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PROKARYO
 The difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotesTIC AND
are said to be distinct among living things. Eukaryotes is derive

ol
from the greek word “eu” means “true” and “karyon” means “nucleus”. The difference between this two organisms

nucleoid which has no membrane. However, both EUKARYOT

isthat the chromosomes of eukaryotes are enclosed inside the nucleus while the prokaryotes DNA is inside the
type of cells possess cytoplasm. In prokaryotes, aside from not
IC CELL,
having true nucleus, a semi-rigid cell wall is present and membrane-bound organelles with specialized functions are
absent.

    Most prokaryotic organisms are unicellularCELL

(single-celled)TYPE
and its cells are very small with a relatively simple
internal structures. This include the members of Kingdom Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Outwardly, they appear so
similar that archaeans were once thought to be AND CELL
an unusual group of bacteria. By 1977, it had become clear that
archaeans are more closely related to eukaryotes than to bacteria, so they were given their own separate domain. The
MODIFICA
term “prokaryote” is now being retired. Most prokaryotes are surrounded by a relatively stiff cell wall, which protects
the bacterial cell and confers shape.

og
TION
  According to (Refran et.al, 2016) Surface projections made of protein, called pili, are used to attach some types of
bacteria to surfaces to exchange genetic material. Capsules or slime layers are polysaccharides or protein coatings that
some bacteria secrete outside their cell wall. These coatings help the bacteria to attach to their hosts and may allow
them to evade attack by immune cells. The cytoplasm of most prokaryotic cells is relatively homogenous in
appearance. Prokaryotic cells each have a single, circular strand of DNA. It is usually coiled, attached to the plasma
membrane, and concentrated in the region of the cell called the nucleoid. Prokaryotic cells lack nuclei as well as the
other membrane-enclosed organelles that eukaryotic cells possess. Nonetheless, some prokaryotic cells use membranes
to organize molecules responsible for a series of biochemical reactions such as photosynthesis and respiration.

  Prokaryotic organisms are extremely microscopic ranging from 1-10 μm in diameter compared to eukaryotic cells

y
that are bigger with 10-100 μm in diameter. Some species are rod-shaped (bacilli), spherical (cocci), spiral, etc. They
are much simpler in cellular structure and may occur singly, in pairs, chains, clusters, aggregates, or colonies.

Eukaryotes includes all multicellular organisms that are composed of complex or many cells. All protists, fungi,
plants and animals are eukaryotes. Certain organisms are said to be free-living and independent cells while others
consist of many cells that works together as a body. Although eukaryotes are much larger in size (but still microscopic)
they perform variety of functions. Different eukaryotic organisms have varying features in terms of the composition,
structure, and function of the cell organelles. For instance, fungal cell is different to plant cell in many aspects

Another interesting example is the lichens, which for the past 140 years was believed to be a symbiosis between
fungi and algae. Spribille et.al. (2016) reported that it is not a binary symbiosis but is composed of three symbiotic
partners; and ascomycetous fungus, a photosynthetic alga, and unexpectedly, a basidiomycetous yeast. Based on this
recent discovery, the yeast cells in lichens are found at the cortex of the thallus which may be important for its shape.

PLANT TISSUE All plant parts composed of the same three types of tissues. The ground tissue system,
that is located at the center of stems and middle of leaves and makes up the bulk of plant that serves as food storage
and site of photosynthesis. This tissue is made up of three kinds of large roughly cube shaped cells with thin cell walls;
Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma cells. In vascular tissue system, pipelines thread through ground tissue.
They distribute water and nutrients on all parts of the plant. The dermal tissues system serves as covering and protects
the exposed surface of the plant.
simple tissues
Parenchyma is a simple tissue that composed mainly of parenchyma cells and makes up most of the soft parts
inside the roots, stems, leaves, and flowers These cells have various shapes that are involved in many functions,
including cell repair, food storage, and photosynthesis. All of these cells are typically thin-walled, flexible, and can
continue to divide because they are alive in mature tissue.
COLLENCHYMA are living tissues that consist mainly of elongated cells (collenchyma cells), with
unevenly thickened, flexible walls where three or more of the cells abut. Collenchyma is stretchable and specialized
for supporting growth regions of the plant such as young stems and leaf stalks.
Sclerenchyma tissues have varied shaped cells that are dead at maturity. The remaining lignin-containing cell
walls help this tissue resist compression. The tough and thick secondary walls of Sclerenchyma do not stretch and
primarily found in regions that have ceased growing. The typical sclerenchyma cells are fibers and sclereids. Vascular
tissues in some stems and leaves are structurally supported by fibers. These fibers of some plants are our source of
cloth, rope, paper, and other commercial products while the stubbier and often branched sclereids strengthen hard seed
coats, such as peach pits.
Complex tissues
Dermal Tissues. According to first dermal tissue to form a plant is epidermis which is usually a single layer
of cells on the plant’s outer surface. Epidermal cells secrete substances such as cutin, a polymer of fatty acids, on their
outward-facing cell walls. The waxy deposits form a cuticle that helps the plant conserve water and repel pathogens.
Ground Tissues. Ground Tissue, which is defined as everything other than dermal and vascular tissue,
accounts for the bulk of a plant. It consists mostly of parenchyma, but can also include other simple tissues depending
on where it is. Mesophyll, the only photosynthetic ground tissue, consists of chloroplast containing parenchyma cells
Vascular Tissues. Vascular tissue system enables water, minerals, and sugars (made through
photosynthesis) to move through the roots, stems, and leaves of a plant. Xylem and phloem are vascular tissues. Both
are composed of elongated conducting tubes often surrounded by sclerenchyma fibers and parenchyma.
Xylem which conducts water and mineral ions, consists of two types of cells, tracheids and vessel members that
are dead in mature tissue. The walls of these cells are stiffened and waterproofed with lignin. These walls interconnect
to form tubes, and they lend structural support to the plant. Water can move laterally between the tubes as well as
upward through them.
Phloem conducts sugars and other organic solutes. Its main cells, sieve-tube members, are alive in mature tissue.
They connect end to end sieve plates, forming sieve tubes that transports sugars from photosynthetic cells to all parts
of the plant. Phloem’s companion cells are parenchyma cells that load sugars into the tubes.
Animal cells
Epithelium (plural, epithelia), or epithelial tissue, is sheet like tissue consisting of cells with little extracellular
material between them. This tissue are widespread throughout the body and serves as covering for all body surfaces
including line body cavities and hollow organs. One free surface in this tissue is exposed to some body fluid and to the
environment. At the opposite surface, the secretions of epithelial cells form a noncellular basement that glues the
epithelium to an underlying tissue. Blood vessels do not run through epithelium, so nutrients reach cells by diffusing
from vessels in an adjacent tissue. This tissue perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion,
absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception.
Connective tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, which consists of cells scattered within an
extracellular matrix of their own secretions. It develops from the mesoderm and are described by the types of cells that
they include and its extracellular matrix composition. Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere
in the body. Loose and dense tissues are a kind of soft connective tissues while cartilage, bone tissue, adipose tissue,
and blood are specialized connective tissues.
Muscle Tissue is a specialized tissue that are found in animals which functions by contracting. Muscles cells
contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then they relax and passively lengthen. Coordinated contractions of layers
or rings of muscles the body or move material through the body. Muscle tissues occurs in all animals, but let’s focus
on the muscle found in vertebrates. This includes; skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue.
-Skeletal muscle tissue is one of the three major muscle types and the functional partner of bone (or
cartilage) that helps move and maintain the positions of the body and its parts. Skeletal muscle tissue has parallel
arrays of long, cylindrical muscle fibers. The fibers are not single cells. They form during embryonic development
when group of cells fuse together. Each fiber contains multiple nuclei between long strands with row of contractile
units. These rows give skeletal muscle a striated, or striped appearance (Starr et.al, 2014). This tissue is under the
voluntary control of the somatic nervous system and most muscles are attached to bones by bundles of collagen fibers
known as tendons.
-Cardiac muscle tissue is an organized type of tissue hat only found in the heart wall. Just like skeletal
muscle, it appears striated but it has branch shaped cells. Cardiac muscle cells about at their ends, where adhering
junctions prevent them from being ripped apart during forceful contractions. Signals to contract pass swiftly from cell
to cell at gap junctions along their length. The signal make all cells in cardiac muscle tissue contract as unit (Starr et.al,
2014). Cardiac muscle tissue are responsible in keeping the heart pumps and blood circulate throughout the body.
Myocardium, cardiac muscle tissue, contains cells that contracts and expands in response to the electrical impulses
from nervous system.
-Smooth muscle tissue is used by various system of the body to apply pressure to vessels and organs.
We find this tissue in the wall of some blood vessels and soft internal organs, such as the stomach, uterus, and bladder.
Smooth muscle consists of sheets or strands of smooth muscle cells. This tissue’s unbranched cells contain a nucleus at
their center and are tapered at both ends. These cells have fibers of actin and myosin which run through the cell and are
supported by a framework of other proteins. Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle contacts more slowly but sustained
and longer. Smooth muscle contractions propel material through the gut, adjust the diameter of some blood vessels,
and close sphincters. A sphincter is a ring of muscle in a tubular organ.
Neurons is a specialized signaling cells that has a cell body with a nucleus and other organelles. A long
cytoplasmic extensions are projected from the cell body which allow the cell to send and receive electrochemical
signals. When a neuron receives sufficient stimulation, an electrical signal travels along its plasma membrane to the
ends of certain cytoplasmic extensions. Here, the electrical signal causes release of chemical signaling molecules.
These molecules diffuse across a small gap to an adjacent neuron, muscle fiber, or gland cell, and alter that cell’s
behavior.

Our nervous system has more than 100 billion neurons. There are three types. Sensory neurons are excited by
specific stimuli, such as light or pressure. Interneurons receive and integrate sensory information. They store
information and coordinate responses to stimuli. In vertebrates, interneurons occur mainly in the brain and spinal cord.
Motor neurons relay commands from the brain and spinal cord to glands and muscle cells.

Neuroglial cells, also called neuroglia are supporting cells that provide metabolic support, remove debris, provide
electrical insulation and keep neurons positioned where they should be. They constitute a significant portion of
nervous tissue. More than half of your brain volume is neuroglia. Neuroglial cells also wrap around the signal-sending
cytoplasmic extensions of most motor neurons. They act as insulation and speed the rate at which signals travel