12

General Physics I
Quarter I – Module 4:

Motion in Two and Three

Dimensions

Author:
NOVE LHEEN C. TAGUICANA
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:

Welcome to the General Physics I Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module

on Relative Motion in 2- and 3- Dimensions!

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by

educators both from public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher or
facilitator in helping the learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum
while overcoming their personal, social, and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and
independent learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also
aims to help learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into
consideration their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the
body of the module:

Note to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies
that will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator, you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them
to manage their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and
assist the learners as they do the tasks included in the module.

For the learner:

Welcome to the Mathematics Grade 12 Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM)

Module 4: Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

The hand is one of the most symbolized parts of the human body. It is often
used to depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create
and accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a
learner is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant
competencies and skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in
your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You
will be enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an
active learner.
This module has the following parts with their corresponding icons:

This will give you an idea of the skills or

What I Need to competencies you are expected to learn
Know in the module.

This part includes an activity that aims

to check what you already know about
What I Know
the lesson to take. If you get all the
answers correctly, you may decide to
skip this module.

This is a brief drill or review to help you

link the current lesson with the
What’s In
previous one.

In this portion, the new lesson will be

introduced to you in various ways such
What’s New
as a story, a song, a poem, a problem
opener, an activity or a situation.

This section provides a brief discussion

of the lesson. This aims to help you
What is It
discover and understand new concepts
and skills.

This comprises activities for

independent practice to strengthen
What’s More
your understanding and skills of the
topic. You may check the answers in
the exercises using the Answer Key at
the end of the module.

This includes questions or open-ended

What I Have statements to be filled in to process
Learned what you learned from the lesson.

This section provides an activity which

will help you transfer your new
What I Can Do
knowledge or skill into real life
situations.

This is a task which aims to evaluate

your level of mastery in achieving the
Assessment
learning competency.

In this portion, another activity will be

Additional given to you to enrich your knowledge
Activities or skill of the lesson learned. This also
develops retention of learned concepts.

This contains answers to all activities in

 Answer Key the module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in

developing this module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of
the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instructions carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your
answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain a deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!
iii
Pre-Assessment

Find out how much you already know about the topics in this module.
Choose the letter of the best answer. Take note of the items that you were
not able to answer correctly and find the right answer as you go through
this module.

1. Which of the following is the path of a body as it travels through

space?
A. average velocity C. reference frame
B. range D. trajectory

2. Which of the following situations leads to the maximum height of the

projectile?
A. When the projectile has an instantaneous speed
B. When the projectile reaches a vertical velocity of zero
C. When the horizontal displacement of the projectile is zero
D. All of the above

3. Which of the following is also called the range of the projectile?

A. horizontal displacement
B. reference frame
C. trajectory
D. vertical displacement

4. An object launched into projectile motion will have an initial launch

angle from how many degrees?
A. 0-10 only
B. 0-45 only
C. 0-90
D. 90-180

5. Which of the following is TRUE for a zero launch angle?

A. There is no vertical component in the final velocity.
B. There is no horizontal component in the initial velocity.
C. There is a high vertical component in the initial velocity.
D. There is no vertical component in the initial velocity.

6. What dictates the range, height, and time of flight the object will
experience while in projectile motion?
A. angle of launch C. horizontal direction
B. final velocity D. trajectory
7. When do we say that an object is accelerating?
A. if it is changing its speed
B. if it is changing its velocity
C. if it is changing its displacement
D. if it is changing its reference frame
8. Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is accelerating if
he/she is moving fast. Which is TRUE about this situation?
A. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going fast.
B. A person can be moving very fast and still not be accelerating.
C. Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an object is moving. If an
object is not changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating
D. All of the above
9. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about the data below?
A. The data at the right are representative of a northward-
moving decelerating object.
B. The velocity is not changing over the course of time.
C. The velocity is changing by a constant amount - 10 m/s -
in each second of time.
D. All of the above
10.What is the acceleration for the following?
A. 1 m/s2
B. 2 m/s2
C. 3 m/s2
D. No acceleration

11.What is the acceleration for the following?

A. -1 m/s2
B. 2 m/s2
C. -2 m/s2
 D. No acceleration

12. Which of the following is a section of a spiral in which the

radius is constantly changing?
A. clothoid C. trajectory
B. time of flight D. vertical displacement
13. Even though the speed of a particle moving in uniform circular
motion is constant, the moving particle is ___________.
A. accelerating C. decelerating
B. constant D. all of the above

For items 14-15:

An object is moving in a clockwise direction around a circle at constant speed. Use
your understanding of the concepts of velocity, acceleration and force to answer the
next five questions. Use the diagram below.

14. Which vector below represents the direction of the force vector
when the object is located at point A on the circle?

 
15. Which vector below represents the direction of the force vector
when the object is located at point C on the circle?

 
 What I Need to Know

This module was specifically developed and designed to provide you a

fun and meaningful learning experience, with your own time and pace.

The module has the lesson, namely:

● Lesson 1 – Relative Velocity
● Lesson 2 – Projectile Motion
● Lesson 3 – Uniform Circular Motion
After going through this module, you are expected to:
● Describe motion using the concept of relative velocities in 1D and 2D.
(STEM_GP12KIN-lc-20)
● Deduce the consequences of the independence of vertical and
horizontal components of projectile motion. (STEM_GP12KIN-lc-22)
● Calculate range, time of flight, and maximum heights of projectile.
(STEM_GP12KIN-lc-23)
● Infer quantities associated with circular motion such as tangential
velocity, centripetal acceleration, tangential acceleration, radius of
curvature. (STEM_GP12KIN-lc-25)
● Solve problems involving two-dimensional motion in contexts such as,
but not limited to ledge jumping, movie stunts, basketball, safe
locations during firework displays, and Ferris wheels.
(STEM_GP12KIN-lc-26)

Lesson Relative Velocity

 1

Hello there! Most objects in our universe do not move in straight lines;
rather, they follow curved paths. From kicked footballs to the flight paths of
birds to the orbital motions of celestial bodies and down to the flow of blood
plasma in your veins, most motion follows curved trajectories.

In this lesson, we learn how to describe

motions such as these.

What I Know

Directions: Answer the following questions in your activity notebook.

Task: Observe the image below.

The Red Arrows is the aerobatics display team of Britain’s Royal Air Force.
https://www.globaltimes.cn/Portals/0/attachment/2017/2017-10-
01/08733365-575a-4d6c-ba86-3d7bc845ad3e.jpeg

You can watch the aerial display on the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CrOHZxFHMTo

Question:
1.What is required for each aircraft to avoid plane crash while performing
aerial displaying?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________

What’s In

Directions: Answer the following questions in your activity notebook.

Question:
1. Explain how sailboats travel.
2. Do they travel in straight line? Elaborate your answer.

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________

What’s New

Direction: Answer what is asked.

Question:
1. If you are sitting in an airplane that is moving with a velocity of 500
mi/h toward the east, is your velocity is the same as that of the
airplane.

Answer:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________
 A frame of reference (or reference frame)
is an extended object or collection of
objects whose parts are at rest relative to
each other. We use coordinate axes that are
attached to reference frames to make
position measurements.

What is It

Motion does not happen in isolation. If you’re riding in a train moving at 10

m/s east, this velocity is measured relative to the ground on which you’re
traveling. However, if another train passes you at 15 m/s east, your velocity
relative to this other train is different from your velocity relative to the
ground. Your velocity relative to the other train is 5 m/s west. To explore this
idea further, we first need to establish some terminology.

Reference Frames
To discuss relative motion in one or more dimensions, we first
introduce the concept of reference frames. When we say an object has a
certain velocity, we must state it has a velocity with respect to a given
reference frame. In most examples we have examined so far, this reference
frame has been Earth. If you say a person is sitting in a train moving at 10
m/s east, then you imply the person on the train is moving relative to the
surface of Earth at this velocity, and Earth is the reference frame. We can
expand our view of the motion of the person on the train and say Earth is
spinning in its orbit around the Sun, in which case the motion becomes
more complicated. In this case, the solar system is the reference frame. In
summary, all discussion of relative motion must define the reference frames
involved. We now develop a method to refer to reference frames in relative
motion.

Example:
Motion of a Car Relative to a Truck
A truck is traveling south at a speed of 70 km/h toward an intersection. A
car is traveling east toward the intersection at a speed of 80 km/h ((Figure)).
What is the velocity of the car relative to the truck?

A car travels east toward an intersection while a truck travels south

toward the same intersection.
Strategy
First, we must establish the reference frame common to both vehicles,
which is Earth. Then, we write the velocities of each with respect to the
reference frame of Earth, which enables us to form a vector equation that
links the car, the truck, and Earth to solve for the velocity of the car with
respect to the truck.
Solution
Example 2:
Flying a Plane in a Wind
A pilot must fly his plane due north to reach his destination. The plane can
fly at 300 km/h in still air. A wind is blowing out of the northeast at 90 km/h. (a)
What is the speed of the plane relative to the ground? (b) In what direction must
the pilot head her plane to fly due north?
Strategy
The pilot must point her plane somewhat east of north to compensate for the
wind velocity. We need to construct a vector equation that contains the velocity of
the plane with respect to the ground, the velocity of the plane with respect to the
air, and the velocity of the air with respect to the ground. Since these last two
quantities are known, we can solve for the velocity of the plane with respect to the
ground. We can graph the vectors and use this diagram to evaluate the magnitude
of the plane’s velocity with respect to the ground. The diagram will also tell us the
angle the plane’s velocity makes with north with respect to the air, which is the
direction the pilot must head her plane.
Solution
 P = plane, A = air, and G = ground. From the geometry in the figure below,
we can solve easily for the magnitude of the velocity of the plane with respect to the
ground and the angle of the plane’s heading, θ.

● When analyzing motion of an object, the reference frame in terms of

position, velocity, and acceleration needs to be specified.
● Relative velocity is the velocity of an object as observed from a
particular reference frame, and it varies with the choice of reference
frame.
● If S and S′S′ are two reference frames moving relative to each other at a
constant velocity, then the velocity of an object relative to S is equal to
its velocity relative to S′S′ plus the velocity of S′S′ relative to S.
 ● If two reference frames are moving relative to each other at a constant
velocity, then the accelerations of an object as observed in both
reference frames are equal.

What’s More

Directions: Solve the following problems. Show your complete solutions and
encircle your final answer.
1. A propeller blade at rest starts to rotate from t = 0 s to t = 5.0 s with a
tangential acceleration of the tip of the blade at 3.00m/s2. The tip of
the blade is 1.5 m from the axis of rotation. At t = 5.0 s, what is the
total acceleration of the tip of the blade?

2. A boat heads north in still water at 4.5 m/s directly across a river that
is running east at 3.0 m/s. What is the velocity of the boat with
respect to Earth?

What I have learned

 Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. Explain the process of

midair refueling and
elaborate how of relative
velocity is applied to the
process.

2. What should be the relative

velocity of the two planes
during refueling?

What I can do

Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively:

Question:
1. A basketball player dribbling down the court usually keeps his eyes fixed
on the players around him. He is moving fast. Why doesn’t he need to keep
his eyes on the ball?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________

Assessment

Direction: Read the following questions and write the letter that best
represents your answer in your activity notebook.

1. Which of the following is a vector from the initial position to a final

position on a trajectory of a particle?
A. angular frequency C. displacement vector
B. centripetal acceleration D. position vector
2. What is the coordinate system in which the position, velocity, and
acceleration of an object at rest or moving is measured?
A. range C. trajectory
B. reference frame D. vertical displacement
3. What is the velocity of an object as observed from a particular
reference frame, or the velocity of one reference frame with respect to
another reference frame?
A. range C. relative velocity
B. reference frame D. velocity vector
4. What is the vector from the origin of a chosen coordinate system to
the position of a particle in two- or three-dimensional space?
A. displacement vector C. position vector
B. reference frame D. velocity vector
5. What is the reference frame if Earth is spinning in its orbit around the
Sun?
A. earth C. solar system
B. moon D. all of the above
6. When do we say that an object is accelerating?
E. if it is changing its speed
F. if it is changing its velocity
G. if it is changing its displacement
H. if it is changing its reference frame
 7. Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is accelerating
if he/she is moving fast. Which is TRUE about this situation?
E. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going fast.
F. A person can be moving very fast and still not be accelerating.
G. Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an object is moving.
If an object is not changing its velocity, then the object is not
accelerating
H. All of the above
8. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about the data
below?
E. The data at the right are representative of a
northward-moving decelerating object.
F. The velocity is not changing over the course of time.
G. The velocity is changing by a constant amount - 10
m/s - in each second of time.
H. All of the above
9. What is the acceleration for the following?
E. 1 m/s2
F. 2 m/s2
G. 3 m/s2
H. No acceleration

10. What is the acceleration for the following?

E. -1 m/s2
F. 2 m/s2
G. -2 m/s2
H. No acceleration

Additional Activities

Directions: Answer the following question comprehensively.

1. Explain the significance of understanding relative velocity why

airplanes take off and land on different runways on different days

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______
 Congratulations for a
Your module ends job well done.
here. Keep safe!

Answer Key

Pretest:
1. D
2. B
3. A
4. C
5. D
6. A
7. B
8. D
9. C
10. B
11. C
12. A
13. A
14. D
15. B

Lesson 1

What I Know

The pilot should perform precision flying which requires accurate

measurement of position, velocity, and acceleration in three dimensions.

What’s In

Sailboats do not travel in straight lines to their destinations, but instead

must “tack” back and forth across the wind. This boat must sail east, then
south, and then east again, in its journey to a southeastern port.
 What’s New

YES. If you are sitting in an airplane that is moving with a velocity of

500 mi/h toward the east, is your velocity is the same as that of the
airplane. This velocity might be your velocity relative to the surface of Earth,
or it might be your velocity relative to the air outside the airplane. (These
two relative velocities would be very different if the plane were flying in a jet
stream.) In addition, your velocity relative to the airplane itself is zero.

What’s More

1.

2.

What I have learned

Midair refueling offers an interesting example of relative velocity. To

refuel, the lower plane matches its velocity to that of the tanker (the larger
aircraft) and couples to the tanker’s delivery tube. During refueling, the
relative velocity of the two planes is zero.

What I can do

If he is going to pass the ball to another player, he needs to keep his

eyes on the reference frame in which the other players on the team are
located.

Assessment

1. C
2. B
3. C
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. B
10. C

Additional Activities

The importance of the relative velocity explains why airplanes

take off and land on different runways on different days. Airplanes
always try to take off and land into the wind. This requires a lower
ground speed to become airborne, which means the plane can take off
or land in the shortest distance traveled along the ground. Since
runways have a fixed length, you want to get airborne as fast as
possible on takeoff and stopped as soon as possible on landing.
References:
● Samuel J. Ling (Truman State University), Jeff Sanny (Loyola
Marymount University), and Bill Moebs with many contributing
authors. This work is licensed by OpenStax University Physics under
a Creative Commons Attribution License (by 4.0).

https://bcs.whfreeman.com/WebPub/Physics/TiplerPhysics6e/reprint-
PDFs/Tipler_Physics_6e_Chapter_3.pdf

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/4-5-
relative-motion-in-one-and-two-dimensions/

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/move.html#:~:text=The
%20importance%20of%20the%20relative,and%20land%20into%20the
%20wind.&text=Whether%20the%20object%20moves%20through,the
%20forces%20are%20the%20same.
Lesson
Projectile Motion
2

Hello there! The motion of falling objects is a simple one-dimensional type of

projectile motion in which there is no horizontal movement.

In this lesson, we consider two-

dimensional projectile motion, and our
treatment neglects the effects of air
resistance.

What I Know
Directions: Enumerate the key components that you need to remember in
order to solve projectile motion problems.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

What’s In

A kicker should know at what angle, θ, and initial velocity, vo,

he must kick the ball to make a field goal.

Question:
1.For a given kick “strength”, at what angle should the ball be kicked to get
the maximum distance?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______

What’s New

Direction: Illustrate what is being asked in the following.

Ex: A cannon ball is fired at an angle of 30º

Try This!
1. A basketball shoots a ball on a ring at an angle of 50 º

2. A baseball ball bounces off the ground at an angle of 60 º

Have you noticed that the objects thrown

by force in your illustration is called a
projectile? Let us now proceed to the next
part of this module to deepen your
knowledge about projectile motion.

What is It

The applications of projectile motion

in physics and engineering are
numerous.
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected into
the air, subject only to acceleration as a result of gravity. The path that the
object follows is called its trajectory. Projectile motion only occurs when
there is one force applied at the beginning on the trajectory, after which the
only interference is from gravity.

The key to analyzing two-dimensional projectile motion is to break it

into two motions: one along the horizontal axis and the other along the
vertical.

The figure below illustrates the notation for displacement, where we

define s⃗ to be the total displacement, and x⃗ and y⃗ are its component
vectors along the horizontal and vertical axes, respectively. The magnitudes
of these vectors are s, x, and y.

The total displacement s of a soccer ball at a point along its path. The
vector s⃗ has components x⃗ and y⃗ along the horizontal and vertical
axes. Its magnitude is s and it makes an angle ϕ with the horizontal.

An illustration of a soccer player kicking a ball. The soccer player’s

foot is at the origin of an x y coordinate system. The trajectory of the soccer
ball and its location at 6 instants in time are shown. The trajectory is a
parabola. The vector s is the displacement from the origin to the final
position of the soccer ball. Vector s and its x and y components form a right
triangle, with s as the hypotenuse and an angle phi between the x axis and
s.

● If the same object is launched at the same initial velocity, the height
and time of flight will increase proportionally to the initial launch
angle.
● Objects that are projected from and land on the same horizontal
surface will have a vertically symmetrical path.
 ● For the zero launch angle, there is no vertical component in the initial
velocity.
● The time it takes from an object to be projected and land is called the
time of flight. It depends on the initial velocity of the projectile and the
angle of projection.
● The maximum height of the projectile is when the projectile reaches
zero vertical velocity. From this point the vertical component of the
velocity vector will point downwards.
● The horizontal displacement of the projectile is called the range of the
projectile and depends on the initial velocity of the object.
● If an object is projected at the same initial speed, but two
complementary angles of projection, the range of the projectile will be
the same.

What are the Key Components of Projectile Motion?

The key components that we need to remember in order to solve

projectile motion problems are:

● Initial launch angle, θ

● Initial velocity, u
● Time of flight, T
● Acceleration, a
● Horizontal velocity, vx
● Vertical velocity, vy
● Displacement, d
● Maximum height, H
● Range, R

Time of Flight, Trajectory, and Range

Of interest are the time of flight, trajectory, and range for a projectile
launched on a flat horizontal surface and impacting on the same surface.

Initial Velocity

The initial velocity can be expressed as x components and y

components:
 In this equation, u stands for initial velocity magnitude and θ refers to
projectile angle.

Time of Flight

The time of flight of a projectile motion is the time from when the
object is projected to the time it reaches the surface. T depends on the initial
velocity magnitude and the angle of the projectile:

Acceleration

In projectile motion, there is no acceleration in the horizontal

direction. The acceleration, aa, in the vertical direction is just due to gravity,
also known as free fall:

Velocity

The horizontal velocity remains constant, but the vertical velocity

varies linearly, because the acceleration is constant. At any time, t, the
velocity is:

You can also use the Pythagorean Theorem to find velocity:

Displacement

At time, t, the displacement components are:

The equation for the magnitude of the displacement is

Parabolic Trajectory

We can use the displacement equations in the x and y direction to

obtain an equation for the parabolic form of a projectile motion:

Maximum Height

The maximum height is reached when vy=0. Using this we can

rearrange the velocity equation to find the time it will take for the object to
reach maximum height

where th stands for the time it takes to reach maximum height. From the
displacement equation we can find the maximum height

Range

The range of the motion is fixed by the condition y=0. Using this we

can rearrange the parabolic motion equation to find the range of the motion:
 The range is directly proportional to the square of the initial speed
v0 and sin2 θ0, and it is inversely proportional to the acceleration of gravity.
Thus, on the Moon, the range would be six times greater than on Earth for
the same initial velocity. Furthermore, we see from the factor sin 2 θ0 that the
range is maximum at 45°. These results are shown below.

In (a) we see that the greater the initial velocity, the greater the range.
In (b), we see that the range is maximum at 45°. This is true only for
conditions neglecting air resistance. If air resistance is considered, the
maximum angle is somewhat smaller. It is interesting that the same range is
found for two initial launch angles that sum to 90°. The projectile launched
with the smaller angle has a lower apex than the higher angle, but they both
have the same range.

Trajectories of projectiles on level ground.

 (a) The greater the initial speed v 0, the greater the range for a given initial
angle.
(b) The effect of initial angle on the range of a projectile with a given
initial speed. Note that the range is the same for initial angles of 15°
and 75°, although the maximum heights of those paths are different.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Projectile Motion

1. Resolve the motion into horizontal and vertical components along the
x- and y-axes. The magnitudes of the components of
displacement s⃗ → along these axes are x and y. The magnitudes of
the components of velocity v⃗  are vx = vcosθ and vy = vsinθ, where v is
the magnitude of the velocity and θ is its direction relative to the
horizontal.
2. Treat the motion as two independent one-dimensional motions: one
horizontal and the other vertical. Use the kinematic equations for
horizontal and vertical motion presented earlier.
3. Solve for the unknowns in the two separate motions: one horizontal
and one vertical. Note that the only common variable between the
motions is time t. The problem-solving procedures here are the same
as those for one-dimensional kinematics and are illustrated in the
following solved examples.
4. Recombine quantities in the horizontal and vertical directions to find
the total displacement s⃗  and velocity v⃗ . Solve for the magnitude
and direction of the displacement and velocity using
 (a) We analyze two-dimensional projectile motion by breaking it
into two independent one-dimensional motions along the
vertical and horizontal axes.
(b) The horizontal motion is simple, because a x = 0 and vx is a
constant.
(c) The velocity in the vertical direction begins to decrease as the
object rises. At its highest point, the vertical velocity is zero.
As the object falls toward Earth again, the vertical velocity
increases again in magnitude but points in the opposite
direction to the initial vertical velocity.
(d) The x and y motions are recombined to give the total velocity
at any given point on the trajectory.

Example Problem 1:
Calculating Projectile Motion- Tennis Player

A tennis player wins a match at the stadium and hits a ball into the stands
at 30 m/s and at an angle 45° above the horizontal. On its way down, the
ball is caught by a spectator 10 m above the point where the ball was hit. (a)
Calculate the time it takes the tennis ball to reach the spectator. (b) What
are the magnitude and direction of the ball’s velocity at impact?

The trajectory of a tennis ball hit into the stands.

Strategy

Again, resolving this two-dimensional motion into two independent one-

dimensional motions allows us to solve for the desired quantities. The time a
projectile is in the air is governed by its vertical motion alone. Thus, we solve
for t first. While the ball is rising and falling vertically, the horizontal motion
continues at a constant velocity. This example asks for the final velocity.
Thus, we recombine the vertical and horizontal results to obtain v⃗  at final
time t, determined in the first part of the example.

Solution

a. While the ball is in the air, it rises and then falls to a final
position 10.0 m higher than its starting altitude. We can find
the time for this by using

If we take the initial position y0 to be zero, then the final position is y = 10

m. The initial vertical velocity is the vertical component of the initial velocity:
Substituting into Equation for y gives us

Rearranging terms gives a quadratic equation in t:

Use of the quadratic formula yields t = 3.79 s and t = 0.54 s. Since the ball
is at a height of 10 m at two times during its trajectory—once on the way up
and once on the way down—we take the longer solution for the time it takes
the ball to reach the spectator:

The time for projectile motion is determined completely by the vertical

motion. Thus, any projectile that has an initial vertical velocity of 21.2 m/s
and lands 10.0 m above its starting altitude spends 3.79 s in the air.

b. We can find the final horizontal and vertical velocities v x and vy with the
use of the result from (a). Then, we can combine them to find the magnitude
of the total velocity vector v⃗ and the angle θ it makes with the horizontal.
Since vx is constant, we can solve for it at any horizontal location. We choose
the starting point because we know both the initial velocity and the initial
angle. Therefore,

The final vertical velocity is given by Equation 

Since v0y was found in part (a) to be 21.2 m/s, we have

The magnitude of the final velocity v⃗  is

The direction θv is found using the inverse tangent:

Significance

As mentioned earlier, the time for projectile motion is determined

completely by the vertical motion. Thus, any projectile that has an initial
vertical velocity of 21.2 m/s and lands 10.0 m above its starting altitude
spends 3.79 s in the air.

The negative angle means the velocity is 53.1° below the horizontal at
the point of impact. This result is consistent with the fact that the ball is
impacting at a point on the other side of the apex of the trajectory and
therefore has a negative y component of the velocity. The magnitude of the
velocity is less than the magnitude of the initial velocity we expect since it is
impacting 10.0 m above the launch elevation.

What’s More

Directions: Solve the following problems. Show your complete solutions and
encircle your final answer.

1. A marble was thrown horizontally on a floor at 5m/s.

a. How fast is it moving 0.5 s later?
 b. In what direction is it moving?
c. What is the horizontal displacement or range of the dart?

2. A student kicked a ball with a velocity of 18m/s at an angle of 60°

above the floor.
a. What will be the time of flight?
b. What is the maximum height reached?

What I have learned

Directions: Below is an exit ticket. After engaging in problems

involving projectile motion, answer the following questions comprehensively.

1.If you are to help the following athlete to win a sport, what will you
recommend to them as you apply what you’ve learned about projectile
motion?
a. basketball player
b. javelin thrower
c. baseball player

What I can do

Directions:
1. Write a brief reflection on how projectile motion
is helpful in your daily life. Include practical
examples that you are doing as you apply
projectile motion. Write your reflection questions
in your activity notebook.
 Assessment

Direction: Read the following questions and write the letter that best
represents your answer in your activity notebook.

1. What is the time it takes from an object to be projected and land?

C. time of flight C. time of land
D. time of velocity D. time of launch
2. Which of the following depends on the initial velocity of the object?
C. range C. trajectory
D. time of flight D. vertical displacement
3. What is the path of a body as it travels through space?
C. range C. trajectory
D. time of flight D. vertical displacement

4. Analyzing the equation below, what does time of flight depend on?

A. Range and initial velocity

B. time of flight and trajectory
C. trajectory and angle of projectile
D. initial velocity and angle of projectile

5. What is called the acceleration in vertical direction due to gravity?

A. acceleration C. projectile
B. free fall D. range

6. When do we say that the maximum height of a projectile is already

reached?
A. Vx=0 C. Vy=0
B. Vx=10 D. Vy=100
 7. Which of the following is also called as the range of the projectile?
E. horizontal displacement
F. reference frame
G. trajectory
H. vertical displacement

8. An object launched into projectile motion will have an initial launch

angle from how many degrees?
E. 0-10 only
F. 0-45 only
G. 0-90
H. 90-180

9. Which of the following is TRUE for a zero launch angle?

E. There is no vertical component in the final velocity.
F. There is no horizontal component in the initial velocity.
G. There is a high vertical component in the initial velocity.
H. There is no vertical component in the initial velocity.

10. What dictates the range, height, and time of flight the object will
experience while in projectile motion?
C. angle of launch C. horizontal direction
D. final velocity D. trajectory

Additional Activities

Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct terms inside the box.

angle of projection time of flight final velocity

maximum initial velocity asymmetrical
gravity range symmetrical

a. The time it takes from an object to be projected and land is called the
1.________. This depends on the 2._________of the projectile and the
3.__________.
b. Objects that are projected from, and land on the same horizontal
surface will have a vertically 4. ___________path.
c. The horizontal displacement of the projectile is called the 5. _________
of the projectile, and depends on the 6. __________of the object.
d. When the projectile reaches a vertical velocity of zero, this is the
7. _____________height of the projectile and then 8. ___________will take
over and accelerate the object downward.

Congratulations for a
job well done.

Your module ends

here. Keep safe!

Answer Key
Lesson 2

What I Know

The key components that we need to remember in order to solve projectile

motion problems are:

● Initial launch angle, θ

● Initial velocity, u
● Time of flight, T
● Acceleration, a
● Horizontal velocity, vx
● Vertical velocity, vy
● Displacement, d
● Maximum height, H
● Range, R

What’s In

A projectile travels the farthest when it is launched at an angle of 45

degrees.

What’s New

What’s More
 3. (a) vx = 5m/s
vy = gt = (9.8m/s2) (0.5s)
vy= 4.9 m/s
v= √ ❑ = √ ❑
= √❑
= 24.5 m/s
vy
(b) Ɵ = tan -1
vx
4.9
Ɵ = tan -1 = 44.42°
5

(c) dx = vxt = (5m/s) (0.5s)

dx = 2.5 m

(a) T = 2vi sin Ɵ

g

T = 2 (18 sin 60°)

9.8

T = 3.18 s

(b) dy = vfy 2 - viy 2

2g

dy = 0-(18 sin 60°)2

2(-9.8)

dy = 12.4 m

What I have learned

It is the discretion of the teacher on how many points will s/he going
rate the answers of the learners.

What I can do

It is the discretion of the teacher on how many points will s/he going
rate the answers of the learners.

Assessment

1. A
2. A
 3. C
4. D
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. C
9. D
10. A

Additional Activities

1. time of flight
2. initial velocity
3. angle of projection
4. symmetrical
5. range
6. initial velocity
7. maximum
8. gravity

References:
● Samuel J. Ling (Truman State University), Jeff Sanny (Loyola
Marymount University), and Bill Moebs with many contributing
authors. This work is licensed by OpenStax University Physics under
a Creative Commons Attribution License (by 4.0).

● https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book
%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)/Map%3A_University_Physics_I_-
_Mechanics%2C_Sound%2C_Oscillations
%2C_and_Waves_(OpenStax)/
04%3A_Motion_in_Two_and_Three_Dimensions
 ● https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/
projectile-motion/

Lesson
Uniform Circular Motion
3

Hello there! A spaceship orbiting the earth and the earth circling the
sun are familiar examples of motion in a near-circular path.
 In this lesson, we learn how to
describe motions such as these.

What I Know

Directions: Analyze the problem below and answer what is asked.

A tube is been placed upon the table and shaped into a three-quarters
circle. A golf ball is pushed into the tube at one end at high speed. The ball
rolls through the tube and exits at the opposite end. Describe the path of
the golf ball as it exits the tube.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

What’s In

Directions: Observe the objects below and analyze what they have in
common.

Answer:

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________

What’s New

Direction: Answer what is asked.

Identify the three controls on an automobile that allow the car to be
accelerated.

Answer:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________

Have you noticed objects that are moving

in uniform circular motion is moving in a
circle with a uniform or constant speed?
Let us now proceed to the next part of this
module to deepen your knowledge about
uniform circular motion

What is It

An object moving in a circle is experiencing an acceleration.

Even if moving around the perimeter of the circle with a
constant speed, there is still a change in velocity and
subsequently an acceleration. This acceleration is directed
towards the center of the circle.

Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion can be described as the motion of an object

in a circle at a constant speed. As an object moves in a circle, it is
constantly changing its direction. At all instances, the object is moving
tangent to the circle. Since the direction of the velocity vector is the same as
the direction of the object's motion, the velocity vector is directed tangent to
the circle as well. The animation at the right depicts this by means of a
vector arrow.
 An object moving in a circle is accelerating. Accelerating objects are
objects which are changing their velocity - either the speed (i.e., magnitude
of the velocity vector) or the direction. An object undergoing uniform circular
motion is moving with a constant speed. Nonetheless, it is accelerating due
to its change in direction. The direction of the acceleration is inwards. The
animation at the right depicts this by means of a vector arrow.

The final motion characteristic for an object undergoing uniform

circular motion is the net force. The net force acting upon such an object is
directed towards the center of the circle. The net force is said to be an
inward or centripetal force. Without such an inward force, an object would
continue in a straight line, never deviating from its direction. Yet, with the
inward net force directed perpendicular to the velocity vector, the object is
always changing its direction and undergoing an inward acceleration.

In accord with Newton's second law of motion, an object which

experiences an acceleration must also be experiencing a net force. The
direction of the net force is in the same direction as the acceleration. So for
an object moving in a circle, there must be an inward force acting upon it in
order to cause its inward acceleration. This is sometimes referred to as the
centripetal force requirement. The word centripetal (not to be confused with
the F-word centrifugal) means center seeking. For object's moving in circular
motion, there is a net force acting towards the center which causes the
object to seek the center.

To understand the importance of a centripetal force, it is important to

have a sturdy understanding of the Newton's first law of motion - the law of
inertia. The law of inertia states that objects in motion tend to stay in
motion with the same speed and the same direction unless acted upon by
an unbalanced force.

According to Newton's first law of motion, it is the natural tendency of

all moving objects to continue in motion in the same direction that they are
moving ... unless some form of unbalanced force acts upon the object to
deviate its motion from its straight-line path. Moving objects will tend to
naturally travel in straight lines; an unbalanced force is only required to
cause it to turn. Thus, the presence of an unbalanced force is required for
objects to move in circles.

The Centripetal Force and Direction Change

Any object moving in a circle (or along a circular path) experiences
a centripetal force. That is, there is some physical force pushing or pulling
the object towards the center of the circle. This is the centripetal force
requirement. The word centripetal is merely an adjective used to describe the
direction of the force. We are not introducing a new type of force but rather
describing the direction of the net force acting upon the object that moves in
the circle. Whatever the object, if it moves in a circle, there is some force
acting upon it to cause it to deviate from its straight-line path, accelerate
inwards and move along a circular path. Three such examples of centripetal
force are shown below.

As a car makes a turn, the
force of friction acting upon
the turned wheels of the car
provides centripetal force
required for circular motion.
As a bucket of water is tied to a string
and spun in a circle, the tension force
acting upon the bucket provides the
centripetal force required for circular
motion.
As the moon orbits the
Earth, the force of gravity
acting upon the moon
provides the centripetal force
required for circular motion.

Angular Velocity
When we state that a phonograph record is turning at 33 rev/min, we
are giving its angular velocity. We are describing how fast it rotates. Typical
units for ω are radians per second, degrees per second, and revolutions per
minute.

angular displacement
Average angular velocity = time taken
θ
ω= t where θ is angular velocity.

Angular Acceleration
It is the rate of change of angular velocity. The average angular
velocity of a rotating wheel or any other object by relationship

change∈angular velocity
Average angular acceleration = time taken
 ωf −ωi
= t

If the angular acceleration is uniform, the average angular velocity is:

ω = ½ (ωf+ωi)

Applications of Circular Motion

Roller Coasters and Amusement Park Physics

Centripetal acceleration is experienced by riders within the circular-

shaped sections of a roller coaster track. These sections include the clothoid
loops (that we will approximate as a circle), the sharp 180-degree banked
turns, and the small dips and hills found along otherwise straight sections
of the track.
Roller Coaster Loops
The most obvious section on a roller
coaster where centripetal acceleration occurs is
within the so-called clothoid loops. Roller
coaster loops assume a tear-dropped shape that
is geometrically referred to as a clothoid. A
clothoid is a section of a spiral in which the
radius is constantly changing. Unlike a circular
loop in which the radius is a constant value,
the radius at the bottom of a clothoid loop is
much larger than the radius at the top of the
clothoid loop. A mere inspection of a clothoid
reveals that the amount of curvature at the bottom of the loop is less than
the amount of curvature at the top of the loop. To simplify our analysis of
the physics of clothoid loops, we will approximate a clothoid loop as being a
series of overlapping or adjoining circular sections. The radius of these
circular sections is decreasing as one approaches the top of the loop.
Furthermore, we will limit our analysis to two points on the clothoid loop -
the top of the loop and the bottom of the loop. For this reason, our analysis
will focus on the two circles that can be matched to the curvature of these
two sections of the clothoid. The diagram at the right shows a clothoid loop
with two circles of different radius inscribed into the top and the bottom of
the loop. Note that the radius at the bottom of the loop is significantly larger
than the radius at the top of the loop.

As a roller coaster rider travels through a clothoid loop, she

experiences an acceleration due to both a change in speed and a change in
direction. A rightward moving rider gradually becomes an upward moving
rider, then a leftward moving rider, then a downward moving rider, before
finally becoming a rightward-moving rider once again. There is a continuous
change in the direction of the rider as she moves through the clothoid loop.
A change in direction is one characteristic of an accelerating object. In
addition to changing directions, the rider also changes speed. As the rider
begins to ascend (climb upward) the loop, she begins to slow down. As
energy principles would suggest, an increase in height (and in turn an
increase in potential energy) results in a decrease in kinetic energy and
speed. And conversely, a decrease in
height (and in turn a decrease in
potential energy) results in an increase
in kinetic energy and speed. So the rider
experiences the greatest speeds at the
bottom of the loop - both upon entering
and leaving the loop - and the lowest
speeds at the top of the loop.

This change in speed as the rider

moves through the loop is the second aspect of the acceleration that a rider
experiences. For a rider moving through a circular loop with a constant
speed, the acceleration can be described as being centripetal or towards the
center of the circle. In the case of a rider moving through a noncircular loop
at non-constant speed, the acceleration of the rider has two components.
There is a component that is directed towards the center of the circle (ac)
and attributes itself to the direction change; and there is a component that
is directed tangent (at) to the track (either in the opposite or in the same
direction as the car's direction of motion) and attributes itself to the car's
change in speed. This tangential component would be directed opposite the
direction of the car's motion as its speed decreases (on the ascent towards
the top) and in the same direction as the car's motion as its speed increases
(on the descent from the top). At the very top and the very bottom of the
loop, the acceleration is primarily directed towards the center of the circle.
At the top, this would be in the downward direction and at the bottom of the
loop it would be in the upward direction.

Suggested Method of Solving Circular Motion Problems

 1. From the verbal description of the physical situation, construct a free-body
diagram. Represent each force by a vector arrow and label the forces
according to type.
2. Identify the given and the unknown information (express in terms of
variables such as m= , a= , v= , etc.).
3. If any of the individual forces are directed at angles to the horizontal and
vertical, then use vector principles to resolve such forces into horizontal and
vertical components.
4. Determine the magnitude of any known forces and label on the free-body
diagram.
(For example, if the mass is given, then the Fgrav can be determined. And as
another example, if there is no vertical acceleration, then it is known that
the vertical forces or force components balance, allowing for the possible
determination of one or more of the individual forces in the vertical
direction.)
5. Use circular motion equations to determine any unknown information.
(For example, if the speed and the radius are known, then the acceleration
can be determined. And as another example, if the period and radius are
known, then the acceleration can be determined.)
6. Use the remaining information to solve for the requested information.
o If the problem requests the value of an individual force, then use the
kinematic information (R, T and v) to determine the acceleration and
the Fnet; then use the free-body diagram to solve for the individual
force value.
o If the problem requests the value of the speed or radius, then use the
values of the individual forces to determine the net force and
acceleration; then use the acceleration to determine the value of the
speed or radius.

Sample Roller Coaster Problem

An actor is riding on a roller coaster at an amusement park. He is
moving at 18.9 m/s over the top of a hill that has a radius of curvature of
12.7 m. Use Newton's second law to determine the magnitude of the applied
force of the track pulling down upon Anna's 621 kg roller coaster car.

Steps 1 and 2 involve the construction of a free body diagram and the
identification of known and unknown quantities. This is shown in below.
 Given Info:
m = 621 v = 18.9
kg m/s
R = 12.7
 
m
Find:
Fapp at top of hill

Step 3 of the suggested method would not apply to this problem since there
are no forces directed "at angles" (that is, all the forces are either horizontally or
vertically directed). 
Step 4 of the suggested method involves the determination of any known
forces. In this case, the force of gravity can be determined from the equation Fgrav =
m * g. So the force of gravity acting upon the 621-kg car is approximately 6086 N. 
Step 5 of the suggested method involves the calculation of the acceleration
from the given values of the speed and the radius. The acceleration can be
calculated as follows
a = v2 / R
a = (18.9 m/s)2 / (12.7 m)
a = 28.1 m/s2

Step 6 of the suggested method involves the determination of an individual

force - the applied force. This will involve a two-step process: first the net force
(magnitude and direction) must be determined; then the net force must be used
with the free body diagram to determine the applied force. This two-step process is
shown below.
Fnet = m • a
Fnet = (621 kg) • (28.1 m/s2,
down)
Fnet = 17467 N, down
 
As shown in FBD at right:
Fapp = Fnet - Fgrav
Fnorm = 11381 N

Fapp and Fgrav must combine together (i.e., add up) to supply the

 required downwards net force of 17467 N.

This same method could be applied for any region of the track in
which roller coaster riders momentarily experience circular motion.

What’s More

Directions: Solve the following problems. Show your complete solutions and
encircle your final answer.

1. A wheel turns through 1800 rev in 1.0 min. Find

its average angular velocity in rad/s.
2. A curve in a road has a 60-m radius. It is to be
banked so that no friction force is required for a
car going at 25 m/s to safely make the curve. At
what angle should it be banked?

What I have learned

Directions: Apply what you’ve learned about uniform circular motions

by answering the following question:

Bangui wind farm in Ilocos Norte is a major turning point in tapping

the immense potential of renewable power sources in the region. Explain
how modern windmills use their angular velocity to drive an electrical
generator.
 What I can do

Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively:

People are wild about amusement parks. The thought prompts one to
consider what is it about a roller coaster ride that provides such widespread
excitement among so many of us and such dreadful fear in the rest?

Question:

What factor contributes to the thrill of people in riding roller coasters? Is it because
of speed or acceleration? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________
 Assessment

Direction: Read the following questions and write the letter that best
represents your answer in your activity notebook.

1. Which of the following is a component of acceleration of an object

moving in a circle that is directed radially inward toward the center of
the circle?
A. centrifugal acceleration C. projectile motion
B. centripetal acceleration D. uniform circular motion
2. Which of the following is a section of a spiral in which the radius is
constantly changing?
A. clothoid C. trajectory
B. time of flight D. vertical displacement
3. Even though the speed of a particle moving in uniform circular motion
is constant, the moving particle is ___________.
E. accelerating C. decelerating
F. constant D. all of the above

For items 4-8:

An object is moving in a clockwise direction around a circle at
constant speed. Use your understanding of the concepts of velocity,
acceleration and force to answer the next five questions. Use the diagram
below.
 4. Which vector below represents the direction of the force vector when
the object is located at point A on the circle?

 
5. Which vector below represents the direction of the force vector when
the object is located at point C on the circle?

 
6. Which vector below represents the direction of the velocity vector
when the object is located at point B on the circle?

 
7. Which vector below represents the direction of the velocity vector
when the object is located at point C on the circle?

 
8. Which vector below represents the direction of the acceleration vector
when the object is located at point B on the circle?

9. As a particle moves along a circular arc, the direction of the velocity

vector is called __________.
A. centrifugal direction C. tangential direction
B. centripetal direction D. velocity direction

10. As a roller coaster rider travels through a clothoid loop, she

experiences a/an __________ due to both a change in speed and a
change in direction.
A. acceleration C. speed
B. circular motion D. velocity

Additional Activities

Directions: Solve the following problems. Show your complete solutions

and encircle your final answer.

You are riding a "woody" roller coaster. You encounter the bottom of a
small dip having a radius of curvature of 15.0 m. At the bottom of this dip
you are traveling with a speed of 16.0 m/s and experiencing a much larger
than usual normal force. Use Newton's second law to determine the normal
force acting upon your 50-kg body.
 Your module ends Congratulations for a
here. Keep safe! job well done.

Answer Key

Lesson 1

What I Know

The ball will move along a path which is tangent to the spiral at the
point where it exits the tube. At that point, the ball will no longer curve or
spiral, but rather travel in a straight line in the tangential direction.

What’s In

They are objects that spin on an axis.

What’s New

The accelerator allows the car to increase speed. The brake pedal
allows the car to decrease the speed. And the steering wheel allows the car
to change direction.

What’s More

θ 1800rev
1. ω= t = 60 s = 30 rev/s
 1800 rev 2 πrad
Then, 30 rev/s = (30 ) ( ) = 60 πrad /s
60 s rev
= 190 rad/s

2.FN= mg/(cosθ)

mg sinθ
= mg tan θ = mv2/r
cos cos θ

or θ = tan-1 (v2/gr)

θ= tan-1 (25 m/s)2/ (9.8 m/s2) (60 m) = 47º

What I have learned

Modern windmills use their angular velocity to drive an electrical

generator. Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades,
which act much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of
low-pressure air forms on one side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket
then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift.
The force of the lift is much stronger than the wind's force against the front
side of the blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag
causes the rotor to spin like a propeller.

What I can do

The thrill of roller coasters is not due to their speed, but rather due to
their accelerations and to the feelings of weightlessness and weightiness
that they produce. Roller coasters thrill us because of their ability to
accelerate us downward one moment and upwards the next; leftwards one
moment and rightwards the next. Roller coasters are about acceleration;
that's what makes them thrilling.

Assessment

1. B
2. A
3. A
4. D - The force vector is directed inward to the circle;
that would be downward when at point A
5. B- The force vector is directed inwards; that would
be up and to the right when the object is at point C.
6. D- The velocity vector is directed tangent to the
circle; that would be downwards when at point B.
7. A- The velocity is directed tangentially; that would
be upwards and leftwards when at point C.
 8. C - The acceleration would be directed inwards; that
would be leftwards when the object is at point B.
9. C
10. A
Additional Activities

Fnorm = 1343 N, up
Solution is as follows:

b. Draw a free-body diagram and note that Fgrav = 490 N,

down.
c. Calculate acceleration by
a = v2 / R = (16 m/s)2 / (15 m) = 17.1 m/s/s, up

d. Then note that Fnet = m • a = 853 N, up (toward center).

e. Now Fgrav supplies 490 N of downward force, so the
Fnorm must overcome this down force and still supply the
sufficient Fnet in the up direction.
f. Therefore, Fnorm = 1343 N,up.
References:
Samuel J. Ling (Truman State University), Jeff Sanny (Loyola
Marymount University), and Bill Moebs with many contributing
authors. This work is licensed by OpenStax University Physics under
a Creative Commons Attribution License (by 4.0).
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/
U6L2b.cfm#psmethod
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles