NAME: ___________________________

YEAR & SECTION: ________________________

PRE-CALCULUS MODULE

'
Paren t sSignatureOverPrintedName Date:

Subject Teacher: Mr. Jonell A. Padongao

Contact Number: 0951-553-4497

Pre-Calculus

Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 1

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Lesson 1.1 Introductions to Conic Sections and Circles

Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of conic sections of

nonlinear equations.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to model situations appropriately and solve problems
accurately using conic sections and systems of nonlinear equations.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Illustrate the different types of conic sections: parabola, ellipse, circle,

hyperbola, and degenerate cases. ***
2. Define a circle.
3. Determine the standard form of equation of a circle.
4. Graph a circle in a rectangular coordinate system.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

1. Illustrate the different types of conic sections: parabola, ellipse, circle,

hyperbola, and degenerate cases.
2. Define a circle.
3. Determine the equation of a circle in standard form.
4. Sketch a circle in a rectangular coordinate system.

Discussion

“Geometry is unique and eternal, and it shines in the mind of God. The share of it
which has been granted to man is one of the reasons why he is the image of God.”

-Johannes Kepler

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 PRE-ASSESSMENT

Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is the distance between the points (5, 4) and (2, -1)?
a. √ 34 c. √ 40
b. √ 58 d. √ 52

2. What is the slope through the points (5, 4) and (2, -1)?
3 3
a. c.
5 7
5 7
b. d.
3 3

3. What is the midpoint of the segment between the points (5, 4) and (2, -1)?
7 3 3 5
a. ( , ) c. (- ,- )
2 2 5 2
3 5
b. ( , ) d. (7,3)
2 2

4. What is the point obtained when the point (x, y) is reflected about the x-axis?
a. (-x, -y) c. (x, -y)
b. (-x, y) d. (│x│, │y│)

5. What is the slope of the line with equation 2x – 7y + 9 = 0?

2 2
a. c. -
7 7
7 7
b. d. -
2 2

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 REMEMBER THIS!

SYMBOL MEANING

Ā Line segment A

(x, y) ordered pair x and y

│Ā│ Absolute Value of the line segment A

r radius

C (x, y) center

R2 Real Number in two dimensional spaces

iff if and only if

It is said that one of the oldest branches of mathematics that humanities have
studied is geometry. It is one of the most tangible branches of mathematics. It is, as
conceived by many, the study of shapes that we see with our eyes. Shapes became
intangible and abstract. Properties, instead of shapes per se, became the focus. In
particular, geometry was not anymore studied solely by compass and straightedge.
Mathematicians devised a way to study it using a seemingly entirely separate
mathematical discipline: algebra. This new approach gave rise to what we now call
analytic geometry. Through equations, functions, and numbers, one can deduce a
geometric fact, even without seeing the actual geometric object.

Graphs in the Cartesian plane

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 Let’s begin our study with some important basic curves in the plane. Our
approach will be primarily by using analytic geometry. That is, we will view the curves as
graphs of equations in a rectangular coordinate system, also known as the Cartesian
plane. Every point in the geometric plane is labeled by an ordered pair (x,y) of real
numbers, called the rectangular or Cartesian coordinates of the point; conversely,
ordered pair (x, y) Є R2 represents a point in the plane.

This is the Fundamental Theorem of Analytic Geometry: there exists a one-to-

one correspondence between the geometric plane and the set of ordered pairs of real
numbers.

The graph of an equation in the variables x and y is the collection (also called
locus) of all points P (x, y) in the Cartesian plane such that x and y satisfy the equation.
This provides much convenience as it allows us to study the geometry of the plane using
numbers and equations alone.

For instance, the line can be defined algebraically as the collection of all points P
(x, y) Є R2 satisfying the equation Ax + By + C = 0, for some constants A, B, and C,
where A and B are not both zero. The above equation is referred to as linear equation
(a polynomial equation of degree 1). From an analytic geometry perspective, working
with lines means working with linear equations. The line’s slope, perhaps the very soul of
−A
a line, can be drawn from this equation: . Thus, parallelism of two lines can be drawn
B
from their equations. The point of intersection of two intersecting lines is just the
point whose Cartesian coordinates (x, y) simultaneously satisfy (solve) the (system of)
equations of the two lines.

Before we extend this fascination with analytic geometry to the curves, let’s
recall some basic analytic geometry tools and ideas. Given two distinct points P(x 1, y1)
and Q(x1, y1),

y 1− y 2
 The slope of the segment PQ is the ratio if x1 ≠ x2. In the case that x1 =
x 1−x 2
x2, that is, we have a vertical segment, we do not define the slope.

The distance between P and Q is given by √ ( x 1 – x 2) +( y 1− y 2) . This is

2 2

referred to as the Distance Formula, which is basically a consequence of the
Pythagorean Theorem. If either the abscissas or the ordinates are the same
(i.e., PQ is vertical or horizontal), note that the distance is obtained by simply
taking the absolute difference between the differing coordinates (either │ y1 –
y2 │ or │ x1 – x2 │).

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  The midpoint of the segment PQ is the point whose coordinates are the
x 1+ x 2 y 1+ y 2
averages of the coordinates of P and Q: ( , ). This is referred to
2 2
as the Midpoint Formula.

Jogging Geometer

Try this!

Euclid and Apollonius stand on two separate positions, with

Apollonius 12 meters due north and 9 meters due east of Euclid.
Meanwhile, Pythagoras is jogging on a path in such a way that his
distance from Apollonius is always twice that from Euclid. Show that
Pythagoras’s path is circular.

Conic Sections

The family of curves that shall be the focus of our lessons goes by the
collective name conic sections, or, more briefly, conics. Why the name? You can think of
a conic section as a curve you get when you slice or cut (hence the term “section”) a
cone (hence the term “conic”) in a proper manner. In the study of surfaces, by a section
of a surface, we mean a curve produced by intersecting, that is, cutting or slicing the
surface with a plane. Think of the usual English term “cross section.”

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Name: _____________________ Date: ___________

Year and Section: ____________________ Score: __________

LET’S DO THIS!

Activity 1: Cutting Cones

You will need a sheet of paper and scissors. Let us see how these so-called conic sections
look like.

1. Make your own paper cone: cut a circular sheet of paper. Cut out a sector (a pie’s
slice). Then, tape together the two opposing sides of one of the remaining sectors.
Now, you have a paper cone.

2. Hold the cone upright and cut it vertically upright. What do you think will happen if
you were to extend the cone infinitely upward? Will the shape also go infinitely
upward?

3. Tilt your scissors so that it is parallel to one of the “sides” of the cone and then
cut the cone. What shape did you get? Just as before, if the cone were infinite,
would your shape go infinite as well?

4. Tilt more your scissors, but not so much that it is still not horizontal. What shape
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did you get after cutting the cone?
 Circles

A circle is the locus of all points in the plane having the same fixed positive
distance, called the radius, from a fixed point, called the center.

r
●P
● C (h,
k)

Let us now derive the equation of a circle in Cartesian coordinates. Fix a point C (h, k)
in the Cartesian plane and a number r › 0. Then, from the above definition, a point P (x,
y) is on the circle whose center is at C and radius is r if and only if

| PC | = r

Which, using the Distance Formula, is equivalent to:

√( x−h)2 +( y−k )2 = r
Since r › 0, we get an equivalent equation if we square both sides of this equation. We
thus have the following result.

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 Theorem: Equation of a Circle in Standard Form

An equation of a circle whose center is at C (h, k) and radius is r › 0 is:

(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2.

We usually refer to this form as the center-radius form or the standard

form of the equation of the circle.

Example |

Find an equation of the circle with the following conditions.

1. Center is at C (2, -5) and radius is 3.

2. Has a diameter whose endpoints are the points A (3, 4) and B (-3, 12)

Solutions

1. A direct application of the theorem shows that an equation of this circle is:
(x – 2)2 – (y + 5) = 9

2. We first find the center and the radius of this circle. Since AB is a diameter,
1
the center must be at the midpoint of AB and the radius should be | AB∨¿.
2
From the Midpoint formula, the coordinates of the center should then be as
follows:
3−3 4+ 12
( , ) = (0, 8)
2 2
Meanwhile, from the Distance Formula, we obtain the following for the radius:
1
2
√(3+3)2 +(4−12)2 = √36+
2
64
= 5.

Thus, an equation of the circle is x2 + (y – 8)2 = 25.

Activity | 2

Find an equation of the circle with the following conditions.

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 1. Center is at C (-10, 0) and passes through A (-6, 3)
2. Center is at C (-4, 6) and is tangent to the x-axis.

Solution in Activity | 2

Write your solutions in a short bond paper. Write only the pertinent
solutions to the problem.

Addenda

 If you expand the equation in the theorem and bring all the terms to one side of
the equation, what you obtain is called the general form of the equation of a
circle:
x2 + y2 + Dx + Ex + F = 0
 It is clear that any circle’s equation can be transformed into the above form.
However, an equation of the above form is not necessarily the equation of the
circle. Remember, that the two essential ingredients of a circle are its center
and radius, which you can easily pinpoint from the equation in the standard form.
So, to actually see the circle, given the general form of the equation, you have
to convert it first to standard form. If it turns out that the value that is
supposed to be r2 is negative, then we have no circle since no real number r can
satisfy r2 ‹ 0. In this case, the graph is not a circle but is the empty set. That is
the graph if it turned out that r2 = 0?

Example | 2

Sketch the graph of x2 + Y2 + 10x -2y = 55.

Solution

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We first transform the equation into center-radius form. We accomplish this by
completing squares:

(x2 + 10x + 52) + (y2 – 2y + 12) = 55 + 25 + 1

(x + 5)2 + (y – 1)2 = 81

We now see that the graph is a circle, with center at (-5,1) and radius 9. Here is a
sketch of the circle:

Activity |3

Sketch the graph of the following equations. Write your solutions in a short bond
paper. Write only the pertinent solutions to the problem.

1. x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y - 23 = 0
2. x2 + y2 + 6x - 10y + 40 = 0
3. x2 + y2 + 6x - 6y + 34 = 0

Given the general form x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, we can actually deduce from a single expression
involving D, E, and F whether the resulting graph is a circle, a single point, or the empty set. To see
this, we simply transform the equation to standard form, still, by completing squares:
2 2 2 2
D 2 E D E D E D + E −4 F
( x2 + Dx + ( ) ) + ( y2 + Ey + ( )2) = -F + + (x + )2 + (y + )2 =
2 2 4 4 2 2 4

We thus have the following result:

Theorem: Determining When an Equation Yields a Circle

The graph of the equation x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is

1. The circle centered at (

−D −E
, ) with radius
√ D2 + E 2−4 F if D2 + E2 – 4F > 0
2 2 4
−D −E
2. The single point ( , ) if D2 + E2 – 4F = 0
2 2
3. The empty set if D2 + E2 – 4F < 0

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HISTORICAL GEM: Conics in Antiquity

 WORKSHEET 1

Name: _______________________ Year & Track: ____________

Date: ______________

Write an equation of the circle with the given center and radius.

1. Center (0,0), r = 4
2. Center (0,0), r = 2
3. Center (1,5), r = 12
4. Center (4,-9), r = √ 27
5. Center (-15, 20), r = √ 8

Find the center and the radius of the circle described by the equation.

6. x2 + y2 = 81
7. x2 + y2 = 19
8. x2 + (y – 2)2 = 49
9. (x + 7)2 + (y – 5)2 = 56
10. (x + 2)2 + (y + 9)2 = 70

WORKSHEET 2

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Name: _______________________ Year & Track: ____________

Date: ______________

Sketch the graph of the following equation.

1. x2 + y2 = 100
2. (x - 10)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25
3. x2 + (y + 8)2 = 49
4. (x – 12)2 + y2 = 144

Write the following equations in standard form.

5. x2 + y2 + 6x – 7 = 0
6. x2 + y2 + 10x -16y – 55 = 0
7. x2 + y2 + 12x – 8y + 16 = 0
8. x2 + y2 – 4x +18y + 35 = 0
9. x2 + y2 – 6x + 12y – 19= 0
10. x2 + y2 + 8y – 9 = 0

WORKSHEET

Name: _______________________ Year & Track:

_____________

Date: ______________

1. Find the equation of the circle whose center is (5, 2), the midpoint of the
segment joining the center and one of the points on the circle is (-2, 1).

2. A single-lane street 10 ft. wide goes through a semicircular tunnel with radius
9ft. How high is the tunnel at the edge of each of the lane? Round off to 2
decimal places.

3. A Ferris wheel is elevated 1 m above the ground. When a car reaches the
highest point on the Ferris wheel, its altitude from ground level is 31 m. How far
away from the center, horizontally, is the car when it is at an altitude of 24 m?

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 REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel. Pre-Calculus, Rex Book Store, 2016

DIVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS-MANILA

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Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 2

Lesson 1.2 Parabolas

Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of conic sections of

nonlinear equations.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to model situations appropriately and solve problems
accurately using conic sections and systems of nonlinear equations.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Define a parabola.
2. Determine the standard form of equation of a parabola.
3. Graph a parabola in a rectangular coordinate system.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. define a parabola;
2. determine the equation of a parabola in standard form; and
3. Sketch a parabola in a rectangular coordinate system.

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Discussion

| Translations of Axes
Reminiscence

It will be very helpful in studying curves to recall how vertical and horizontal
shifts of a curve affect or are reflected by the curve’s equation. Consider a curve with
some equation in x and y. if the curve is shifted h units to the right, what will be an
equation of the new curve obtained? Clearly, assuming h ≠ 0, the coordinates of the
points of the new curve will not anymore satisfy the original equation. In fact, since the
new curve is the result of shifting the original curve to the right, the abscissas of the
points of the new curve are just h units more than the abscissas of the points of the
original curve.

Equivalently, the abscissas of the points of the old curve should be h units less than the
abscissas of the new curve. Meanwhile, the ordinates are the same for corresponding
points of the two curves. In summary, (x, y) is a point on the new curve if and only if (x-
h, y) is a point on the old curve, which is true if and only if x-h and y satisfy the
equation of the original curve. That is, an equation satisfied by the new curve is the
following: the equation obtained when x in the original curve’s equation is replaced by x
– h. Similarly, if a curve is shifted k units upward, then the ordinates of the points of
the old curve are just k units less than the ordinates of the points of the new curve,
while the abscissas are the same for the old and new points. That is, equation satisfied
by the new curve is the equation obtained by replacing the y’s in the equation of the old
curve by y – k.

In fact, horizontal and vertical shifts can occur simultaneously. In general, if a curve is
shifted h uits to the right and k units upward, an equation of the new curve is obtained
by simply replacing the x’s and y’s in the equation of the original curve by x – h and y –
k, respectively. This also covers leftward and downward shifts: a shift to the left is
represented by a negative shift to the right (h < 0); a shift downward by a negative
upward shift (k < 0). For example, when the curve y = x 3 is shifted 5 units to the right
and 2 units downward, the equation of the curve is y + 2 = (x – 5) 3.

Ceiling is the Limit

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 Try this!

Ping-Pong players hate low ceilings. In a game, once the Ping-Pong ball hits
the ceiling, it is considered out of bounds, and the opponent wins the point. Ping-
Pong balls, like almost all objects near the surface of the Earth, follows a natural
path of motion if we are to neglect the effects of air resistance. Yes, it is in the
shape of a parabola.

Suppose Isaac’s Ping-Pong ball has the parabolic path with equation y = 6x –
2
x with the origin being the point of release of the ball. How high should the ceiling
be so that the ball does not hit the ceiling?

Essence | Parabolas

The second conic section we shall talk about is the parabola. As you have seen
above, some natural phenomena such as the motion of a freely falling object involve this
curve. A parabola is the locus of all points in the plane whose distances from a fixed
point F and a fixed line ℓ (not passing through F) are the same. The fixed point is called
the focus, while the fixed line is called the directrix.

What is Parabola?

It always opens in the direction where the focus is situated. That is, the focus is
always on the concave side, or, in more dramatic terms, a parabola always devours its
focus. The line that passes through the focus and is perpendicular to the directrix is
called the axis of parabola. A parabola is always symmetric about its axis. Also, the axis
will always hit the parabola at exactly one point. This point is called the vertex of the
parabola. The segment having endpoints on the parabola passing through the focus and
parallel to the directrix is called the parabola’s latus rectum.

Let us now derive the equation of a parabola. We will consider in this course only
parabolas with horizontal or vertical directrices. Let us first consider a parabola whose
focus is at F (0, c) and whose directrix ℓ is the horizontal line y = -c. That is, the axis is
the y-axis, the vertex is at the origin, and the parabola opens either upward (if c > 0)
or downward (if c < 0).

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We now apply the definition of the parabola: a point P(x, y) is then on the parabola iff |
P l∨¿is a vertical distance, computed by simply taking the absolute difference of the y-
coordinates: |y – (-c) |. Also, squaring both sides of the equation will not be a problem
since both sides are non-negative expressions. Thus, after applying the Distance
Formula to the left-hand side, the equation equivalently becomes as follows:

x2 + (y – c)2 = |y + c |2

x2 + y2 – 2cy + c2 = y2 + 2cy + c2

x2 = 4cy

This is an equation of the parabola. What do you think will happen if the
focus was instead at F (c, 0) and the directrix was instead the vertical line x = -c, so
that the parabola opens either to the right or to the left? It is a good exercise to work
out the details, and show that quite similar result is obtained. We summarize these in
the following theorem.

Theorem: Equation of a Vertical or Horizontal Parabola with Vertex at the Origin

An equation of a parabola having

1. Focus at F (0, c) and directrix the line y = -c is x 2 = 4cy.

2. Focus at F (c, 0) and directrix the line x = -c is y2 = 4cx.

Example │1

Sketch the parabola x2 = 4y, showing its focus, directrix, and latus rectum.

18 | P a g e
Solution:

This falls under the first case, with c= 1.

Thus, the focus is at F (0, 1) and the directrix
is the horizontal line y = -1. The latus rectum is
then horizontal as well, passing through the focus.
Thus, its equation is y = 1. Its endpoints (x, y) on the
parabola should then satisfy x2 = 4. That is, these
endpoints are (2, 1) and (-2, 1). A sketch of the parabola
is shown on the right.

Activity │ 4

Sketch the parabola y2 = -4x, showing its focus, directrix, and latus rectum.

Addenda

 In any of the case in the theorem, c is the directed distance of the focus from
the vertex. It is positive if the focus is either above or to the right of the
vertex, and negative if it is either below or to the left.
 The vertex V is always the point halfway between the focus F and the directrix l .
Notice then that the focus and the directrix are always separated by a distance
2│c│. Or, notice then the following:
│Fl│
│c│ = │ FV │ =
2
 Choosing any two of V, F, and l leaves you no choice for the third. For example,
stating that the vertex is at the origin and the focus is at (0, c) forces the
directrix to be the line y = -c.
 The latus rectum always has the length 4│c│. We leave the proof of this to the
exercises.

Example │ 2

Find an equation of the parabola:

19 | P a g e 1. With focus at (0, 2) and directrix y = -2.

2. With focus at (-1, 0) and directrix x = 1.

Solutions
 We just apply the above theorem directly:

Addendum

Here is a mnemonic device that will help you determine which version of the
equation to use. Notice that exactly one variable, x or y, is squared in the equation. The
one that is squared is always the variable involved in the equation of the axis of the
parabola. For example, a parabola with the vertex at the origin and opening upward has
equation x2 = 4cy. X is squared since the axis of this parabola is the line x = 0 (the y-
axis). To see why this works, observe this: the axis is the geometric reason why the
parabola has bilateral symmetry. Now how does this translate in the equation? It is the
squared variable that forces the mirror image of a point on the curve to be also on that
curve.

Activity │ 5

Find an equation of the parabola:

1. With focus a (0, -4) and directrix y = 4.

2. With focus at (3, 0) and directrix x = -3.

Theorem: Equation of a Vertical or Horizontal Parabola in Standard Form

An equation of a parabola having vertex at V (h, k):

1. Focus at F (h, k + c) and directrix the line y = k – c is (x – h) 2 = 4c (y – k).

2. Focus at F (h + c, k) and directrix the line x = h – c is (y – k) 2 = 4c (x – h).

20 | P a g e
 Addenda

 The above forms of the equation of a parabola are usually referred to as the
standard forms.
 Again, the squared variable is the one involved with axis. For example, in the
first case, we have the vertical axis x = h (or x – h = 0). Thus, the one squared in
the equation is x – h.

Example 3

Find an equation of the parabola:

1. With focus at F (2, 5) and directrixl : y = -3.

2. With vertex at V (6, -4) and focus at F (-2, -4).

Solution:

Just remember that the essential ingredients to the equation of a parabola in standard
form are the vertex, the axis (to determine which form to use), and the directed
distance of the focus from the vertex (to determine c).

1. Since the directrix is horizontal, the axis must be vertical, and hence, has an
equation in the form, x = h. since the axis passes through the focus, its equation
must then be satisfied by (2, 5). Thus, the axis is the line x = 2.
The vertex must be along this line as well, so its abscissa is also 2, and is
halfway between the focus and the directrix, so that its ordinate is the average
of the ordinates, 5 and -3. Thus, the vertex is at V (2, 1).
Finally, │c│ = │FV│= │5 - 1│ = 4. Since F is to the right of V, we choose c = +4.
We now have the equation of the parabola :( x – 2) 2 = 16(y – 1).
2. First, notice that here, the focus is to the left of the vertex. Thus, the axis is
horizontal, with equation of the form y = k and satisfied by V and F. Thus, the
axis is y = -4.
Finally, c = -2 – 6 = -8.
We thus have the equation of the parabola: (y + 4) 2 = -32(x – 6).

Activity │ 6
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 Find an equation of the parabola:

1. With vertex at V(2, -4) and directrixl :x = -5.

2. Opening downward with focus at F (7, -1) and directrix 6 units from F.
3. With vertex at the origin and latus rectum having endpoints at (3, 6) and (3,
-6).

WORKSHEET 1

Name: _______________________ Year & Track: ____________

Date: ______________

I. State the direction in which the parabola opens.

1. x – 5 = (y – 3)2
2. x – 7 = -(y – 5)2
3. y + 3 = -2(x + 2)2
4. x + 1 = (y – 4)2
5. –x2 + 2x + y -5 = 0
6. 2x2 + 3y –x – 10 = 0
7. Y2 – 3y – x – 10 = 0
8. X = -y2 + 3y + 2

II. Determine the vertex, focus, and the length and endpoints of the latus
rectum. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the directrix of the
parabola.
9. Y2 = 8(x – 5)
10. (x + 4)2 = 4(y – 2)
11. (y – 7)2 = -12x
12. (y + 1)2 = x – 4
13. Y2 + x – 10y + 17 = 0
14. –x2 -6x + y – 4 = 0
15. –x2 + 10x -4y +7 = 0

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 WORKSHEET

Name: _______________________ Year & Track:

_____________

Date: ______________

1. –x2 – 2x + y + 7 = 0
2. X2 – 6x – y + 9 = 0
3. –y2 + 8y + x + 12 = 0
4. X = y2 + 4y – 10

WORKSHEET

Name: _______________________ Year & Track:

_____________

Date: ______________

Plot the vertex and the endpoints of the latus rectum and sketch the graph of the
following equations.

1. (x – 5)2 = y + 9

1
2. (x + 1)2 = - (y – 2)
2

3. (y – 7)2 = x + 3

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 REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel. Pre-Calculus, Rex Book Store, 2016

DIVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS-MANILA

24 | P a g e
Module 1 – Quarter 1 / Week 3

Lesson 1.3 Ellipses

Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of conic sections of

nonlinear equations.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to model situations appropriately and solve problems
accurately using conic sections and systems of nonlinear equations.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Define a parabola.
2. Determine the standard form of equation of an ellipse.
3. Graph an ellipse in a rectangular coordinate system.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

1. Define an ellipse.
2. Determine the equation of an ellipse in standard form.

25 | P a g e
 3. Sketch an ellipse in a rectangular coordinate system.

Discussion

| Circles and Triangle Inequality

Reminiscenc

Prerequisite to our study of ellipses, we will need to recall two concepts: the
circle and the Triangle Inequality. As you might still remember, a circle is a graph
consisting of point’s equidistant from a fixed center. It always has an equation of the
form

(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = a2

Or, equivalently,

2 2
( x−h) ( y−k )
2 + 2 =1
a a

Meanwhile, the Triangle Inequality is an inequality involving absolute values: for

any x, y Є R, |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

The reason why it is called the Triangle Inequality is from vector addition in
physics: if x and y are to be treated as vectors, then the resultant vector x + y is the
third side of the triangle whose two sides are x and y, joined by the so-called tip-to-
tail method:

X + y y

In this context, the Triangle Inequality tells us that the length of a side of any
triangle cannot exceed the sum of the lengths of the other two sides.

| Perihelion and Aphelion, Part 1

Raison d’Être

26 | P a g e
 Try this!

Consider a planet orbiting the Sun. its perihelion distance is its minimum distance
is its minimum distance from the Sun; its aphelion distance, on the other hand, is
its maximum distance. Long ago, Johannes Kepler proved that the orbits of the
planets are shaped as ellipses, with the Sun lying at a focus of the ellipse. If the
equation of a planet’s path is given by

2 2
x y
2 + 2 = 1
a b

where a > b > 0, find the planet’s perihelion and aphelion distances.

Essence | Ellipses

The next conic section is the ellipse. Just like parabolas, ellipses occur frequently in
nature. The orbits F’ of the planets around the sun for instance are elliptical in
F shape. An ellipse is the locus of all points in the plane the sum of whose distances
from two fixed points F and F’ is a constant. Each of the two fixed points is called a
focus of the ellipse; together, we refer to them s foci.

Unlike a parabola, an ellipse is closed. But, just like a parabola, an ellipse

always devours its foci. The line that passes through the foci is called the principal axis
of the ellipse. An ellipse is always symmetric about its principal axis. The principal axis
will always hit the ellipse at exactly two points, V and V’. Each of these two points is
called a vertex of the ellipse; together, they are called vertices. Now, unlike the
parabola, an ellipse has two foci and two vertices. The midpoint C of FF ' , which is also
the midpoint ofVV ' , is called the center of the ellipse. Note that a parabola has no
center.

Let us now derive the standard equation for an ellipse. Let us first consider
an ellipse whose center is at the origin and foci are at F (c, 0) and F’ (-C, 0). Suppose
the fixed sum of distances given by 2a, where a > 0. Then, by examining relationships
between some lengths and invoking some symmetry, we see that the vertices V and V’
will be separated by a distance of 2a:

|VV ' | = ¿ VF∨¿ + | FV ' | = ¿ VF∨¿ + ¿ VF '∨¿ = 2a

27 | P a g e
Note that the last equation, we have invoked the fact
that V is a point on the ellipse and thus satisfy the condition
that the sum of its distances from the foci is 2a. This now tells
us that, with the center at the origin, the vertices should be
at V (a, o) and V’ (-a, 0). Note also that the principal axis is the x-axis.

We now apply the definition of the ellipse: a point P(x, y) is then

on the ellipse iff| PF | + | PF ' | = 2a. Applying the distance formula,
this equation equivalently becomes:

√( x−c)2 + y 2 + √( x +c )2+ y2 = 2a
√ x 2−2 cx+ c 2+ y 2 = 2a - √ x 2+2 cx +c 2 + y 2
x2– 2cx + c2 + y2 = 4a2 – 4a√ x 2+2 cx +c 2 + y 2 + x2 + 2cx + c2 + y2

-4cx – 4a2 = – 4a√ x 2+2 cx +c 2 + y 2

cx
+ a = √ x 2+2 cx +c 2 + y 2
a

c2 x2 2 2 2 2
2 + 2cx + a = x + 2cx + c + y
a
2❑
c
a2 – c2 = (1 - ) x 2 + y2
a2

Now, what remains for us to do is to define a new number. First of all, note
that a > c. To see why, consider the triangle ∆PFF’. By the Triangle Inequality, we have
| PF | + | PF ' | > | FF ' |. But | FF ' | = 2c, and by definition of a, | PF | + | PF ' | = 2a. We
thus have 2a > 2c, and consequently a > c, as claimed. With this, we can define the
positive number b = √ a2−c 2. The equation then becomes:

b2 2 2
2
b = 2 x +y
a

Finally, our last step: divide both sides of the equation by b 2. What we obtain is
the equation of the ellipse in standard form. What do you think will happen if the foci

28 | P a g e
were instead at F (0, c) and F(0, -c)? It is good exercise to work out the details, and
show that a very similar result is obtained. We summarize these in the following
theorem.

Theorem: Equation of an Ellipse with Center at the Origin, in Standard

Form

Let a > c > 0 and b = √ a2−c 2. An equation of the ellipse with center at the
origin, and with

1. Foci at F (c, 0) and F’ (-c, 0) and vertices at V(a, 0) and V’(-a, O) is:
2 2
x y
2 + 2 = 1
a b
2. Foci at F (0, c) and F’ (0, -c) and vertices at V(0, a) and V’(0, -a) is:
2 2
y x
2 + 2 = 1
a b

Addenda

 We recall the above forms of the equation of an ellipse the standard forms.
 Let us take one more look at how a, b, and c are related. The definition of b can
be rewritten as b2 = a2 + - c2, or a2 = b2 + c2. Thus, a is always the largest among
the three quantities.
 The distance between the two foci is 2c.
 The segment |VV ' | is called the major axis of the ellipse. Its length is always
2a. Now, the segment of the length 2b that perpendicularly bisects and is
perpendicularly bisected by the major axis is called the minor axis. Its
endpoints will also be on the ellipse. Since a > b, the major axis is always longer

29 | P a g e
 than the minor axis. Sometimes, the quantities a and b are referred to as the
semimajor and semiminor lengths, respectively, as they are the half lengths of
the major and minor axes.
 Since a > c, the foci are closer to the center than the vertices. Since the ellipse
must devour the foci, the ellipse is then forced to enclose the foci, devouring
toward the center. That is why ellipse is closed.

Example | 1

Sketch the following ellipse, showing its vertices and foci:

2 2
x y
+ =1
25 16

Solution:

Since 25 > 16, we must have a= 5 and b = 4. Thus,

C = √ a2−b2 = √ 25−16 = 3

And this ellipse falls under the first case, so that its foci are at (±5, 0). With the help
as well of the minor axis, the sketch for the ellipse is on the right.

Activity | 7

Sketch the following ellipse, showing its vertices and foci:

2 2
x y
+ =1
9 25

Example | 2

Find an equation of the ellipse whose center is at the origin and with foci at (±5, 0) and
vertices at (±7, 0).

Solution:

30 | P a g e
This ellipse falls under the first case of the theorem, with c = 5 and a = 7. Also, b =
√ 49−25 =√ 24. Thus, an equation of the ellipse is
2 2
x y
+ =1
49 24

Theorem: Equation of an Ellipse, in Standard Form

Let a > c > 0 and b =√ a2−c 2. An equation of the ellipse whose center is at C (h, k)
with:

1. Foci at F (h + c, k) and F’ (h – c, k) and vertices at V (h + a, k) and V’ (h, k – a)

is
2 2
( x−h) ( y−k )
2 + 2 =1
a b
2. Foci at F (h, k + c) and F’ (h, k – c) and vertices at V (h, k + a) and V’ (h, k – a)
is

Addenda

 Again, to choose which form to use, consider the squared expression, which is
not together with a2 in the equation of the ellipse. Equate this with zero, and you
get the principal axis of the ellipse.
 To locate the vertices of the foci, identify first the principal axis. This is the
line where these points lie. Then, the vertices are the two points on the principal
axis at a distance a form the center, while the foci are the points at a distance
c from the center. As for the endpoints of the minor axis, just count b units
from the center in the two opposing directions perpendicular to the principal to
the principal axis.
 Observe that if a = b, we get the equation of the circle. Indeed, it is when the
semimajor and semiminor lengths agree that we get a single radius.

Example | 3

31 | P a g e
Sketch the ellipse, showing the center, foci, vertices, and the endpoints of the minor
axis:

25(x – 2)2 + 9(y + 4)2 = 900

Solution:

First, transform the equation into standard form. We divide both sides of the equation
by the lone constant on the right-hand side:

2 2
( x−2) ( y + 4)
36
+ 100
=1

The center is then at C (2, -4). Since 100 > 36, we must have a = 10 and b = 6. Thus,

c = √ a2−b2 = √ 100−36 = 8

Now, to locate the other required points, identify the principal axis first. Since a 2 =
100 is with y, the principal axis must then be x – 2 = 0. Thus, the foci and the vertices
all have abscissa 2. We have the foci at (2, -4 ± 8) and the vertices at (2, -4 ± 10).
Meanwhile, the endpoints of the mirror axis are at (2 ± 6, -4). We have the sketch for
the ellipse on the right.

Activity | 8

Sketch the following ellipse. Show the center, foci, vertices, and the endpoints of the
minor axis:

1. 16x2 + 25(y + 3)2 = 1600

2. x2 + 25y2 – 4x = 21

32 | P a g e
 WORKSHEET 1

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

Given the equation of an ellipse, list the coordinates of the center, vertices, co-
vertices, and foci.

x 2 x2
1. + =1
36 4

x2 y2
2. + =1
25 81

2 2
x y
3. + =1
5 15

33 | P a g e
 2 2
x y
4. + =1
4 64

2 2
( x−1) ( y−5)
5. + =1
9 4

2 2
x ( y−6)
6. + =1
25 36

2 2
( x +1) ( y +2)
7. + =1
49 25

2
( x−2) y2
8. + =1
1 16

2 2
( x−5) ( y +3)
9. + =1
7 12

2 2
( x +7) ( y−1)
10. + =1
6 5

WORKSHEET 2

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

Sketch the graph of the given equation.

x2 y2
11. + =1
64 9

34 | P a g e
 2 2
x y
12. + =1
25 49

2 2
( x−2) ( y−1)
13. + =1
9 49

2 2
x ( y−1)
14. + =1
81 36

WORKSHEET 3

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

Write the equation in its standard form of the ellipse that is centered at (0, 0) and
which satisfies the given criteria.

35 | P a g e
 1. Vertices: (0, ±5) and Co-Vertices: (±2, 0)

2. The major axis is horizontal with length 10. The minor axis has length 8.

3. The major axis is vertical with length 20. The minor axis has length 12.

36 | P a g e
 REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel. Pre-Calculus, Rex Book Store, 2016

DIVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS-MANILA

Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 4

Lesson 1.4 Hyperbolas

Content Standards

37 | P a g e
The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of conic sections of
nonlinear equations.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to model situations appropriately and solve problems
accurately using conic sections and systems of nonlinear equations.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Define hyperbola.
2. Determine the standard form of equation of a hyperbola.
3. Graph a hyperbola in a rectangular coordinate system.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

1. Define a hyperbola.
2. Determine the equation of a hyperbola in standard form.
3. Sketch a hyperbola in a rectangular coordinate system.

Discussion

│Asymptotes
Reminiscence

Recall that some graphs exhibit what are called asymptotes. These are curves, usually
lines in our case, which the graph approaches. For further understanding about
asymptotes you can watch the full discussion by visiting this channel on YouTube; KHAN
ACADEMY: ASYMPTOTES.

│Finding the Ear-Witness

Raison d’Être

Try this!
38 | P a g e
Edmund just heard a frustrated homicide occur. The culprit loudly fired a bullet
from his gun with an initial speed of 1, 110 feet per second. The victim, who was
standing 2 feet from the gun, screamed out of pain the very instant the bullet hit
 │Hyperbolas
Essence

The next graph that we need to look at is the hyperbola. There are two basic forms of
a hyperbola. Here are examples of each.

Hyperbolas consist of two vaguely parabola shaped pieces that open either up
and down or right and left. Also, just like parabolas each of the pieces has a vertex.
Note that they aren’t really parabolas, they just resemble parabolas. There are also
two lines on each graph. These lines are called asymptotes and as the graphs show as
we make x large (in both the positive and negative sense) the graph of the hyperbola
gets closer and closer to the asymptotes. The asymptotes are not officially part of the
graph of the hyperbola. However, they are usually included so that we can make sure
and get the sketch correct. The point where the two asymptotes cross is called the
center of the hyperbola.

Theorem: Equations of a Hyperbola with Center at the Origin, in Standard Form

39 | P a g e
Let c > a > 0 and b =√ c 2+ a2. An equation of the hyperbola whose center is at the origin with:

1. Foci at F(c, 0) and F’(-c, 0) and vertices at V(a, o) and V’(-a, 0) is:
2 2
 a b

Addenda

 The above forms of the equation of a hyperbola are referred to as the standard
forms.
 This time, how are a, b, and c related? We note that b 2 = c2 – a2. That is, c2 = a2 +
b2. Thus, c is always the largest among these three quantities.
 As with the ellipse, the foci are still separated by a distance of 2c.
 The segment VV ' is called the transverse axis of the hyperbola. Like the
ellipse’s major axis, its length is always 2a. Now, the segment of length 2b that
perpendicularly bisects and is perpendicularly bisected by the transverse axis
called the conjugate axis. Unlike an ellipse’s minor axis, the endpoints of the
conjugate axis will not be on the hyperbola. In fact, the conjugate axis will never
hit the hyperbola. Unlike the case of an ellipse, there is no immediate
comparison between the sizes of a and b; all we know is that c is the largest.
Thus, the transverse axis may not be longer than the conjugate axis. To
distinguish a from b in the equation, you have to check with term is involved with
the minus sign and which is not. Note that the one together with the minus sign
is always b.
 Indeed, the greatest deviation of the hyperbola from the ellipse is this: a ‹ c.
this time, the foci are farther from the center than the vertices. Since the
hyperbola must devour the foci, the hyperbola then devours away from the
center, explaining why its branches open in opposite directions.
 While a hyperbola opens indefinitely like a parabola, they have one more huge
difference aside from the hyperbola having two branches: a hyperbola has linear

40 | P a g e
 asymptotes, while a parabola does not have any. Thus, when very far away from
the center, a hyperbola behaves almost like a line.
 To obtain the asymptote’s equations, all you have to do is replace 1 in the
standard equation of the hyperbola by 0. For example, if we have the first case,
x2 y2
- =0
a2 b2
The left-hand side becomes a difference of two squares, which you can factor:
x y x y
( - )( - )=0
a b a b
The two solutions of this equation (which are both equations in x and y) are the
equations of the two linear asymptotes:
x
Y=± x
b
 To actually sketch the asymptotes, you do
not have to use their equations. Form the
rectangle centered at the center at the c
enter of the hyperbola and whose opposite
sides are separated and perpendicularly bisected
by the transverse and conjugate axes. This 2a x 2b
rectangle is called the auxiliary rectangle. Why the name?
The two diagonals of this rectangle are precisely the
asymptotes you are looking for.

Example 1

Sketch the hyperbola, showing its vertices and foci:

x2 y 2
- =1
9 16

Solution |

Since the one subtracted is the term involving 16, we must have a = 3 and b = 4. Thus,

c = √ a2 +b 2 = √ 9+16 = 5

and this hyperbola falls under the first case, so that its foci are (±5, 0) and its vertices
are at (±3, 0). After locating these points in the plane and noting the transverse and
the conjugate axes, we form the auxillary rectangle to obtain the asymptotes to which
the hyperbola should be approaching.

41 | P a g e
 Exercise 1

Sketch the hyperbola, showing its vertices and foci:

2 2
y x
- =1
16 9

Theorem: Equations of Hyperbola with Center at C(h, k) in Standard Form

Let c > a > 0 and b = √ c 2−a 2. An equation of the hyperbola centered at C(h, k) with:

1. Foci at F(h + c, k) and F’(h – c, k) and vertices at V(h + a, k) and V’(h – a, k) is:
2 2
( x−h) ( y−k )
2 - 2 =1
a b
2. Foci at F(h, k + c) and F’(h, k – c) and vertices V(h, k + a) and V’(h, k – a) is:
( y−k )2 ( x−h)2
2 - 2 =1
a b

Addenda

42 | P a g e
  Again, to choose which form to use, consider the squared expression that is not
together with a2 in the equation of the hyperbola. Equate this with zero, and you
get the principal axis of the hyperbola.
 To locate the vertices and foci, identify first the principal axis. This is the line
where these points lie. Then, the vertices are the two points on the principal
axis at a distance a from the center, while the foci are the points at a distance
c from the center. As for the endpoints of the conjugate axis, just count b units
the center in the two opposing directions perpedicular to the principal axis.
 The use auxillary rectangle to sketch the asymptotes still applies in these
genertal cases. Moreover, the technique of replacing the 1 by a 0 in the equation
of the hyperbola to obtain the equations of the asymptotes still works here.

Example 3

Sketch the following hyperbola, showing its center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes:

16(x – 2)2 – 9(y + 4)2 = 576

Solution |

Transform this equation first into standard form by dividing both sides of the equation
by the lone constant on the right-hand side:

2 2
( x−2) ( y + 4)
– =1
36 64

The center is then at C(2, -4). Since 64 = 82 is the one involved with the minus sign, we
must have a = 6 and b = 8. Thus,

C = √ a2 +b 2 = √ 36+64 = 10

And the principal axis must be y + 4 = 0. Thus, the foci and vertices all have ordinate, y
= -4. We have the foci at (2±10, -4) and the vertices at (2±6, -4). Meanwhile, the
endpoints of the conjugate axis are at (2, -4±8). The auxillary rectangle can now be
formed to obtain the asymptotes. Their equations are:

x−2 y−4
= ±
6 8

43 | P a g e
 Exercise 3

Sketch the hyperbola, showing its center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes:

1. 9x2 – 16x(y + 3)2 = -144

2. 4x2 – y2 -16x – 6y – 9 0

WORKSHEET 1

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

44 | P a g e
Date:______________

I. Sketch the following hyperbolas with the given equations. Clearly indicate
the cernter, vertices, foci, and the symptotes.

1. 4x2 – y2 =4

2. x2 – 9y2 + 6x + 36y = 18

3. x2 – y2 -4x + 8y = 21

4. 3x2 – 2y2 -6x -12y = 27

II. Find an equation of the hyperbola with the indicated properties.

1. Center at the origin; a vertex at (2, 0); a focus at (4, 0)

2. Vertices at (0, 1) and (0, -1); asymptotes are the lines x = ±3y

3. Foci at (1, 2) and (1, 6); vertices are at (1, 3) and (1, 5)

4. Vertices at (±3, 2); passes through (5, 0)

WORKSHEET 2

45 | P a g e
Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

I. Find an equation of the hyperbola:

1. Having center at (2, 0), a focus at (-5, 0), and vertex at (5, 0)

2. Having the points (-5, -3) and (4, -3) as the endpoints of its conjugate axis
and whose transverse axis is as long as the conjugate axis.

46 | P a g e
 REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel. Pre-Calculus, Rex Book Store, 2016

DIVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS-MANILA

Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 5

Lesson 1.5 Conics at Large: Foci, Directrices, and Electricity

47 | P a g e
Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of conic sections of

nonlinear equations.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to model situations appropriately and solve problems
accurately using conic sections and systems of nonlinear equations.

Learning Competency

The learners…

4. Define hyperbola.
5. Determine the standard form of equation of a hyperbola.
6. Graph a hyperbola in a rectangular coordinate system.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

4. Define a hyperbola.
5. Determine the equation of a hyperbola in standard form.
6. Sketch a hyperbola in a rectangular coordinate system.

Discussion

| The Rounder Ellipse

Raison d’Être

Which of the following two ellipses is “rounder” (literally, in shape)

2 2
x y
1. + =1
25 9

2 2
x y
2. + =1
100 64
3.

Essence | Conics: A More Unified View

48 | P a g e
Our goal in this lesson is to give a more unified treatment of the conic sections. Let’s
take a look of these equations:

1. Parabola, with vertex at (h, k) : (x – h)2 = 4c(y – k) or (y – k)2 = 4c(x – h)

2 2 2 2
( x−h) ( y−k ) ( y−k ) ( x−h)
2. Ellipse, with center at (h, k) : 2 + 2 = 1 or 2 + 2 =1
a b a b

( x−h)2 ( y−k )2 ( y−k )2 ( x−h)2

3. Hyperbola, with center at (h, k) : 2 - 2 = 1 or 2 - 2 =1
a b a b

As we can see, all conic sections have second-degree equations in x and y. The
natural question of course is: are the conic sections the only curves exhibiting such
equations? That is, is the graph of the general second-degree polynomial equation, Ax 2
+ By2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0 always a conic section? The answer is a bit clearer if C = 0.
We see that we can always collect all terms involving x and all involving y, complete the
squares, and then obtain an equation in one of the forms resembling some conic’s
equation. That is, the graph of any second-degree polynomial is one among a parabola, an
ellipse, a hyperbola, or a degenerate conic.

Determine the graph of the given equation.

EX
AM 1. 4x2 – 4y2 – 32x + 8y + 124 = 0
PLE 2. x2 + 4x + 4y – 8 = 0
| 1 3. 25x2 + y2 – 100x + 6y + 190 = 0

Solution | 1, 2, 3

We simply complete squares in the equations.

1. We can actually divide first both sides of the equation by 4:

49 | P a g e
 x2 - y2 -8x + 2y + 31 = 0

(x2 – 8x) – (y2 – 2y) = -31

(x – 4)2 – (y – 1)2 = -16

So, the graph is a hyperbola.

2. Completing the square for x only, we get:

(x + 2)2 + 4y = 12

So, the graph is a parabola.

3. Before completing the squares for both variables, we factor out coefficients of
the squares:

25(x2 – 4x) + (y2 + 6y) = -190

25(x – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = -81

Unlike in the first item, the left-hand side here is a sum (not a difference) of
the squares, and hence, cannot be negative. Thus, the graph of this equation is
the empty set.

Determine the graph of the given equation.

EXERCISE 1 1. 25x2 + y2 – 100x + 6y + 84 = 0

2. x2 + 2x – 8 = 0

3. 4x2 – 4y2 -32x + 8y + 60 = 0

Theorem: Focus-Directrix Property

The locus of all points in the plane the ratio of whose

50 | P a g e
distances from a fixed point F and a fixed line ℓ is a
constant e, is:
 The fixed point and the fixed line are called a focus and a directrix of the conic.
For an ellipse and a hyperbola, two focus-directrix pairs exist. Meanwhile, the constant
e is called the eccentrcity of the conic.

The proof of the above theorem, though mechanically tedious, is conceptually easy to
follow. The case e = 1 is clear: we have precisely the definition of a parabola. Thus, it
only remains to show the other two conclusions assuming e ≠ 1. So let e ≠ 1. We only
consider the case when the focus to be considered is at F(0, 0) and the corresponding
directrix is the line ℓ:x = -d, where d > 0:

We have the important equation expressing the eccentricity in terms of the distances
between the vertices and between the foci of a central conic:

c 2c distance between the foci

e= = =
a 2 a distance between the vertices

51 | P a g e
 Example 2

Determine the eccentricity of the conic with equation

4x2 – 4y2 – 32x + 8y + 124 = 0

Solution

We already saw in the first example that the equation can be transformed into the
form:

(x – 4)2 – (y – 1)2 = -16

2 2
( y−1) ( x−4)
- =1
16 16

We thus have a = b = 4 and hence, since this is a hyperbola, with c = √ a2 +b 2= 4 √2. Thus,
4 √2
the eccentricity of this hyperbola is e = = √ 2.
4

EXERCISE 2
Determine the eccentricity of the conic with equation:

25x2 + y2 – 100x + 6y + 84 = 0

ADDENDUM

 Since c = ea, we now have an expression for the distance d of the directrix from
its corresponding focus:
2 2
2 e d
a = 2 2
(1−e )

ed
a= 2
⃒ 1−e ⃒

⃒ a 1−e 2 ⃒
d=
e

52 | P a g e
 2 2 2 2
a a a a −c b
That is: d = ⃒ - ae ⃒ = ⃒ - c ⃒ = ⃒ -c⃒=⃒ ⃒=
e e c c c

WORKSHEET 1

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

I. Identify the graph of the given second-degree equation. If it is conic, give

its eccentricity.

1. x2 – 12x +8y + 20 = 0

2. 36x + 24y – 9x2 – 4y2 = 36

3. 4x2 – y2 – 4x = 3

4. 2x2 + 2y2 + 24x + 20y + 90 = 0

5. x2 – 9y2 + 2x – 54y = 80

53 | P a g e
Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 6-7

Lesson 1.6 Systems of Nonlinear Equations

Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of conic sections of

nonlinear equations.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to model situations appropriately and solve problems
accurately using conic sections and systems of nonlinear equations.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Illustrate systems of nonlinear equations

2. Determine the solutions of systems of nonlinear equations using techniques
such as substitution, elimination, and graphing; and
3. Solve situational problems involving systems of nonlinear equations.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

1. Illustrate systems of nonlinear equations

2. Determine the solutions of systems of nonlinear equations using techniques such
as substitution, elimination, and graphing; and
3. Solve situational problems involving systems of nonlinear equations.

Discussion

| Systems of Equations
Reminiscence

A system of equations is a collection of two or more equations with the same set of
unknowns. In solving a system of equations, we try to find values for each of the
unknowns that will satisfy every equation in the system. The equations in the system
can be linear or no-linear. A system of linear equations can be solved using the following
ways:

54 | P a g e
 1. Gaussian Elimination
2. Substitution
3. Matrices
4. Graphing

Raison d’Être | Unknown Dimensions (Literally)

TRY THIS!

Gabriel has a rope 40 meters long. If he is able to enclose a 96-square-meter

rectangular are using this rope, can you find the dimensions of the rectangular
region?

Essence | Nonlinear Systems

Considering the problem inside the box, you will see that you have to solve a
system of equations that are not anymore linear. Systems consisting of at least one
nonlinear equation are called nonlinear systems. Many applications require solutions of
such systems rather than purely linear ones. For example, the graphs you will see in
your career are mostly due to nonlinear equations. Thus, in finding points of
intersection of these graphs, you will need to deal with a nonlinear system.

Whether the system is linear or not, the same principle of elimination of

variables underlies the analytic methods of solving the system: combine in some way
given equations to produce an equation with one less variable. So, if the system is in two
variables, doing this will give you an equation in just one variable, which you can solve
more easily. If you have a system of three equations in three variables, eliminate one
variable in two pairs of equations to get a system of two equations in two variables.
Finally, eliminate in these two new equations one more variable to get on equation in one
variable.

55 | P a g e
 We will consider only systems of two equations in two variables. The basic
analytic methods are the same as with linear equations: in the substitution method, we
express one variable in terms of the other by using one of the equations and then use
this expression in the other equation to obtain an equation in just one variable. In the
direct elimination method, after possibly multiplying both sides of the equations by an
appropriate multiplier, we add or subtract the corresponding sides of the equations so
that we are left with, again, an equation in just one variable.

Let us begin with the least nonlinear example: one involving a linear and a
quadratic equation.

Example 1

Solve the system:

x2 – 4 = y

2x + y = -1

Solution

We can use the method of substitution here. We replace y in the second equation with
its equivalent expression in terms of x from the first equation:

2x + (x2 – 4) = -1

This equation we can now easily solve:

x2 + 2x – 3 = 0

(x + 3)(x – 1) = 0

x= -3 or x = 1

If x = -3, upon substitution of this into the first equation, we get y = 5. Meanwhile, if x
= 1, we get y = -3 using the same equation.

Therefore, the solutions of the system are (-3, 5) and (1, -3). You may verify yourselves
that these pairs indeed satisfy both the given equations. The graphs of the given
equations are a parabola and a line. They are shown below, together with the points of
intersection.

56 | P a g e
 6

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

-2

-3

-4

ADDENDA

 It is essential to check the solutions. Since quadratic equations are involved,

some of the solutions might turn out to be irrelevant.
 Solutions to systems of two equations in two variables are ordered pairs. It is
important that we write the solutions this way. For instance, in the above
example, the solution y = 5 corresponds to the solution x = -3 only.
 You should have instead expressed x in terms of y, using the second equation,
and then substituted the expression to x in the first equation. However, this is
less advisable since x in the first equation is squared. It really pays off to be
wise in selecting which variable to replace.
 As long as one of the equations is linear, one can always use the method of
substitution. This is because we can always isolate one of the variables in a
linear equation.

Solve the system:

x2– y = 4x
EXERCISE 1
y – 2x = -5

Example 2

Solve the system:

57 | P a g e
 x2+4y2 = 16

x2 – y2 = 4x

Solution:

In both equations, both variables are squared, so it is not very wise to use the
substitution method. We can eliminate a variable though. It is very tempting to
eliminate x2 on the left-hand side. However, doing so will not accomplish our goal: there
is still an x at the right-hand side. Indeed, the wiser choice here is to eliminate y 2. To
accomplish this, we multiply the second equation by 4 and then add the result with the
first equation:

x2 + 4y2 = 16

4x2 – 4y2 = 15

5x 2 = 16 + 16x

We thus have an equation in x only, which we can easily solve:

5x2 – 16x – 16 = 0

(5x + 4)(x – 4) = 0

4
x=- or x = 4
5

4
If x = - , we get the following from the first equation:
5
2 2
16−x x 4 96
y2 = =4- =4- =
4 4 25 25

4 √6 16
That is, y = ± . Now if x =4, we get y2 = 4 - = 0, so that y = 0. Therefore, the
5 4
solution set of the given system is the following:

4 9 √6 4 9 √6
- , , - ,- , (4, 0)
5 5 5 5

58 | P a g e
 WORKSHEET

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

I. Solve the following systems of equations.

1. y = x2 – 1

x = 2y - 1

2. x2 – 8y2 = -16

x = 2y

3. y = x2 – x + 9

x+y=5

4. x2 + y2 = 25

x2 + 4y2 = 64

II. Solve this word problem.

59 | P a g e
 5. Find two numbers which are reciprocals of each other and whose sum is 3.

Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 8

Lesson 2.1 Series and Sigma Notation

Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of series and mathematical

induction and the Binomial Theorem.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to keenly observe and investigate patterns, and formulate
appropriate mathematical statements and prove them using mathematical induction
and/or Binomial Theorem.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Illustrate a series.
2. Differentiate a series from a sequence.
3. Use the sigma notation to represent a series.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

1. Illustrate a series.
2. Differentiate a series from a sequence.
3. Use the sigma notation to represent a series.

Discussion

Reminiscence | Sequences

A sequence is an ordered collection of objects. That is, a

sequence is a list where there is a first item, second item, a third item, and so on. So, a
sequence is really a mechanism of assigning to each natural number an object: the first
item to number 1, the second item to number 2, and so on. Thus, we mathematically

60 | P a g e
define a sequence as a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers. For
instance, a sequence of real numbers would look like the following:

f:N —› R

1 —› f(1)

2 —› f(2) these are terms of a sequence

3 —› f(3) and is usually written as a 1, a2,

a3, …, an, …

An infinite sequence is a sequence that never ends. On the other hand, a finite
sequence is a list of some natural number of items; that is, it is a function whose
domain is the set {1, 2, …, N}, for some natural number N.

Raison d’Être | Not-so-Full Circle, Part 1

TRY THIS!

Friedrich starts walking around a 1-kilometer long circular track at 12 noon. By 1PM he has
walked halfway around the track. He then slows down and was able to travel an additional
quarter of the track during the succeeding hour. Every after an hour, he is able to travel
only of the distance he was able to travel the previous hour.

1. What distance did Friedrich walk from 3PM to 4PM?

2. What total distance has Friedrich walked from 12 noon to 4PM?

Essence | Series

Referring to the question inside the box, you have a sequence of distances
travelled every hour. However, in Q2, what you will need is the sum of these distances

61 | P a g e
instead. In general, given a sequence a 1, a2, a3, …,an, …, its corresponding series in the
following sum:

a1 +a2 + a3 + … + an + …

If the sequence is finite, its corresponding series is said to be a finite series.

Otherwise, it is said to be an infinite series. For example, the sequence

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11

Is a finite sequence, with the corresponding finite series 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11,

with sum 36. Reminder, we shall restrict our attention to finite series only.

It is quite tiresome to always write a 1 +a2 + a3 + … + an. We therefore use the

following more compact notation, called the sigma notation or summation notation. In
place of a1+a2 + a3 + … + an, we simply write the following:

∑ ak
k =1

The symbol ∑ s the uppercase Greek letter sigma. The above expression is also
usually called summation notation; one can read the above expression as “the sum of all
terms of the form ak, as k runs 1 to n. for a clearer understanding, see the following
example:

Example 1

The following are the examples of finite series:

∑ k2 = 1 2
+ 22 + 3 2 + 42
k =1

6
1 1 1 1 1
∑ 1k = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6
k =1

ADDENDA

 There is nothing particularly special about the letters k and n in the above
example. They are just dummy variables, called indices of summation, which can
be replaced by any other letter.
 The index of summation may start at 0, indicating that you should add up all
terms with the index ranging over all integers from 0 up to the integer above
the summation symbol.

EXERCISE 1

62 | P a g e
Rewrite the following series without the summation symbol:

5
1. ∑ (2 k +1)
k=0

5
(−1) j−1
2. ∑
j=1 j

Example 2

Rewrite the given series in sigma notation:

1. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12
1 1 1 1 1
2. - + - +
4 7 10 13 16

Solution

1. Note that the terms of the series are just the first 6 consecutive even positive
integers. That is, they are all of the form 2n, with n ranging from 1 to 6. Thus in
summation notation, the given series can be written as follows:

∑ 2n
n =1

2. Notice that the difference between successive denominators is always 3; that

is, they form an arithmetic sequence with common difference 3. Thus, the
denominators are of the form, 3n + c, where c is a constant determined by the
first denominator. If we choose to let n start with 1, then, since the
denominator corresponding to n = 1 is 4, the proper c must satisfy the following:
3(1) + c = 4
That is, c = 1. So, the terms are of the form:
1
3 n+1
where n starts at 1. Now, we still have to consider the alternating signs of the
terms. We thus multiply an extra (-1) nor (-1)n – 1
to the terms to make this
happen. Since we want a positive term when n = 1, we choose (-1) n – 1. In summary,
the given series can be written as follows

5 n−1
(−1)
∑ 3 n+1
n =1

63 | P a g e
 ADDENDA
 We could have started with n = 0 instead in the previous example. For
instance, in the second item, if we want the denominator 4 to correspond
with n = 0, then c will instead have to satisfy:
4
(−1)n
∑ 3 n+ 4
n=0

It should be clear that both answers are valid, that is, the two
summations give the same sum.

 In general, we can always change the starting count for the index of the
summation as follows:
If j ∈ N, then,

n n+j

∑ ak = ∑ ak− j
k=0 k= j

EXERCISE 2

Rewrite the following series in summation notation.

1. 2 – 4 + 8 – 16 + 32 – 64 + 128
1 1 1 1 1
2. + + + +
22 17 12 7 2

Example 3

24
1
Evaluate the following sum. ∑ ¿¿ - √ k +1 )
k =1

Solution

Let us write out the addends of this series:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( - )+( - )+( - )+…+( - )
√1 √2 √2 √3 √3 √ 4 √24 √25
Observe that the middle terms cancel out. Thus, we are left with the first and last
addends only:

24
1
∑ ¿¿ - √ k +1 )
k =1

1 1
= -
√1 √ 25

64 | P a g e
 1
=1-
5

4
=
5

HISTORICAL GEM: Sigma Notation

Our present way of writing sums using the uppercase Greek letter sigma, ∑, is
most likely due to the simple fact that it is the Greek equivalent of the
English letter S, which is the first letter of the word sum. It was the Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler who introduced this notation back in 1755. He
is also responsible for many other mathematical notations we use today, such
as f(x) for expressing a function, f of x.

WORKSHEET 1

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

I. Rewrite the following sums in sigma notation.

1. 5 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 25 + 30

2. 4 – 7 + 10 – 13 + 16

1 1 1 1 1 1
3. 1 + + + + + +
3 9 27 81 243 729

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4. 1 - + - + - + -
3 5 7 9 11 13 15

5. e + e4 + e9 + e16 + e25

II. Evaluate the following sums.

65 | P a g e
 5
1. ∑ (4 k +1)
k=0

6
2. ∑ (−1)k
k=0

Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 9

Lesson 2.2 Mathematical Induction

Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of series and mathematical

induction and the Binomial Theorem.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able to keenly observe and investigate patterns, and formulate
appropriate mathematical statements and prove them using mathematical induction
and/or Binomial Theorem.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Illustrate the Principle of Mathematical induction.

2. Apply mathematical induction in proving identities.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

66 | P a g e
 1. Illustrate the Principle of Mathematical induction;
2. Apply mathematical induction in proving identities; and
3. Solve problems using mathematical induction.

Discussion

| An ATM Problem
Raison d’Être

TRY THIS!

A particular automated teller machine (ATM) has a certain problem. It only contains 200-
peso and 500-peso bills. So, for example, you cannot withdraw 300 pesos (if that is all you
wish to withdraw) from this machine. But, you can withdraw just 200 pesos. You can also
withdraw just 400 pesos. Show, in fact, that you can withdraw any integer multiple of 100
pesos beyond 400 pesos from this ATM.

Es | The Principle of Mathematical Induction

se
nc Activity 1: Squares from Odds?

e Let us guess a formula for the sum of the first n consecutive odd integers.

1. Not much tools are available yet, so we start by taking a look at the sums for
the first few values of n, one by one:
1 =1
1+3=4
1+3+5=9
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25
2. Take a closer look at those sums. Have you notice anything in common? How
about any pattern?
3. Using your answer to the previous question, what do you think should be the
next sum?
4. Still following the above guessed pattern, what then should be the sum of
the first n consecutive odd integers?

67 | P a g e
 AXIOM: Principle of Mathematical Induction

For each n ∈ N, suppose Pn is some statement involving n. If:

1. P1 is true, and
2. For any k ∈ N, if PK is true, then Pk + 1 is also true, then Pnis true for all n ∈ N.

ADDENDA

 The proof of a claim through this principle is thus done in two steps:
first, show that the statement is true when n = 1; then, prove that if you
assume the statement is true when n = k, then the statement would also
be true when n = k + 1, for any positive integer k.
 The first step in proof by induction is usually called the basis step. The
second is usually called the inductive step.

Example 1

Prove that for any positive integer n,

1 + 3 + … + (2n – 1) = n2

Proof

We prove this by the PMI. We check the two conditions:

1. Basis step: when n = 1, we have the following statement:

1=1
2. Inductive step: we assume the statement is true for n = k, for an arbitrary
positive integer k, that is,
1 + 3 + … + (2k – 1) = k2
Now, we show that this implies that the statement is also true when n = k + 1:
1 + 3 + … + (2k – 1) + (2(k + 1) – 1) = (k + 1)2
To prove this, we simply apply the assumption involving n = k to the left-hand
side of the desired resulting equation:
1 + 3 + … + (2k – 1) + (2k + 1) = k2 + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2.
This ends the proof.

ADDENDUM

68 | P a g e
  The inductive step is usually mistaken as the statement which is already true for
all possible integers, because of the phrase “then P k+ 1is true for all k.” again,
this interpretation is wrong. The inductive step is a conditional statement: if you
assume that the statement is true when n = k, then the statement when n = k + 1
will be true as well. Thus, the method of proof becomes: assume first that the
statement is true when n = k, then prove, from this hypothesis, that it
immediately follows that the statement when n = k + 1 is true. Usually, the
assumption that the statement is true when n = k is called the hypothesis of
induction or inductive hypothesis.

EXERCISE 1

Prove, by induction, that for any positive integer n,

n(n+1)
1+2+3+…+n=
2

Example 2

Prove that for any positive integer n and any real numbers a and b,

(ab)n = anbn

Proof

Let a, b ∈ R. We proceed by induction:

1. Basis step: when n = 1, we indeed have:

(ab)1 = ab = a1b1
2. Inductive step: let k be an arbitrary positive integer. Assume the inductive
hypothesis, that is,
(ab)k = akbk
Now we show that this implies:
(ab)k + 1 = ak + 1bk + 1
Again, we just have to invoke the inductive hypothesis:
(ab)k + 1 = (ab)k(ab)1 = akbkab = akabkb = ak + 1bk + 1
This completes the proof.

Example 3

69 | P a g e
Prove that for any positive integer n,

n< 2n

Proof

1. Basis step: when n = 1, 2n = 2, and we indeed have 1 < 2.

2. Inductive step: Let k ∈ N. Assume the inductive hypothesis, that is,
k< 2k
Now, we show that k + 1 < 2k + 1. From the inductive hypothesis, we get:
k + 1 < 2k + 1
Finally, since k ≥ 1, 2k ≥ 2 › 1. Thus,
k + 1 < 2k + 1 < 2k + 2k = 2(2k) = 2k + 1.
This completes the proof.

Theorem: Extended Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let m∈ N, and for each n ≥ m, suppose Pn is some statement involving n. if:

1. Pm is true, and
2. For any k ≥ m, if PK is true, then Pk + 1 is also true, then Pn is true for
all positive integers n ≥ m.

Example 4

Prove that 2n< n! for all positive integers n ≥ 4.

Proof

We apply the extended version of the Principle of Mathematical Induction:

1. Basis step: when n = 4, we indeed have

2n = 16 < 24 = n!

70 | P a g e
 2. Inductive step: Let k be a positive integer with k ≥ 4. Assume the inductive
hypothesis, that is, 2k< k! Now, we show that 2 k + 1
< (k + 1)! As well. From the
inductive hypothesis, we have
2k + 1 = 2(2k) < 2(k!)
Now since k ≥ 4, clearly k + 1 ≥ 5 › 2. Thus,
2(k!) < (k + 1)k! = (k + 1)!
This and the previous inequality imply that 2 k + 1< (k + 1)! Which is what we wanted
to show.

EXERCISE 2

Prove that n2< 2n for all positive integers n ≥ 5.

WORKSHEET 1

Name:_______________________ Year & Track:_____________

Date:______________

Prove the following using mathematical induction.

n ( n+1 ) (2 n+1)
1. 12 + 22 + 32 + … + n2 = , for any n ∈ N
6

n2 ( n+1 ) 2
2. 13 + 23 + 33 + … + n3 =
4

71 | P a g e
 n ( n+1 ) (n+2)
3. 1▪2 + 2▪3 + 3▪4 + … + n(n + 1) = , for any n ∈ N
3

4. 2 + 22 + 23 + … + 2n = 2n + 1 – 2, for any n ∈ N

5. 1 + 8 + 16 + … + 8(n – 1) = (2n – 1)2, for any n ∈ Z

Module 1 - Quarter 1 / Week 10

Lesson 2.3 Arithmetic and Geometric Series

Content Standards

The learners demonstrate an understanding of key concepts of series and mathematical

induction and the Binomial Theorem.

Performance Standards

The learners shall be able keenly observe and investigate patterns, and formulate
appropriate mathematical statements and prove them using mathematical induction
and/or Binomial Theorem.

Learning Competency

The learners…

1. Illustrate the Principle of Mathematical induction;

72 | P a g e
 2. Apply mathematical induction in proving identities; and
3. Solve problems using mathematical induction.

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

1. Derive the formula for the sum of an arithmetic or a geometric series.

2. Calculate sums of arithmetic and geometric series.

73 | P a g e
Theorem: Sum of an Arithmetic Series
ESSENSE │

If a1, a2, …, an form an arithmetic sequence with common difference d, then the sum S n of
these n terms is given by the following:

n[2 a1 +(n−1)d ] n(a 1+ an )

Sn = =
2 2

Example 1│
Evaluate the following sum:
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + … + 99
Solution │
This is an arithmetic series, with common difference 2. If n is the index of the series
corresponding to the last term, then,

99 = an = a1 + (n - 1)d = 1 + (n - 1)2 = 2n -1

99+1
Thus, n = 50, and hence we have the following:
2 =

50(1+99)
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + … + 99 = = 2500
2

More explanations? Search using the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0-wa7voc0uM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uy_L8tnihDM

74 | P a g e
Theorem: Sum of a Geometric Series
ESSENSE │

If a1, a2, …, an form a geometric sequence with common ratio r ≠ 1, then the sum S n of
these n terms is given by the following:

a1 (1−r n) a1−r a n
Sn = =
1−r 1−r

Example 1│
Evaluate the following sum:
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 512
Solution │
This is a geometric series, with common ratio 2. If n is the index of the series
corresponding to the last term, then,

512 = an = a1r n−1 = 1 ● 2n−1= 2n−1

Since 512 = 29, we have n = 10, and hence the following:

1−2(512)
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + … + 512 = = 1023
1−2

More explanations? Search using the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXo0bG4iAyg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8THsl3AYFI

75 | P a g e
Name: _______________________ Year and Section: ____________
THE BINOMIAL
THEOREM WORKSHEET 1

I - Find the sum of an arithmetic series.

1. 38 + 35 + 32 +, …, + 2
2. 5 + 15 + 25 +, …, + 195
3. (-24) + (-13) + (-2) +, … + 185
4. 5 + 9 + 13 +, …, + 93
5. 2 + 7 + 12 +, …, + 122

II – Find the sum of a geometric series.

1. 3 + 12 + 48 +, …, + 768
2. 5 + (-15) + 45 + (-135)
3. 4 + 8 + 16 +, …, + 2048
4. 10 + 30 + 90 +, …, + 2430
2 2 2 2
5. 2 + + + +
3 9 27 81

76 | P a g e
Motivation

I am the very model of a modern Major-General,

I’ve information vegetable, animal, and mineral,

I know the kings of England, and I quote the fights historical

From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical;

I’m very well acquainted, too, with matters mathematical,

I understand equations, both the simple and quadratical,

About binomial theorem I’m teeming with a lot o’ news —

With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse.

— Gilbert and Sullivan, Pirates of Penzance.

ESSENCE │

When you look at the following expansions you can see the symmetry and
the emerging patterns. The simple first case dates back to Euclid in the
third century BCE.

(a +b)2 = (a +b)(a +b)

= a2+2ab +b2

(a +b)3 = (a + b)2(a +b)

= (a2 + 2ab + b2)(a + b)

= (a3 + 2a2b + ab2) + (a2b +2ab2+ b3)

= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

(a + b)4 = (a + b)3(a + b)

= (a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3)(a + b)

77 | P a g e
 = (a4 + 3a3b + 3a2b2 + ab3) + (a3b + 3a2b2 + 3ab3 + b4)

= a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

Notice that

the expansion of (a +b)2 has three terms and in each term the sum of the
indices is 2
the expansion of (a +b)3 has four terms and in each term the sum of the
indices is 3
the expansion of (a +b)4 has five terms and in each term the sum of the
indices is 4.

We conjecture that the expansion of ( a+b)n has n+1 terms and in each term
the sum of the indices is n. The coefficients of the terms follow an interesting
pattern. How can we determine this pattern and how can we predict the
coefficients of the expansion of (a +b)n? The binomial theorem gives us the
general formula for the expansion of ( a +b)n for any positive integer n. It also
enables us to determine the coefficient of any particular term of an expansion
of (a +b)n.

In this module, Pascal’s triangle is center stage. The coefficients of the

expansion of (a +b)n, for a particular positive integer n, are contained in
sequence in the nth row of this triangle of numbers. The triangular numbers,
the square numbers and the numbers of the Fibonacci sequence can be found
from the triangle, and many interesting identities can be established. For
example, the triangular numbers occur in Pascal’s triangle along the diagonal
shown in the following diagram. The square numbers can be found by adding
pairs of adjacent numbers on this diagonal.

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 The triangular numbers in Pascal’s triangle.

This topic combines combinatoric and algebraic results in a most productive

manner. The relationship between the expansion of ( a + b)n and binomial
probabilities is addressed in the module Binomial distribution.

A Look at Pascal’s Triangle

We begin by looking at the expansions of (1+x)n for n = 0,1,2,3,4,5.

(1+x)0 = 1

(1+x)1 = 1+x

(1+x)2 = 1+2x +x2

(1+x)3 = 1+3x +3x2+x3

(1+x)4 = 1+4x +6x2+4x3+x4

(1+x)5 = 1+5x +10x2+10x3+5x4+x5

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We begin by looking at the expansions of (1+x)n for n = 0,1,2,3,4,5.

(1+x)0 = 1

(1+x)1 = 1+x

(1+x)2 = 1+2x +x2

(1+x)3 = 1+3x +3x2+x3

(1+x)4 = 1+4x +6x2+4x3+x4

(1+x)5 = 1+5x +10x2+10x3+5x4+x5

Pascal’s triangle

n x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

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 0 1

1 1 1

2 1 2 1

3 1 3 3 1

4 1 4 6 4 1

5 1 5 10 10 5 1

6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1

7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

8 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1

Pascal’s triangle is often displayed in the following way. Some of the

patterns of the triangle are more apparent in this form.

1 1

1 2 1

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 1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1

By examining Pascal’s triangle, we can make the following observations,

which will be proved later in this module.

1 Each number is the sum of the two numbers diagonally above it (with the
exception of the 1’s).
2 Each row is symmetric (i.e., the same backwards as forwards).

3 The sum of the numbers in each row is a power of 2.

4 In any row, the sum of the first, third, fifth, ... numbers is equal to the
sum of the second, fourth, sixth, ... numbers. (This is not a totally
obvious result.)

We can use Pascal’s triangle to help us expand expressions of the form (1 + x) n

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More explanations? Search using the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPwrDWQ7hPc

Name: ___________________ Year and Section: ________________

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 WORKSHEET 2

I – Expand the following binomial powers.

1. (3x – 2y)3

2. (2z – 1)4

3. (a + b)8

4. (u – 2v)5

5. (pq – 4)6

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