Uses
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Macrolides are the drugs of choice for infections caused by Legionella, Mycoplasma, and Chlamydia. Azithromycin and clarithromycin are approved for
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the treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis, but some areas are reporting high rates (20%) of resistance, and less expensive alternatives are available.
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While previously used to treat bacterial sinusitis, these agents are no longer recommended due to high rates (30%) of resistant S pneumoniae.
clarithromycin cause milder symptoms. Reversible ototoxicity can occur after high doses of these agents, especially with concomitant hepatic and renal
insufficiency. Macrolides (especially erythromycin and clarithromycin) inhibit cytochrome P450 and can significantly increase levels of oral
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anticoagulants, digoxin, cyclosporin, and theophylline with concomitant use. Levels should be monitored and doses appropriately adjusted.
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Clinical Uses
Macrolides are the drugs of choice for infections caused by Legionella, Mycoplasma, and Chlamydia. Azithromycin and clarithromycin are approved for
the treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis, but some areas are reporting high rates (20%) of resistance, and less expensive alternatives are available.
While previously used to treat bacterial sinusitis, these agents are no longer recommended due to high rates (30%) of resistant S pneumoniae.
TETRACYCLINES
Doxycycline and other drugs in this class inhibit protein synthesis. Their spectrum of activity is similar to that of macrolides.
Adverse Effects
Gastrointestinal side effects are common. Drugs in this class can be bound to calcium in growing bones and teeth, causing discoloration and growth
inhibition.
Clinical Uses
Similar to the macrolides, tetracyclines can be used to treat infections caused by Legionella, Mycoplasma, and Chlamydia.
GLYCYLCYCLINES
Tigecycline (Tygacil), a derivative of minocycline, is the first of this new class of antibiotics. The spectrum of activity includes resistant grampositive
organisms (eg, MRSA, penicillinresistant S pneumoniae, and vancomycinresistant enterococci) as well as several gramnegative organisms and
anaerobes, but not P aeruginosa.
Adverse Effects
Nausea and vomiting are the most commonly reported effects with glycylcyclines. Like tetracyclines, tigecycline may also cause photosensitivity and
pseudotumor cerebri. Its use is contraindicated in children and pregnant women.
Clinical Uses
These agents constitute another intravenously administered option against complicated skin and soft tissue infections with resistant grampositive
organisms.
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
This group includes gentamicin and tobramycin. They inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria by attaching to the 30S ribosomal subunit.
Adverse Effects
All aminoglycosides can cause ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Ototoxicity can be irreversible and is cumulative. It can be manifested as both cochlear
injury (eg, hearing loss) and vestibular injury (eg, vertigo and ataxia). Nephrotoxicity is more common and is frequently reversible.
Clinical Uses
These agents are generally used in serious infections caused by gramnegative bacteria. Their use is limited by toxicity.
CLINDAMYCIN
Clindamycin (Cleocin) acts by inhibiting the initiation of peptide chain synthesis in bacteria. It resembles the macrolides in its spectrum and structure.
Adverse Effects
These drugs are the most frequently implicated in causing Clostridium difficile colitis.
Clinical Uses
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Clindamycin is one of the firstline drugs for the treatment of parapharyngeal space infections (including Ludwig angina), as well as jugular vein septic
phlebitis (eg, Lemierre disease). It is recommended as an alternative to amoxicillin as prophylaxis against endocarditis following oral procedures.
Clindamycin has good anaerobic activity, but resistance has been reported in up to 25% of B fragilis isolates, thus limiting its use in serious anaerobic
Clindamycin (Cleocin) acts by inhibiting the initiation of peptide chain synthesis in bacteria. It resembles the macrolides in its spectrum and structure.
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These drugs are the most frequently implicated in causing Clostridium difficile colitis.
Clinical Uses
Clindamycin is one of the firstline drugs for the treatment of parapharyngeal space infections (including Ludwig angina), as well as jugular vein septic
phlebitis (eg, Lemierre disease). It is recommended as an alternative to amoxicillin as prophylaxis against endocarditis following oral procedures.
Clindamycin has good anaerobic activity, but resistance has been reported in up to 25% of B fragilis isolates, thus limiting its use in serious anaerobic
infections due to these organisms. Because of existing evidence suggesting that clindamycin reduces toxin production in several organisms, it is often
used concomitantly with penicillin in the treatment of group A streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Clindamycin can also be used in the treatment of
brain abscesses, although it is not effective in treating meningitis.
METRONIDAZOLE
Metronidazole (Flagyl) is an antiprotozoal drug that has excellent anaerobic activity, particularly against anaerobic gramnegative organisms.
Adverse Effects
Alcohol must be avoided for the duration of the antibiotic and for 48 hours afterward to prevent a disulfiramlike reaction. Metronidazole can also
decrease the metabolism of warfarin and increase the prothrombin time, necessitating careful monitoring during concomitant use.
Clinical Uses
This agent can be used in the treatment of brain abscesses, parapharyngeal space infections (including Ludwig angina), as well as septic phlebitis of
the jugular vein (Lemierre disease), in combination with either penicillin or a thirdgeneration cephalosporin. It is more predictable than clindamycin
and secondgeneration cephalosporins in the treatment of B fragilis infections.
GLYCOPEPTIDES
1. Vancomycin
Vancomycin activity is limited to grampositive organisms, and it is used as a bactericidal agent for most of these organisms, including staphylococci
and streptococci. Vancomycinresistant enterococcal strains have become a major problem.
Adverse Effects
This agent is rarely ototoxic when given with aminoglycosides. There is also potential nephrotoxicity when coadministered with aminoglycosides. The
rapid infusion of vancomycin can result in diffuse hyperemia (“red man syndrome”).
Clinical Uses
Vancomycin is the drug of choice for MRSA and S epidermidis. Serious staphylococcal, enterococcal, and other grampositive infections in patients
allergic to penicillin can also be treated with vancomycin.
2. Telavancin
Like vancomycin, the spectrum of activity is limited to grampositive microbes. Telavancin inhibits cell wall synthesis and disrupts membrane
permeability. Given a long halflife of up to 9 hours, oncedaily dosing is possible.
Adverse Effects
The most common adverse effects in trials are gastrointestinal, including metallic taste, nausea, and vomiting. Central nervous system symptoms such
as insomnia and headaches are also reported.
Clinical Uses
Telavancin has U.S. FDA approval for its use in complicated skin and soft tissue infections. It can be considered as an alternative to vancomycin for
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MRSA skin and soft tissue infections, but there is less clinical experience compared with other drugs. The precise role for this agent in other MRSA
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infections such as endocarditis, bacteremia, and pneumonia still needs to be defined.
STREPTOGRAMINS
The most common adverse effects in trials are gastrointestinal, including metallic taste, nausea, and vomiting. Central nervous system symptoms such
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as insomnia and headaches are also reported.
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Clinical Uses
Telavancin has U.S. FDA approval for its use in complicated skin and soft tissue infections. It can be considered as an alternative to vancomycin for
MRSA skin and soft tissue infections, but there is less clinical experience compared with other drugs. The precise role for this agent in other MRSA
infections such as endocarditis, bacteremia, and pneumonia still needs to be defined.
STREPTOGRAMINS
These agents are structurally similar to macrolides. They work by binding to bacterial ribosomes and include a combination of quinupristin and
dalfopristin (Synercid). Quinupristin/dalfopristin has a spectrum of activity primarily against grampositive organisms, including Enterococcus faecium
(but not E faecalis) and MRSA.
Adverse Effects
Phlebitis occurs with peripheral administration, so a central line is recommended. The most common adverse effects are myalgias and arthralgias.
Clinical Uses
Streptogramins are rarely used and only in cases of serious infections secondary to vancomycinresistant E faecium.
OXAZOLIDINONES
Linezolid (Zyvox) is the first agent of this class of antibiotics with tedizolid (Sivextro) being the second. They are active against aerobic grampositive
infections, including E faecium, E faecalis, and MRSA and S epidermidis.
Adverse Effects
Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are the most common adverse effects. Reversible thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, and anemia can occur if treatment
is prolonged. If more than 2 weeks of treatment are planned, blood counts should be monitored.
Clinical Uses
These agents are used in cases of serious infections secondary to vancomycinresistant E faecium and E faecalis, and in patients with MRSA infections
who are intolerant to vancomycin.
DAPTOMYCIN
This bactericidal lipopeptide works by inserting itself into the bacterial cell membrane, causing depolarization, efflux of potassium, and cell death. Its
spectrum of activity is similar to that of linezolid, targeting resistant grampositive organisms (eg, MRSA and vancomycinresistant enterococci). It is
available only as a parenteral agent.
Adverse Effects
The main potential drugrelated effect is reversible, dosedependent myopathy, which is seen more than 7 days after initiating therapy.
Clinical Uses
Daptomycin is used in complicated skin and soft tissue infections with known or suspected resistant grampositive organisms.
ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS
AMPHOTERICIN B
Amphotericin B has a broad spectrum of activity against many fungi that can cause systemic disease, such as Aspergillus, Histoplasmosis, Coccidioides,
and Candida. Notable exceptions are Pseudallescheria boydii and Fusarium. Lipidbased amphotericin B products, such as liposomal amphotericin B,
have less nephrotoxicity than amphotericin and are preferentially used in the United States.
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Adverse Effects
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While amphotericin B often produces fever, chills, vomiting, and headaches, liposomal amphotericin B is much better tolerated. Nephrotoxicity and
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AMPHOTERICIN B
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Amphotericin B has a broad spectrum of activity against many fungi that can cause systemic disease, such as Aspergillus, Histoplasmosis, Coccidioides,
and Candida. Notable exceptions are Pseudallescheria boydii and Fusarium. Lipidbased amphotericin B products, such as liposomal amphotericin B,
have less nephrotoxicity than amphotericin and are preferentially used in the United States.
Adverse Effects
While amphotericin B often produces fever, chills, vomiting, and headaches, liposomal amphotericin B is much better tolerated. Nephrotoxicity and
electrolyte disturbances are common side effects, and close monitoring is essential.
Clinical Uses
In immunocompromised patients, this agent is used as an initial therapy for sinus disease or other invasive disease caused by Zygomycetes and other
molds.
TRIAZOLES
These drugs inhibit ergosterol synthesis, resulting in inhibition of membraneassociated enzyme activity and cell wall growth and replication.
Fluconazole (Diflucan) can be effective in treating infections due to Candida (albicans in particular), Cryptococcus, and Blastomyces. Itraconazole
(Sporanox) has a similar spectrum to fluconazole, with additional activity against Aspergillus. Newergeneration azoles such as voriconazole (Vfend)
have a broader spectrum of activity, including Aspergillus and Fusarium, but not Zygomycetes. Posaconazole (Noxafil) and isavuconazole (Cresemba)
have similar spectra of activity as voriconazole, but can also be used to treat Zygomycetes.
Adverse Effects
Triazoles are generally well tolerated. Itraconazole and voriconazole have several drug interactions. Itraconazole can increase levels of cyclosporin,
digoxin, and warfarin with concomitant use, necessitating the dose adjustment of these medications. Voriconazole is a potent inhibitor of cytochrome
P450 isoenzymes, also mandating the dose adjustment and monitoring of cyclosporin and warfarin, as well as tacrolimus. Sirolimus is contraindicated.
The most common adverse effects associated with voriconazole were reversible visual disturbances and liver toxicity.
Clinical Uses
Voriconazole, posaconazole, and isavuconazole can be used in the treatment of sinus disease caused by Aspergillus. Voriconazole can also be used in
disease caused by Fusarium. Fluconazole is typically a firstline treatment of thrush. Itraconazole and voriconazole also have activity against Candida,
including some of the nonalbicans species. Posaconazole and isavuconazole are alternatives to amphotericin for the treatment of Zygomycetes.
ECHINOCANDINS
These drugs act by inhibiting fungal wall synthesis. Caspofungin (Cancidas), micafungin (Mycamine), and anidulafungin (Eraxis) are FDAcleared agents
in this class. They are active against Candida, including nonalbicans species, and Aspergillus. They are not active against the other molds.
Adverse Effects
Echinocandins are remarkably welltolerated drugs and are associated with few significant drug interactions.
Clinical Uses
These drugs are recommended for treatment of invasive candidiasis.
ANTIVIRAL AGENTS
ACYCLOVIR, FAMCICLOVIR, AND VALACYCLOVIR
In cells infected with herpesvirus, these drugs are selectively active against viral DNA polymerase, inhibiting viral proliferation. They are useful for
infections caused by herpes simplex and in herpes zoster–varicella infections. Famciclovir (Famvir) is selectively active against herpes DNA polymerase
and inhibits viral proliferation. It is a prodrug of penciclovir. Herpes simplex and varicella zoster strains resistant to acyclovir are also resistant to
famciclovir. Valacyclovir (Valtrex) is the prodrug of acyclovir and has increased oral bioavailability, allowing less frequent dosing.
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Adverse Effects
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These drugs are relatively nontoxic.
ACYCLOVIR, FAMCICLOVIR, AND VALACYCLOVIR
ISHOU University
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In cells infected with herpesvirus, these drugs are selectively active against viral DNA polymerase, inhibiting viral proliferation. They are useful for
infections caused by herpes simplex and in herpes zoster–varicella infections. Famciclovir (Famvir) is selectively active against herpes DNA polymerase
and inhibits viral proliferation. It is a prodrug of penciclovir. Herpes simplex and varicella zoster strains resistant to acyclovir are also resistant to
famciclovir. Valacyclovir (Valtrex) is the prodrug of acyclovir and has increased oral bioavailability, allowing less frequent dosing.
Adverse Effects
These drugs are relatively nontoxic.
Clinical Uses
Antiviral agents are used for the treatment and prophylaxis of mucocutaneous oral lesions caused by herpes simplex. Oral acyclovir is significantly
more effective than and therefore preferred over the currently available topical ointment, 5% acyclovir. Penciclovir 1% cream is effective but must be
applied every 2 hours to work.
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