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Module 15-21 Gas Turbine Engine: Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation
Module 15-21 Gas Turbine Engine: Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation
Module 15-21
Gas Turbine Engine
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Table of contents
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Those are to be observed each time engines are tested on ground. The monitoring of this operation is ensured by a designated responsible
person.
An appropriate fire extinguishing device is to be at disposal near the ground operation area and must be handled by a qualified personnel
being informed of the danger zones as well as the areas planned for fire extinction (frangible panels).
The ground personnel must remain apart from the danger zones.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
They must carry an ear-protection headset as well as an anti-vibration belt. Neither clothing nor hat liable to be sucked in by the engine
should be worn.
If possible, a thorough walk around inspection of the proposed site should be conducted prior to the conduct of an engine run-up. All trash,
loose gravel, and any other object should be removed from the area before starting engine run-up procedures.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Engine danger areas at takeoff speeds (TAKE OFF).
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
At take-off speeds:
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
3.4. Exhaust gas temperature:
At IDLE speeds:
At take-off speeds:
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Base is mostly the hanger, where hard checks, repairs take place.
A qualified engineer walks around the aircraft and inspects structural items visually.
Engine is also checked during the walk around checks.
There engineer watches for oil leaks, structural damages in the engine, inlet of the engine for composite parts fixtures to the structure, fan/first stages
of the compressor, last stages of the turbine for deterioration or damages or any unusual changes of the engine.
In this example shows how, engineer/Pilot carry on a walk around inspection of a Airbus A30 aircraft.
This aircraft walk around makes it possible to control the external crucial points of the aircraft and to detect possible faults. It is in general described in
the flight crew operating manual (FCOM: Flight Crew Operating Manual).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5g3KW4iWCk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jh95dSVJrQM
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
f – trap door for engine start-up: closed
g - access door to landing gear door opening system on ground: closed / locked
h - access door to fuel system control panel: closed
g - air conditioning system door / air outlet: in state
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Static dischargers
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
landing gear well: control
d - gear up latching device: control
e - gear down locking springs: control
f - landing gear safety lockpin: in place
landing gear door: closed
g - A.P.U fuel pipe ventilation intake: control
antennas and beacon marker: control
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
A.P.U. outlet: in state
e - A.P.U extinguisher discharge indicator: control / in place
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Fuel tank dipsticks: control / securized
Leading edge slats #2 and #3: control
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Outside air temperature (O.A.T.): Expressed in Celsius degrees or Fahrenheit. It must be recorded in the shade using a calibrated
sensitive thermometer. The thermometer(s) equipping the aircraft should never be trusted, as it (they) is (are) under the influence of
variations due to the solar radiations on the airframe.
QFE. (Q= dynamic pressure, FE= Field Elevation): It is the atmospheric pressure prevailing on the ground operation area. It makes it
possible to know the altitude of the ground operation area compared to the sea level. It is expressed in hectoPascal (hPa) or mercury inches
(Hg inches).
Strength and direction of the wind. Expressed in Knots (Knots), the strength of the wind has an influence on the parameters.
Caution:
The starters are subjected to operation time and cooling period after rotation. The documentation provided by the manufacturer must be
consulted.
Example: 1 mn ON - 3 mn OFF;
1 mn ON - 30 mn OFF.
After the ventilations, a visual inspection of the engine is to be carried out in order to detect possible faults.
The engine, accessory gear box and hydraulic tank oil levels are to be refilled if necessary.
In the cockpit, the personnel must check the instrumental values corresponding to the various visual levels noted on ground.
After having checked every parameter, the engine cowlings may be closed again.
4.4.1. Control of the elements and trouble shouting after ground operation (run-up):
After the run-up, the engine and auxiliary power unit cowlings are open in order to detect the potential leakages on the associated circuits (fuel,
lubrication, hydraulics, pneumatic circuits).
The engine equipments are also inspected thoroughly.
Any noted fault is mentioned in the ground operation (run-up) report as well as in the Aircraft Technical Log Book (ATLB) in order to keep in mind
the chain of events.
These faults being rectified, another run-up is often necessary to confirm the absence of fault.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Serviceability:
An aircraft (or an aircraft element) belonging to an airline company being member of the JAA can be put again into commission by only
a qualified engineer (JAR-66 certifying staff):
Either on line by a qualified engineer
B1 for the mechanical systems
B2 for the avionic systems
Or in base by a C qualified engineer.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
The considered turbojet is in engine run-up, bench tested at maximum rating in standard conditions.
The turbojet air intake is equipped with a suction piece. The mass of the fluid underwent a decrease in static pressure and an increase in speed.
During its travel through the suction piece the total air temperature remains constant.
Throughout the combustion chamber, the mass of the fluid underwent an increase in total temperature and speed with a light decrease
in static and total pressures.
Throughout the turbine, the mass of the fluid underwent a decrease in static and total pressures and an increase in speed.
Throughout the exhaust duct, the mass of the fluid underwent a decrease in static temperature and pressure and a strong increase in
speed.
In flight, the evolution of the characteristic magnitudes of the state of the fluid crossing the turbojet is similar to that of the run-up. Only the
corresponding numerical values are more or less different, with the exception of the air intake duct parameters.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
To show the evolution of speeds, pressures and temperatures inside a turbojet engine, it is normal procedure to represent their
variations on patterns.
These variations are often drawn just below the longitudinal section of a propeller, so that one may quickly understand what happens
inside the engine.
It is the product of the mass air flow by its speed increase inside the machine:
Fa = Q(V5 - V0 )
With Q: air flow rate, V5 gas exhaust velocity, V0 aircraft speed
The fuel injected into the combustion chamber also has a mass which is ejected with the air travelling through the turbojet engine. This
fuel flow is thus accelerated from a zero speed to the gas exhaust velocity.
That is to say:
FC = qc .V5
With q c fuel flow, V5 gases exhaust velocity.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Static pressure
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
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Temperature
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Velocity (speed)
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
1. BORESCOPE:
Borescope equipment permits the inspection of gas turbine engine parts which would otherwise be inaccessible with the engine installed and in
service. Early gas turbine engines had poor provision of ports for this type of inspection, apart from the igniter plug and burner holes, but engine
manufacturers now tend to provide improved facilities for borescope inspection of the rotating and combustion sections
of the engine. Other large engine components may also have limited facilities, as do some airframe air-conditioning turbine units, etc.
This form of use will result in a more effective assessment being made of damage caused by an in-service incident such as a bird strike or foreign
object ingestion Manufacturers of borescopes tend to market the complete range of units required and it is unusual to be able to interchange parts of
one system with those of another.
The following general description of the equipment is not related to any particular manufacturer and should be read in conjunction with the appropriate
manufacturer’s technical instructions or service manual.
Consideration must be given to the potential hazards involved in the inspection of gas turbine engines while under ramp or first-line maintenance
conditions and special precautions should be taken because of the engineer’s preoccupation at the engine.
A dangerous situation could occur in the event of the inadvertent operation of a starting system, ignition system, thrust reverser system or any
mechanical or electrical controls; these systems should therefore be inhibited.
Other factors to be considered when inspecting engines under these conditions include:
Dissipation of residual heat;
Effect of wind milling;
Borescope equipment contamination;
Electrical potential difference between the probe/light source and the aircraft structure;
Fuel and oil leakage.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Borescopes uses.
Borescopes are used in aircraft and engine maintenance programs to reduce or eliminate the need for costly teardowns.
Borescopes, typically, are used to inspect interiors of hydraulic cylinders and valves for pitting, scoring, porosity, and tool marks; inspect for
cracked cylinders in aircraft reciprocating engines;
Borescopes may also be used to locate and retrieve foreign objects in engines and airframes.
b. Optical designs. Typical designs for the optical connection between the borescope viewing end and the distal tip are:
(1) A rigid tube with a series of relay lenses;
(2) A flexible or rigid tube with a bundle of optical fibers; and
(3) A flexible or rigid tube with wiring that carries the image signal from a Charge Couple Device (CCD) imaging sensor at the distal tip.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
These designs can have either fixed or adjustable focusing of the objective lens at the distal tip. The distal tip may also have prisms and
mirrors that define the direction and field of view. A fiber optic light guide with white light is generally used in the illumination system, but
ultraviolet light can also be used to inspect surfaces treated with liquid fluorescent penetrant// or to inspect for contaminants that fluoresce.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
1.1. Access
Note:
In consideration of this 'pinching' effect, the initial torque settings for the blanking plugs must be those recommended in the relevant
Maintenance Manual.
1.2. Orientation:
Familiarity with the layout of an engine and experience in the use of borescope equipment enables an engineer to recognise the area being viewed
and the extent of inspection possible through a given access port.
Parts frequently appear larger when viewed through a borescope and damage can seem more extensive than it really is.
Familiarisation with the size (height and width) of the item being viewed is therefore essential and ideally a spare part should be available to be held in
the hand and viewed with and without a borescope probe to ensure the item is correctly assessed.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
1.4. Components of rotating assemblies:
Components of rotating assemblies need to be identified for the same reasons. At overhaul, marks may be applied to the convex surface of turbine
blades, together with the balance details normally applied, to number the blades consecutively around the disc. This procedure will enable positions to
be fixed for the parts of the whole spool connected to that turbine.
For instance, if HP turbine blades are numbered, HP compressor blades can be identified by stating:
Compressor access port used;
Direction of view;
Details of damage;
Turbine access port used;
The turbine blade number visible at the centre of the field of view.
1.6. Inspection:
If damage is found on a rotating assembly which has no consecutive numbering of blades, point reference must be established by using an externally
or internally recognisable point on the rotating assembly.
Again, access ports must be stated and consecutive blades must be counted to locate the point of damage.
For ease of inspection, the HP shaft can be rotated (at a suitable speed to permit a satisfactory inspection) by an air-driven motor through the high-
speed gearbox on engines with a drive facility; otherwise, hand-turning may be accomplished by using either a redundant component drive coupling or
a standard socket fitting in the gearbox.
Air-driven motor systems in general use have hand or foot controls to vary direction and speed; this is an advantage over using the hand-turning
method which requires one person to turn the shaft while another performs the inspection.
LP shafts must be turned by hand and to rotate an Intermediate Pressure shaft in a three-spool engine, without a gearbox, a locally-made tool may be
required to turn the shaft through the IP intake.
Scheduled inspections:
Scheduled inspections are the regular ones which are carried out as part of an approved Maintenance Schedule.
The frequency of such inspections is dependent upon either engine cycles or flight time and need not be concurrent with the aircraft’s
scheduled checks.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
The combustion section and the turbine blades are the primary concern during these inspections, due to the high stresses and
temperatures encountered during service.
All defects should be recorded, normally on a chart specific to the engine type, which after completion constitutes a record of any
deterioration taking place within that particular engine.
An assessment can then be made as to whether the engine may be allowed to continue in service until the next scheduled inspection,
or that it may only continue in service subject to more frequent checks.
Special inspections:
Occasionally, experience gained by frequent borescope inspections, in-service failures or inspection during overhaul highlights the
development of particular defects which can be monitored using borescopes while the engine continues in service.
Normally only one or two access ports need be disturbed because it is only the area detailed by the special inspection which needs
assessing.
This again enables the engine either to continue in service or to be monitored even more frequently.
Non-scheduled inspections:
Borescopes can be used to great effect when it is necessary to assess the damage caused by foreign object ingestion or engine
surge, diagnose the cause of developed defects and provide a means of establishing engine serviceability following excursions
beyond the normal turbine temperatures or maximum power limits.
Together with other basic visual techniques of inspection, the use of borescopes may, under certain circumstances, provide the
necessary evidence to permit an aircraft to fly back to base for repair when it would otherwise require an immediate engine change.
Final Inspection:
On completion of a borescope inspection, it is essential that all access plugs are refitted correctly and securely.
Failure to do so could cause a gas leak and result in a fire warning, shut-down and turn-back or in some cases cause a failure due to
blade flutter or loss of cooling air. Access panels must also be correctly refitted.
Note:
Engines are often removed after scheduled or special inspections to prevent a primarily minor defect causing secondary damage, possibly
leading to engine failure.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
2. VIBRATIONS:
All mounting systems need to accomplish two basic functions: 1) constrain motion, and 2) provide vibration isolation and noise reduction. “Constraining
Motion” refers to limiting the relative motion between two structures created by thrust, ‘g’ loads, weight, and torque.
“Providing isolation” and “reducing noise” involves minimizing the transmission of vibration from one structure to another so as to reduce the
transmitted noise into the cabin area.
To provide the first basic function, the mounting system must be stiff to minimize relative motions. In order to minimize transmitted vibration (or noise),
the mounting system must be dynamically soft.
This inherent problem sets up competing objectives that require compromise and flexibility in the engine attachment design. This basic issue, along
with the need for longer service lives and reduced costs, is the reason for new technology development.
In an aircraft engine installation, an imbalance in the rotating machinery creates oscillating forces applied to the structure, thus generating structural
vibration, as depicted in the Figure below.
The consequence of the rotating imbalances of the engines manifests itself through the structural vibration of the fuselage, which induces noise in the
cabin as shown.
At the engine and airframe interface, there are several paths that vibration can take to enter into the cabin. The primary path is at the mounting
structure point and is the focal area or choke point, at which to treat the vibration.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Vibration and noise levels can be controlled in a variety of ways, from passive elastomeric mounts to active vibration control systems, each with
varying levels of complexity, performance, and cost.
The primary benefit of an engine attachment and isolation system (beside the obvious primary purpose attaching the engine to the airframe) is the
reduction in vibration and noise in the aircraft cabin by reducing the dynamic forces in the structure.
As in any equipment design, compromise and communication are key activities. The optimal solution is the one that best meets the total system
requirements for static/structure needs, dynamic needs, and installation/maintainability needs without too much compromise in any one area.
The best approach to the system design is one that provides flexibility in the choice of technology without compromising the certification or
development schedule of the aircraft program.
A common yoke or attachment structure design that can incorporate any vibration isolation treatment is optimal.
2.1. Noise:
The noise at frequencies related to engine vibrations is usually produced at levels much higher than noise produced by sources such as external
airflow, air conditioning, or accessories.
These sources generally create the broadband noise levels, whereas the engine rotating imbalance creates specific tones of their fundamental
frequencies and harmonics.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
The figure shows a typical noise spectrum of the measured data of the internal cabin noise spectrum. Clearly shown are the tonal penetrations of the
engine vibrations.
This higher noise, produced by the engine vibration through the structure, presents the most likely need for isolators in an attachment system.
The noise generated in an aircraft cabin will have an uneven distribution of energy over the audible frequency range (20 Hz to 20 kHz).
By aggregating the energy over the audible frequency range a sound pressure level (SPL) is attained. If each frequency is given the same relative
importance, the result is an overall SPL in dB (Lin).
When the frequency values are given weighting based on their importance, the result is an overall SPL in dBX (where X represents the weighting
curve used).
A Weighted (dBA) apply to low noise levels as for an audibility test and C-Weighted (dBC) are adapted to noisy environments, such as most aircraft
cabins.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Note:
For more details concerning level of sound, refer to lesson 02-05 – Wave motion and Sound.
The vibration and noise treatment systems can also be separated into three categories based on how they are applied in the application. The available
technologies are presented in the three categories defined below.
1. Vibration isolation systems are those that are placed directly in the primary load/vibration transmission path.
2. Structural Control systems are those that treat the structure (and are attached to it), attacking the vibration along its primary path, but is not directly
in the primary structure/load/vibration transmission path itself.
3. Noise Control is a special active system, which does not treat vibration, but rather actively cancels noise in the cabin space, locally near the
passengers.
Additionally, these various technologies can be combined in several ways to create a very effective hybrid system.
Passive systems generally provide up to 10 dB reductions and active systems are effective enough to produce 25 dB reductions.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
The attachment structure stiffness characteristics, whether hard mounted or using an isolator, are key to the system’s ability to isolate vibration.
A direct, hard -mounted attachment structure offers the aircraft manufacturer a significant advantage in that they carry the static loads in a very well
defined and understood way and can last the life of the aircraft.
However, in the design of a hard mounted structure, it is difficult to include the necessary flexibility (and damping) required to provide adequate
vibration isolation. A hard mount can be designed to be ‘soft’, but it is very difficult to change the spring rate if necessary for final tuning.
Because an entirely metal, hard attachment structure has little or no damping, it is best represented as a simple spring in a mechanical model.
Stiffness and damping (as depicted as K and C respectively in Figure below) are the basic properties of a resilient material, which provide its
effectiveness in a mount.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
The stiffness of a resilient material like rubber is measured in terms of modulus.
Resilient material mounts offer a trade-off between static deflection and vibration isolation, in the sense that improved vibration isolation results at the
expense of greater static deflection.
The biggest advantages to elastomeric mounts are that they:
provide the spring and damping for good vibration isolation, and are much more efficient than metal springs
have a proven application history, and are the lowest cost solution compared to other technologies
carry load in multiple directions (the rubber geometry is designed so that it can carry load in compression and shear)
provide easily variable spring rates
provide impedance mismatch for high frequency noise attenuation
have a low dynamic to static spring rate ratio compared to a metal spring (rigid structure)
In some relatively rare cases, Rubber-To-Metal (RTM) or elastomeric mounts cannot be used. These cases include extreme high and low temperature
environments. The majority of elastomeric engine mountings utilize organic elastomers for maximum service life, minimum size and best overall
performance characteristics.
These elastomers are generally intended for use in a temperature environment. Elastomeric isolators are designed for a maximum life equal to a
multiple of the engine overhaul interval. This approach has provided up to 20,000 hours of flight time in some applications.
Wire -mesh mounting systems, much like RTM, are a passive approach to vibration isolation using curled, formed, and compressed stainless steel
wire. The advantage to using wire-mesh mounts is that they provide the spring and damper for good isolation, can handle very broad range of
temperatures, and are not affected by any type of engine fluid.
The disadvantage to wire mesh mounts is that they produce a relatively high dynamic to static spring rate ratio, are susceptible to relatively high
permanent set (drift) deflections, and are usually unidirectional.
Wire mesh isolators typically provide several engine overhaul intervals of use, and have been successful in applications with service lives of over
8,000 flight hours.
These parts can be designed for a maximum life of well over 15,000 flight hours.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
Active Structural Control (ASC) uses electro-mechanical actuators that are attached to the structure, as close as possible to the vibration source,
which cancels the vibration before it reaches the fuselage.
This system processes both cabin noise information and engine signals in a central computer that drives the actuators in order to ensure optimal noise
reduction throughout the flight cycle.
The adaptive control algorithm, allows the system to react almost instantaneously to engine throttle changes.
The technological principle to ASC is the same as ANC or AIC. The difference is that the actuators in ASC are not directly in the vibration path, but are
instead, attached to the primary structure/vibration path inputting a force to the system that inherently cancels the unwanted vibration.
All components of an active system are designed to be replaced on condition, and can last for the majority of the aircraft lifetime.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category A B1 B2 B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation
Level 1 2 3
If global noise control cannot be achieved, then local control can be utilized. Local control involves creating zones of quiet around the control
microphones. The size of the zone of quiet is related to the frequency being controlled. In general, the radius of the sphere of quiet, will be roughly
one-tenth the wavelength of the sound. At 200 Hz, the radius of the sphere of quiet is 6 inches. It is possible to enlarge the zone of quiet by a number
of techniques including using multiple microphones. However, if the frequency were 2,000 Hz, the zone of quiet would be too small to be practical.
Although ANC has its limitations, it can be very effective for controlling low -frequency noise typical of turboprop aircraft. An ANC system for the Beech
King Air provides up to 12 dB spatially averaged reduction in the propeller-induced noise, producing dramatic subjective improvements in passenger
and crew comfort
Turbo fans:
Most turbofan engines have two rotating spools (N1 and N2). Together, they create a composite vibration at the frequencies related to
the spools’ rotating frequencies, N1 and N2.
Business jet applications typically have fan speeds of 175 Hz and a high-pressure compressor speed of 433 Hz. At these speeds, any
eccentricity or tolerance differential in the shafts or bearings, as well as mass imbalance, will result in unbalance forces in the engine
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and engine casing vibrations. Larger aircraft applications have slower fan speeds (i.e.: Boeing 737~ 85Hz, 757~ 60Hz, and 767~
50Hz).
Through controls in the manufacture of the engine this unbalance can be minimized, but not eliminated.
Balancing of the engine low -speed-shaft (N1) after engine assembly is possible to correct and minimize vibration due to unbalance of
the shaft, however, this is not possible for the high-speed shaft (N2).
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3. OIL ANALYSIS:
With a single glance, even the most inexperienced eye can distinguish between fresh and used engine oil. But examine a sample of used oil carefully
in the laboratory, and it will reveal a detailed snapshot of the engine's overall health.
Is a bearing wearing down and shedding alloy fragments?
Has corrosion penetrated the engine; creating ferrous oxide particles?
Has somebody dropped a wire into the crankcase; an intruder which has since been shredded into surface-destroying shards?
With the right analysis used lubricating oil will bear witness to these and other signs of engine problems.
Given that it costs about $40 to test an engine oil sample, oil analysis is a very inexpensive way to find problems before they become serious and
costly.
Beyond providing immediate engine health snapshots, periodic oil analysis can help mechanics track a given engine's wear and tear over time.
Such information can be especially helpful in spotting friction-caused wear soon after it begins, and in identifying potentially catastrophic failures long
before they occur.
It can also be useful in deciding whether an engine can be maintained based on its TBO schedule, or sent in for an early overhaul to keep it healthy.
One caution: To round out the picture, aircraft mechanics also need to periodically open and inspect used oil filters; and inspect the suction screen for
debris as well.
By doing so, they'll get a detailed look at what's happening inside the engine and early warnings that could result in equipment-saving preventative
maintenance.
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3.5. Powerful preventative and diagnostic tool:
Benefits of oil analysis are there, but are difficult to quantify. Oil testing might trigger a maintenance action that may cost $50,000 if the problem is
caught in time, versus $1 million if it's not.
In fact, oil analysis is a very valuable aid in the never-ending process of monitoring engines during their operational life spans. Coupled with oil filter
and suction screen inspections, oil analysis gives mechanics an opportunity to identify and remedy problems before they become serious.
Timely preventative maintenance doesn't just ease the drain on a client's wallet. In these tight economic times, preventing costly engine failures and
AOG incidents could help thinly budgeted operators stay in business; thus keeping their mechanics employed as well.
This is why oil analysis is such an important part of engine maintenance.
When used as part of a consistent, conscientious oil replacement program - in league with oil filter and suction screen inspections - oil analysis can
truly help engines last longer, run better, and make a positive contribution to their owners' bottom lines.
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IV. INSPECTION OF ENGINE AND COMPONENTS TO CRITERIA, TOLERANCES AND DATA SPECIFIED BY ENGINE
MANUFACTURER
The components of the engine such as compressors, combustion sections and turbines, have special characteristics and the specific forms of defects can
only be found in the relevant Maintenance Manual.
1. COMPRESSORS:
Inspections must be systematic, not confined to single stages and always preceded by a comprehensive external visual examination.
The most common form of damage to compressors is FOD. Typically, FOD is an aviation term used to describe both the damage done to aircraft by
foreign objects, and the foreign objects themselves
If any damage is found on compressor blades, its position on the blade will determine its seriousness. It is usual for the inner one-third of the blade to
be classified as a 'no damage allowable' area, as are the areas on each side of mid-span shrouds.
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Compressor blades which have mid-span shrouds (or clappered blades) are sometimes subject to wear at the point where the end of each shroud
abuts its neighbour.
On 1st stage LP or fan blades this wear is recognised and can be measured by taking up the total free play of the whole stage, by moving half the
blades clockwise about their mounting pins and the other half anti-clockwise; this leaves a gap between one pair of blades which represents total
shroud wear.
Of course, this procedure will not be suitable for other than fans or 1st and maybe 2nd, stage LP blades. Inspection of mid-span shroud wear is
confined to a close and clear view of abutting shrouds. Shrouds which are wearing may be recognised by:
Metallic streaking from the join;
A wavy, uneven join line;
Hammering (which is where the abutting faces deform, like chisel shafts under the effects of frequent hammer blows).
Whatever damage is found on compressor blades, its position on the blade will determine its seriousness. It is usual for the inner one-third of the blade
to be classified as a 'no damage allowable' area, as are the areas on each side of mid-span shrouds.
2. COMBUSTION SECTION:
High temperature is the reason for most combustion section defects. The flame tubes or liners, burner flares and swirlers, tube interconnectors and the
Nozzle Guide Vanes leading edges are normally inspectable with a borescope.
High temperature is the reason for most combustion section defects. Burning, cracking, distortion and erosion of nozzle guide vanes (NGVs) are
typical. The combustion section may be inspected with an borescope either through the designated access ports or through the igniter plug holes or
burner apertures. The components visible depend, of course, upon engine design and the position of the access ports, but the flame tubes or liners,
burner flares and swirlers, tube interconnectors and the NGV leading edges are normally inspectable.
NOTE:
In the combustion section, all defects must be assessed on the basis of the likelihood of the defect causing a breakaway of material. This could
lead to greater damage occurring in the turbine.
2.1. Burners:
The burners may develop carbon deposits.
The burners protrude into the forward face of the flame tube/liner through an aperture which is usually flared; this is sometimes called the burner flare.
The burner must be concentric with this flare otherwise a loose flare or burner should be suspected. In an annular combustion chamber, the burners
and flares are separated by blank segments and these must be secure.
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The burners may develop carbon deposits, which can be in the form of an irregularlyshaped protuberance from the burner face. In some engines this
has a detrimental effect on starting, but when it breaks off it rarely causes any damage because it is usually soft. Hard carbon, however, can block the
burner spray nozzle but does not grow large enough to cause break-off damage.
2.2. Swirlers:
All elements belonging to Swirlers (or swirl vanes) should be inspected for cracks.
Swirlers (or swirl vanes) should be inspected for security and missing elements. All components should be inspected for cracks.
a) Cracks.
These start at holes or edges and may stop when they reach another hole or edge.
Circumferential cracks can be more serious than axial cracks as they can result in pieces breaking off under the effect of airflow and flame
impingement.
Cracks around dilution chutes (scoops or nozzles into the airstream) are usually considered to be serious, since any distortion of the chute may
create hot-spots which will accelerate deterioration and may cause torching of the flame onto the air casing.
b) Distortion.
Usually, defined limits give the allowable amount of distortion into the airstream and the length of cracks associated with it.
The manufacture of a flame tube normally includes sections which overlap each other; these overlaps allow cooling air to flow near the surface of
the tube. The sections are joined by a 'wigglestrip' (corrugated spacer) which allows air to flow through the overlap.
The wigglestrips should be inspected for security because the welds can fail, causing distortion of the strips into the airstream of the tube. Limits for
this damage are measured in numbers of adjacent or total wigglestrip pitches affected.
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d) Holes.
These can be caused in three ways:
pieces breaking off,
cracks allowing a section of metal to be lifted off and
burning through.
Holes in a flame tube/liner need not be a reason to reject an engine. However, the turbine should be inspected if the hole was caused other than by
burning through.
Carbon deposits produced at the burner can sometimes be mistaken for holes as the carbon is an intense black; the angle of view of the suspected
hole should be changed if any doubt exists. If the suspected hole is a carbon deposit no detail of the edge of the 'hole' will be visible, neither will
any detail through the 'hole'.
a) Discoloration.
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Slight discoloration is nearly always present and is not necessarily a defect. Heavy discoloration, however, is associated with burning.
b) Cracks.
These are allowable to a limited extent but if associated with lifting of the surface from the original contour they are not acceptable.
Cracks are either axial (from leading edge to trailing edge) or radial (vertical) and their allowable length will depend on their direction; those which
converge or are in convex surfaces may well necessitate engine rejection.
e) Tearing.
Tearing can occur in trailing edges and is allowable only within defined limits.
3. TURBINE SECTION:
Turbine blades are subject to the same types of damage and defects as Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGVs).
Trailing edge cracks can propagate quite quickly due to tearing forces imposed by centrifugal force and the twist of the blade and these cracks are not
normally allowable.
Dents on aerofoil surfaces of hollow turbine blades can initiate cracks on the cooling-air passage wall inside the aerofoil section which can propagate
to form quite large internal cracks before breaking through and becoming visible.
Access for the borescope inspection of turbine blades is either through the ports provided or sometimes through the igniter plugs holes using a flexible
borescope (flexiscope).
For this, a holding tool can be made which is fed through the igniter plug hole and fixed.
The flexiscope is then inserted and the holding tool guides the tip through the NGVs to view the blades.
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Note:
When viewing the aerofoil surface of a turbine blade, the end of the probe is located between the blades and must be withdrawn prior to engine
rotation to avoid damaging the probe and blades.
Turbine blades are subject to the same types of damage and defects as NGVs.
The limits for such damage are, however, more stringent. Blades can have some leading edge damage and cracking but still remain in service; trailing
edge cracks, however, can propagate quite quickly due to tearing forces imposed by centrifugal force and the twist of the blade and these cracks are
not normally allowable.
Dents on aerofoil surfaces of hollow turbine blades can initiate cracks on the cooling-air passage wall inside the aerofoil section which can propagate
to form quite large internal cracks before breaking through and becoming visible.
4. RECORD OF DAMAGE:
When damage is found it must be recorded in the engine records.
This is the case whether the inspection was routine or a special one. Increases in crack length, for instance, can then be assessed over a period of
time, thus giving time to arrange for repairs or removal.
Some operators have introduced inspection sheets for use when carrying out routine and special inspections. The sheets detail the preparation work
necessary before inspection and also include drawings which depict blades or flame tubes; engineers then mark in observed defects and identify the
drawings accordingly.
These representations of the internal state of each engine then form part of the engine’s records and can be used in future assessments of damage
and the growth of existing damage. Photographic records may also be kept, using a still camera or video tape recording.
The Maintenance Manual will sometimes define a defect as acceptable for a finite number of flying hours or cycles.
Engineers should, therefore, ensure that additional entries are made in log books and/or technical logs to limit engine operation to the periods allowed.
If, however, inspection reveals that different defects exist which are related, each with a finite allowable number of flying hours, the engineer should
consider certifying such defects as allowable only for a shorter time than the most restrictive of the allowances given.
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1. GENERAL:
As gas turbines have become bigger in output, with higher air mass flow and larger dimensions in air inlet conduits, experience with on line
compressor washing has shown the need to improve the penetration and distribution of droplets into and across the air inlet stream to achieve uniform
wetting of compressor vane surfaces.
Gas turbines have become bigger and bigger, and the need for regular on line compressor washing is maintained in the competitive merchant plant
environment.
Compressor washers create a uniform distribution of very small water droplets under low operating pressure, and enables good wetting and cleaning
of first row vanes.
However, as gas turbine output has grown, mass flow has increased along with machine diameters and overall dimensions of the air inlet system. As a
result it has been found that the droplets cannot penetrate across the air inlet stream so easily, and are instead deflected in their mid-course
trajectories. This reduces the efficiency of wetting the blades, and reduces the effectiveness of on line cleaning.
The challenge, then, was to develop a nozzle which would allow droplets in the same small size range to penetrate much further into and across the
air stream, and thereby provide more effective wetting of the blade surfaces.
The risk of compressor blade erosion is greatly reduced due to very low total mass flow, small droplet size range, and optimised positioning of nozzles
upstream and downstream of the bell mouth.
2. DETAILED STUDY:
2.1. Introduction:
In the late 70s performance loss as the result of compressor fouling was generally regarded as a necessary evil inherent in the operation of gas
turbines.
Little was done about it apart from shutting the machine down from time to time to carry out a time consuming and laborious crank-soak compressor
washing or other cleaning procedures to restore lost performance.
However, with the popular resurgence of the gas turbine as an industrial prime mover over the past decades, serious interest in the problem of lost
performance and increased fuel consumption caused by fouling has led to the development of so-called 'on-line' or 'fired wash' compressor cleaning
systems.
The objective of these systems being to chemically clean the compressor while the engine remains in operation at up to full speed and load in order to
extend the output for longer and avoid increase in heat rate and subsequent increases in fuel consumption.
In reality, the number of companies and individuals that have been seriously involved in the development of fired wash systems over the years are
few and far between.
However, since the process has, of recent, gained the official blessing of some major gas turbine manufacturers, there has been a sudden proliferation
of system suppliers and even more running wash chemical suppliers - who, in many cases, may have scant knowledge or experience of the fired wash
process and the gas turbines to which it is being applied.
If done properly, fired washing can be a very safe and successful method of keeping gas turbines running more efficiently and the process is being
constantly improved and perfected and is, without doubt, here to stay as more and more gas turbine manufacturers offer running wash systems as a
standard fit or recommended option.
However, it can also be a dangerous process if injection systems or chemicals are incorrectly designed, fitted or used and operators should be
cautious when selecting any on-line cleaning system.
2.3. Questions to ask about the injection system when selecting an on-line cleaning system:
How long has vendor been in the business?
An installation reference list?
Is the system known to engine manufacturers Do they approve it or have no objection to its installation and use?
Is the system a recommended option or installed as standard in new gas turbines by any manufacturers/packagers?
Does the vendor design, manufacture, install service and guarantee the system himself (If not, why not)?
Are the materials of the system of good quality?
How long does the vendor say it should take to install the system. Some can take a few hours to install, others can take weeks to install if it
involves drilling thick casting etc.?
Is the design safe?
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Could it possibly damage the engine or injure those using it?
Does the vendor have sufficient liability insurance?
Since on-line washing has rather suddenly come into vogue even though deep rooted knowledge and experience of the process is known to relatively
few system supplier and operators it is hoped that this paper will be of sound practical help to those operators who would like to adopt online chemical
washing procedures but who are unfamiliar with the concept.
2.4. Questions to ask about the chemicals when selecting an on-line cleaning system:
Does the vendor also manufacture special cleaning chemicals for use with the system and are they tried, tested and approved was the
chemical on offer solely developed for on-line cleaning or was it originally developed for some other application not connected with gas
turbines.
Does the vendor offer a choice of chemicals (i.e. solvent based and water based) to suit particular fouling and/or environmental
requirements.
Is the chemical supplied as a concentrate to save storage and transportation costs. Paying for water in ready-to-use chemical solutions can
be very expensive and unnecessary.
Can the chemical offered also be used safely and effectively for off-line compressor washing if need be.
Does the vendor offer ex-warehouse availability of chemical.
If the vendor only supplies chemicals are you sure it is safe to use them in your injection system.
Recommendation: Be very wary of using any chemical especially for on-line. fired washing, unless it has been property tested and approved and has a
good long term safety record behind it.
2.6. Costs:
2.6.1. On day to day operating costs:
Higher fuel costs due to increased heat rate.
Reduction in power output & loss of related production revenue.
Use of more expensive external power supplies to make up shortfall.
2.6.3. On safety:
Possibility of compressor stall & subsequent engine damage.
Possibility of rotor imbalance, vibration and catastrophic breakup.
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2.7. Compressor fouling and washing of compressors:
There are many sources of compressor fouling but the worst and the most common is the ingestion of oily vapors which can readily pass through
filtration systems.
Passage of oily vapors through filtration system.
Ingestion of oily vapors through breaches in air inlet plenum.
Leakage of oil from oil-bath type filtration systems.
Passage of very fine particulate matter through breaches in plenum.
Re-ingestion of exhaust gasses through filtration system & breaches in air inlet plenum casing.
Ingestion of saturated salt droplets or salt crystals through filters and/or breaches in plenum casings.
Ingestion of seasonal tree and plant gums.
Ingestion of wide variety of chemicals & other pollutants generated at the site of gas turbine operation.
Typically these oily vapors are the catalyst to compressor fouling in most cases.
After re-starting the gas turbine with a clean, dry compressor a film of oily/greasy deposit can build up rapidly on the compressor airfoils (roughly in the
first third of the compressor) and this forms a perfect 'fly-trap' to catch and absorb dry particulate matter which would otherwise have passed
harmlessly through the compressor.
In more than 20 years of designing and developing compressor cleaning systems the writer has observed that classic compressor fouling - particularly
in polluted industrial environments - is basically a three phase affair.
First, there is the laying down of the oily film and the rapid absorption and entrapment of dry particulates. This can occur within days or even
hours after restarting a cleaned engine and
there can be a substantial reduction in output in a relatively short period of time.
Next, there is a slowing down of performance loss as the surface deposit gradually dries and the rate of fouling decreases.
Finally, there is a relatively long phase of slow decline over a period of weeks or even months followed by a further sharp decline as the
aerodynamic tolerance of the compressor
decreases and/or the surface deposit once more becomes sticky with more oily residues.
A finger nail scratch into the apparent dry, carbonaceous surface deposit on the bell mouth struts of many a compressor is almost sure to reveal the
initial oily substrate that was laid down shortly after the cleaned engine was put back into
service.
In general, one could say with confidence that compressor fouling would be much diminished if all traces of oil and grease could be prevented from
entering the compressor and in this regard close attention to the complete integrity of the air inlet
plenum after the filters is strongly recommended since even small breaches can allow inordinately large quantities of unfiltered vapors and particulates
to pass freely into the compressor.
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Since it is almost impossible to prevent some degree of compressor fouling the logical approach is to try and find a way of controlling and reducing the
rate of fouling and ultimately to control it to a point that it does not affect performance at all.
This means regular compressor cleaning on a sufficiently frequent basis to prevent any meaningful amounts of deposit from building up between each
wash and that could mean once per day or once per week depending on operating circumstances.
The answer is no but of the other available choices it may be the most efficient, safe and practical on-line procedure.
The first alternative - and probably as old as the gas turbine itself - is abrasive cleaning using a variety of crushed nutshells or carbon-based pellets
but in general this method is impractical for most modern gas turbines because, among other problems and drawbacks, the abrasive medium can
damage coatings and plug turbine cooling holes with possible catastrophic results.
The second alternative to on-line chemical cleaning is on-line plain water washing which has been advocated by some as a cheap solution with the
apparent simplistic argument that water must be inexpensive and chemical must be expensive.
This would, of course, be the perfect solution if all compressor fouling was water-soluable and the water used was virtually free of all dissolved and
suspended solids so as to avoid corroding the engine in the process of trying to clean it.
Unfortunately, compressor fouling is rarely, if ever, of a water-soluble nature and good quality pure water is not always easy to come by and many a
gas turbine has been badly corroded by poor attention to water quality particularly when applied to a hot engine.
Water washing should not be confused with the use of so called water-based or aqueous chemicals. Generally, water-based chemicals are formulated
from various types of surfactants (surface acting agents) and corrosion inhibitors with water being in the majority (between about 80 and 98%
depending on the brand) as the carrying agent.
Some of the new formula water-based materials (some using very pure food-grade surfactants) are quite effective at breaking down stubborn
oily/greasy deposits so are proving quite successful even for fired-washing but are particularly attractive for off-line washing because of their high
biodegradability factor which makes the disposal of the waste chemical a lot easier.
There are now a number of water-based chemicals on the market for on-line washing but to the authors knowledge there is only one generally
recognised and approved solvent-based material available worldwide for on-line compressor cleaning and this material is 'FYREWASH SB' which has
been produced by his company, Rochem, in it's current formulation for almost 20 years.
In more recent years a water-based formula 'FYREWASH WB' has also been added to the range and either material can be used in the patented
FYREWASH injection system.
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1. GENERAL:
With the aircraft "flying together" with other moving elements in air (birds...), collision risks exist; this risk is called "aircraft risk". It is in the airports
surroundings, during take off or landing, that the collision risks are the highest.
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For this reason the airport authorities often implemented various and varied systems to try to move away the birds from the surroundings of the
runways for takeoff and landing.
Another preventive measure used by some operators consists in painting a white spiral on the black cone of the air intake of the turbojet, the rotation
of the engine producing a visual effect which can frighten some birds.
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As in any collision, the total mass of the foreign matter is a significant factor of extended damage: a sparrow compared to a wild goose striking an
engine will certainly not produce the same effects. But the impact speed is an even more significant factor.
Remember that kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass concerned and directly proportional to the square of the speed.
Thus, it happens that in known areas of high risk (zone and period of migrations for example), the operators limit their speeds of climb to 250 knots
instead of the usual 320 or 340 knots, in order to reduce the seriousness of a collision.
When an aircraft is in its phase of takeoff or landing, its flaps or slats as well as its trailing edge flaps are more or less extended; its landing gear
deployed. During these phases of flight, it can be said that the aircraft has a profile which exposes it more to the collisions with birds than in flight
during cruising.
During takeoff, the high lift devices are less deployed than for the landing, the collision risk is thus theoretically less.
On the other hand, the engines turn at full power and the intake of several birds by an engine could create serious damage requiring the aircraft to
land immediately.
During landing, all the high-lift devices are deployed, as well as the air-brakes and the landing gear. The current high-lift flaps are often made up of two
or three successive elements which fit into each other during their retraction in the lower-surface. The crew retracts these devices as soon as the
landing is finished
If the crew announced a possible collision with one or more moving elements during landing, the technician inspecting the aircraft must redeploy these
high-lift devices and other devices, in order to have a visual inspection of all the areas exposed to the risk.
Upon a crew report, the technician must specify the exact configuration of the aircraft at the time of the supposed collision:
during climb?,
during approach?,
landing gears deployed?,
This having been specified, if the collision is due to birds, the technician will follow the procedures planned in chapter 5 of the Maintenance Manual.
These procedures are often confused with those which are planned for a "hail strike".
The traces of impact being generally very visible (traces of blood, feathers) this type of inspection is however easier.
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2. DETAILED STUDY:
2.1. Background:
Foreign object damage presents a serious airworthiness threat to any aircraft not to mention the economic impact on the operator. In extreme cases,
FOD can lead to an accident and loss of life.
FOD damage to airframes and engines can be extremely expensive to rectify and may result in the aircraft being removed from revenue service for
significant periods of time.
There are numerous reports on record of FOD damage to engines (in particular rotating assemblies), nose and main landing gear assemblies and
aircraft structure.
Recent audits of airports, including a 10-month study at one major UK international airport, have revealed that a continuing threat exists from varying
amounts of FOD present on aircraft maintenance areas and airport-manoeuvring areas, including stands, aircraft taxiways and runways.
The study showed the aircraft themselves as the main cause of FOD on the runway and this poses the highest immediate risk.
Here, parts of aircraft become detached or tools and equipment, inadvertently left in the aircraft fall out during take off or landing. The largest item
found on a runway was a wheel chock but metal panels and honeycomb structure were also amongst the larger items.
The FOD found on taxiways and stands came mainly from airport vehicles and the equipment they tow such as baggage trolleys, steps, cargo
equipment etc.
The size and shape of some of this FOD makes it likely to cause tyre damage and subsequent tyre burst. The cleaning of aircraft cabins and the
transfer of waste from cabin to airside rubbish containers is also seen to be a common source of FOD in the stand areas.
Other typical FOD consists of such items as oil cans, spanners, pliers, engineers torches, suitcase items (both internal and external), mobile radios,
aircraft catering equipment, cutlery, landing gear ground lock pins, thrust reverser lock-out pins and broken parts of ground servicing
equipment/vehicles.
Smaller items could be ingested by an engine. In many cases, FOD damage to engine rotating assemblies has led to vibration leading to air turn-
backs, diversions and subsequent engine replacement.
Borescope inspections of engines following reports of engine surging very often reveal internal damage to the engine – such damage can of course be
very expensive to repair. Typically, damage to the aircraft can range from damage to horizontal stabilizer leading edges to pressure hull penetration by
objects thrown up from the runway, to varying degrees of damage to landing gear assemblies and main-planes.
It is not unusual for tyre treads (nose and main) to detach as a result of FOD damage during take-off and landing causing damage to the fuselage,
wings, trailing edge flaps, lift dumpers, engine intakes and compressors.
Tyre tread detachment often occurs within several takeoffs / landings of an earlier penetration of the tread by an item of FOD. It is known that in some
cases aircraft have been lost due to FOD damage to tyre assemblies and has lead to significant loss of life.
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