1|Page

POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

Conservatism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Not to be confused with Conservationism.
This article is about conservatism as a political and social philosophy. For other uses,
see Conservatism (disambiguation).
"Conservatives" redirects here. For specific political parties, see Conservative Party
(disambiguation).
Conservatism is a political and social philosophy promoting traditional social institutions in the
context of culture and civilization. The central tenets of conservatism include tradition, human
imperfection, organic society, hierarchy, authority, and property rights.[1]Conservatives seek to
preserve a range of institutions such as religion, parliamentary government, and property rights, with
the aim of emphasizing social stability and continuity. [2] The more traditional elements—reactionaries
—oppose modernism and seek a return to "the way things were".[nb 1][4]
The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de
Chateaubriand[nb 2] during the period of Bourbon Restoration that sought to roll back the policies of
the French Revolution. Historically associated with right-wing politics, the term has since been used
to describe a wide range of views. There is no single set of policies regarded as conservative
because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place
and time. Thus conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective
traditions—may disagree on a wide range of issues. Edmund Burke, an 18th-century politician who
opposed the French Revolution but supported the American Revolution, is credited as one of the
main theorists of conservatism in Great Britain in the 1790s.[6]
According to Quintin Hogg, the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959: "Conservatism is
not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the
development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human
nature itself".[7] In contrast to the tradition-based definition of conservatism, some political theorists
such as Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense
of social and economic inequality. From this perspective, conservatism is less an attempt to uphold
traditional institutions and more, "a meditation on—and theoretical rendition of—the felt experience
of having power, seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back". [8][9]

Liberalism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about the ideology of liberalism. For the American ideology, see Modern liberalism in
the United States. For other local differences, see Liberalism by country.
For other uses, see Liberal (disambiguation).
Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed,
and equality before the law.[1][2][3] Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their
understanding of these principles, but they generally support limited government, individual
rights (including civil rights and human rights), capitalism (free
markets), democracy, secularism, gender equality, racial equality, internationalism, freedom of
speech, freedom of the press and freedom of religion.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10] Yellow is the political colourmost
commonly associated with liberalism. [11][12]
Liberalism became a distinct movement in the Age of Enlightenment, when it became popular
among Western philosophers and economists. Liberalism sought to replace the norms of hereditary
privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, the divine right of kingsand traditional
conservatism with representative democracy and the rule of law. Liberals also
ended mercantilist policies, royal monopolies and other barriers to trade, instead promoting free
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism
2|Page

markets.[13] Philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct tradition,

based on the social contract, arguing that each man has a natural right to life, liberty and
property and governments must not violate these rights[14]. While the British liberal tradition has
emphasized expanding democracy, French liberalism has emphasized
rejecting authoritarianism and is linked to nation-building.[15]
Leaders in the Glorious Revolution of 1688,[16] the American Revolution of 1776 and the French
Revolution of 1789 used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of royal tyranny. Liberalism
started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution. The 19th century saw liberal
governments established in nations across Europe and South America, whereas it was well-
established alongside republicanism in the United States.[17] In Victorian Britain, it was used to
critique the political establishment, appealing to science and reason on behalf of the people.
[18]
 During 19th and early 20th century, liberalism in the Ottoman Empire and Middle East influenced
periods of reform such as the Tanzimat and Al-Nahda as well as the rise of
secularism, constitutionalism and nationalism. These changes, along with other factors, helped to
create a sense of crisis within Islam, which continues to this day, leading to Islamic revivalism.
Before 1920, the main ideological opponent of classical liberalism was conservatism, but liberalism
then faced major ideological challenges from new opponents: fascism and communism. However,
during the 20th century liberal ideas also spread even further—especially in Western Europe—
as liberal democracies found themselves on the winning side in both world wars. [19]
In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism (often called simply "liberalism"
in the United States) became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state.[20] Today, liberal
parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. However, liberalism still has
challenges to overcome in Africa and Asia. The fundamental elements of contemporary society have
liberal roots. The early waves of liberalism popularised economic individualism while
expanding constitutional government and parliamentaryauthority.[13] Liberals sought and established
a constitutional order that prized important individual freedoms, such as freedom of
speech and freedom of association; an independent judiciary and public trial by jury; and the
abolition of aristocratic privileges.[13] Later waves of modern liberal thought and struggle were strongly
influenced by the need to expand civil rights. [21] Liberals have advocated gender and racial equality in
their drive to promote civil rights and a global civil rights movement in the 20th century achieved
several objectives towards both goals. Continental European liberalism is divided
between moderates and progressives, with the moderates tending to elitism and the progressives
supporting the universalisation of fundamental institutions, such as universal suffrage, universal
education and the expansion of property rights. Over time, the moderates displaced the progressives
as the main guardians of continental European liberalism. [15]

Socialism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Socialism (disambiguation).
Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of
the means of production and workers' self-management,[10] as well as the political theories and
movements associated with them.[11] Social ownership can
be public, collective or cooperative ownership, or citizen ownership of equity.[12] There are many
varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them, [13] with social
ownership being the common element shared by its various forms.[5][14][15]
Socialist systems are divided into non-market and market forms.[16] Non-market socialism involves
replacing factor markets and moneywith engineering and technical criteria based on calculation
performed in-kind, thereby producing an economic mechanism that functions according to
different economic laws from those of capitalism. Non-market socialism aims to circumvent the
inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system.[25] By
contrast, market socialism retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets and in some cases
the profit motive, with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of
capital goods between them. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the
workforce of each firm, or accrue to society at large in the form of a  social dividend.[26][27]
[28]
 The socialist calculation debate concerns the feasibility and methods of resource allocation for a
socialist system.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism
3|Page

Socialist politics has been both internationalist and nationalist in orientation; organised through
political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions, and at other
times independent and critical of unions; and present in both industrialised and developing nations.
[29]
 Originating within the socialist movement, social democracy has embraced a mixed economy with
a market that includes substantial state intervention in the form of income redistribution, regulation,
and a welfare state. Economic democracyproposes a sort of market socialism where there is more
decentralised control of companies, currencies, investments, and natural resources.
The socialist political movement includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the
revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and out of concern for the social problems
that were associated with capitalism. [13] By the late 19th century, after the work of Karl Marx and his
collaborator Friedrich Engels, socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy
for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production. [30]
[31]
 By the 1920s, social democracy and communism had become the two dominant political
tendencies within the international socialist movement. [32] By this time, socialism emerged as "the
most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It is a political ideology (or
world view), a wide and divided political movement" [33] and while the emergence of the Soviet Union
as the world's first nominally socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet
economic model, some economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as
a form of state capitalism[34][35][36] or a non-planned administrative or command economy.[37][38] Socialist
parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on all
continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some
socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such
as environmentalism, feminism and progressivism.[39]

Communism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Communism (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Communitarianism or Communalism.
"Full Communism" redirects here. For the album by Downtown Boys, see Full Communism (album).
In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal")[1][2] is
the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the
establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon
the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money,[3][4] and
the state.[5][6]
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly
include Marxism and anarchism (anarcho-communism), as well as the political ideologies grouped
around both. All of these share the analysis that the current order of society stems from its economic
system, capitalism; that in this system there are two major social classes; that conflict between these
two classes is the root of all problems in society;[7] and that this situation will ultimately be resolved
through a social revolution. The two classes are the working class—who must work to survive and
who make up the majority within society—and the capitalist class—a minority who derives profit from
employing the working class through private ownership of the means of production. The revolution
will put the working class in power and in turn establish social ownership of the means of production,
which according to this analysis is the primary element in the transformation of society towards
communism. Critics of communism can be roughly divided into those concerning themselves with
the practical aspects of 20th century communist states[8] and those concerning themselves with
communist principles and theory. [9]
Marxism-Leninism and democratic socialism were the two dominant forms of socialism in the 20th
century; democratic socialism advocates economic reform through gradual democratic legislative
action rather than through revolution.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism
4|Page

Fascism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Fascism (disambiguation).

Benito Mussolini (left) and Adolf Hitler(right), the fascist leaders

of Italy and Nazi Germany, respectively

Fascism (/ˈfæʃɪzəm/) is a form of radical right-

wing, authoritarian ultranationalism[1][2] characterized by dictatorial
power, forcible suppression of opposition and strong regimentation of
society and of the economy [3] which came to prominence in early 20th-
century Europe.[4] The first fascist movements emerged in
Italy during World War I, before spreading to other European countries.
[4]
 Opposed to liberalism, Marxism and anarchism, fascism is placed on
the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum.[4][5]
Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes
to the nature of war, society, the state and technology. The advent
of total war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down
the distinction between civilians and combatants. A "military citizenship" arose in which all citizens
were involved with the military in some manner during the war. [6][7] The war had resulted in the rise of
a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines and providing
economic production and logistics to support them, as well as having unprecedented authority to
intervene in the lives of citizens.[6][7]
Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete and regard the complete mobilization of society
under a totalitarian one-party stateas necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to
respond effectively to economic difficulties.[8] Such a state is led by a strong leader—such as
a dictator and a martial government composed of the members of the governing fascist party—to
forge national unity and maintain a stable and orderly society. [8] Fascism rejects assertions that
violence is automatically negative in nature and views political violence, war and imperialism as
means that can achieve national rejuvenation. [9][10] Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the
principal goal of achieving autarky (national economic self-sufficiency)
through protectionist and interventionist economic policies.[11]
Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, and
the term is instead now usually used pejoratively by political opponents. The descriptions neo-
fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far-right with
ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th-century fascist movements. [4][12]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism