MODULE 1│CHEM 1

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
I. MATTER • Chemical compounds always contain the exact proportion of
element in fixed ratio (by mass)
• Mass + Volume • Ex. H2O →2H + O, C6H12O6 = CH2O
STATES SOLID LIQUID GAS
Indefinite 3. Law of Multiple Proportion – John Dalton
Shape Definite *non- *assumes Indefinite • When 2 elements form more than 1 compounds, it can be
compressible container shape *compressible expressed in a fixed whole number (by mass)
Volume Definite • Ex. CO → 28g/mole, CO2 → 44g/mole
Molecular Vibration Gliding *ex. Constant C = 12g/mole
motion *2 stones water falls random O = 16g/mole

Plasma/ Ionized Gas – 4th state; most abundant state of matter. 4. Law of combining weights
• Has p+ and e- (thus, greatly affected by magnetic field) • Proportions by weight when chemical reaction takes place
• Ex. ionized Ne light, Aurora, Stars, Sun can be expressed in small integral unit
IFA Strength most ↑ or strongest: S > L > G > P • Ex. MgO → 40g/mole (100%)
Enthalpy (heat/ reaction energy): P > G > L > S Mg = 24g/mole (60%); O = 16g/mole (40%)

A. PHASE CHANGE III. ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. Democritus – Atomos
Melting
(Solid to Liquid) • “Indivisible”
*aka: Fusion, Liquefaction, Thawing
2. John Dalton – Billiard ball
• Matter is made up of atoms
Freezing (Liquid to Solid) • Postulates:
• Elements are composed of indivisible, indestructible
atoms
Evaporation (Liquid to Gas) • Atoms alike for a given element (isotopes)
• Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass & other
properties (isobars)
Condensation (Gas to Liquid)
• Compound are formed form 2 or more atoms at
different elements
Sublimation • Atoms combined in simple numerical ratios to form
(Solid to Gas)
*moth/naphthalene balls compounds

Deposition 4. J.J. Thompson – Plum Pudding/ Raisin bread

(Gas to Solid)
*dry ice/ cardice • e- in (+) framework

Recombination 5. Ernest Rutherford (discoverer of proton) – Nuclear (Gold foil/ α-

(Plasma to Gas)
*aka: Deionization scattering experiment)
• atom is mostly empty; (+) particles in nucleus
Ionization (Gas to Plasma)
6. Neil Bohr – Planetary
• mostly used
B. MATTER CLASSIFICATION
7. Erwin Schrodinger – Quantum/ Mechanical/ e- cloud
1. Pure substance
• Modern atomic Model; estimates the probability of finding an
• Element – simplest form of substance.
e- in certain position (i.e. at e-cloud/ orbital)
• Compound – 2 or more chemical united (separated via
chemical means)
Atoms
2. Mixture – 2 or more substance wherein individual substance
Proton – (+) ion
identifies are retained (separated via physical means. Alcohol +
• Atomic number (basis of electronic configuration)
Water via distillation)
• Ernest Rutherford
• Homogeneous – 1 phase; solution *clear colored
• Heterogeneous – 2 phases; suspension, colloid *ex. milk
Electrons – (-) ion
• p+ in uncharged state
C. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DEPENDENT TO THE AMOUNT
• negligible weight 1,836x lighter that p+
OF MATTER PRESENT
• J.J. Thompson
• Cathode ray tube: e- m/2 ratio
1. Extrinsic Property “Dependent”
• R.A. Millikan
• Length, mass/weight, volume, pressure, entropy, enthalpy,
• Oil drop experiment: measure accurate charge and
electrical resistance
mass of e-
2. Intrinsic Property “Independent”
Neutrons – no charge
• Density/ SpGr (water = 1g/ml or cc), viscosity (resistance to
• Atomic mass (Nucleon) = p+ + n0
flow), velocity (m/sec), temperature, color
• James Chadwick
II. FUNDAMENTAL CHEMISTRY LAWS
# p+ = Atomic # = 11
# n0 = Atomic mass – p+ = 23-11 = 12
1. Law of Conservation of Mass/ Matter – Antoine Lavoiser
# e- = p+ in uncharged stated: 11-1 = 10
• Mass/ Matter is always constant (neither created nor
destroyed)
P
#p = 15
#n = 16
2. Law of Definite/ Constant Proportions – Joseph Proust
#e = 18
(Proust’s law)
Module 1 – General Chemistry Page 1 of 8 RJAV 2022
Find:
Atomic no. = 15
Atomic mass = 15 + 16 = 31
Charge = 15 – 18 = -3

Eugene Gold Stein – discovered anode rays

Electrochemistry – particle separation based on e-
• Ex: Capillary electrophoresis – separation of compounds
based on electrophoretic mobility 4A 6A

Electrode: Anode Cathode Ionic bonding

Charge: + electrode - electrode
Undergoes: Oxidation Reduction

RED CAT ELECT IN

• REDuction happens in CAThode where ELECTrons get IN
1A
VILEORA
• Valence Increase, Loses e-, undergoes Oxidation, Reducing Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
agent • Predicts the geometry of the molecule as well as any bonded
and unbonded electron pair
VDGEROA
• Valence Decrease, Gains e-, undergoes Reduction, Oxidizing Linear (180˚) - CO2
agent (KMnO4-, Na2Cr2O7) Alkynes (Sp)

Isotopes Trigonal planar (120˚) - BF3

• same p+/atomic number/ element Alkenes (Sp2)
• differ in atomic mass
• Non-isotopes: 19F, 127I, 31P, etc.
• Main isotopes: +1: 1H, 12C, 14N, 32S, 35Cl ; +2: 16O, 79Br
Isobars
• same atomic mass
• differ in elements
Isomers Tetrahedral/bent (109.5˚) - CCl4 , H2O
• same molecular formula Alkanes (Sp3)
• differ in structure

IV. CHEMICAL BONDS * 2 bonded pair, 2 unbonded pair

Molecule – aggregate of 2 or more atoms in definite arrangement

held together by chemical bonds

Ions – with net (+) or (-) charge

Empirical formula – simplest whole number ratio (might be same Trigonal bipyramid - PF5
with MF). Ex: CH2O vs. C6H12O6

A. FORCES OF ATTRACTION

Intermolecular FA/ Van der Waals/ Electrostatic

• Between molecule; weak and short-lived
• Created by “molecule’s polarizability”; exerted when 2
uncharged atoms (n0) approach very closely Octahedral - SF5

H-bonding Keesom Debye London

orientation Induction Dispersion
(D-D) (D-ID) (ID-ID)
Strongest IFA > > Weakest IFA
H + S, O, N, X Water – Water – Aromatics
(electronegative Water Benzene (Benzene –
atoms) Benzene)
• Dipole (D) – Polar Dashed line – away
• Induced Dipole (ID) – Nonpolar Wedged line – toward
Trigonal and Octahedral – are exemption to the octet rule
Intramolecular FA
• Within molecule
Covalent Ionic Valence bond theory
Sharing of e- Transfer of e- • States that bonds are formed by sharing of electron from
overlapping atomic orbitals (covalent)
Nonmetal + Nonmetal Metal + Nonmetal
(Glycosidic & Peptide bond) (NaCl)
• Glycosidic – ether bond S─O─S
• Peptide bond – amide bond AA─peptide─AA bond

Covalent Bonding
Lone pair
• Pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom
in covalent bond
s = spherical (sigma bond – stronger bond formed; headways
overlap)
p = dumbbell (pi bond – weaker; sideways overlap)

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Molecular orbital theory B. Multivalent (with variable charges)
• States that bonds are formed from interaction of atomic orbitals +1, +2 = Hg, Cu
from molecular orbitals +1, +3 = Au
+2, +3 = Fe, Co, Ni
+3, +5 = Bi, Sb

F. POLYATOMIC IONS

A. O-containing polyatomic anions (Oxyanions)

Oxyanions Salt Oxyacid (Aq)
ClO- Hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid (HClO)
ClO2- Chlorite Chlorous acid (HClO2)
ClO3- Chlorate Chloric acid (HClO3)
ClO4- Perchlorate Perchloric acid (HClO4)
NO2- Nitrite Nitrous acid (HNO2)
NO3- Nitrate Nitric acid (HNO3)
SO32- Sulfite Sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
SO42- Sulfate Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
PO43- Phosphate Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Bonding – lower energy (stable) –ate: common form
Antibonding – higher energy (unstable) –ite: -1 O to –ate form
hypo…ite -1 O to –ite form
B. REACTION TYPES per…ate +1 O to –ate form

Synthesis/ Combination/ Direct Union B. H-containing polyatomic anions

A + B → AB • Monohydrogen/ bi: with 1H+ ions
• Dihydrogen: with 2H+ ions
Decomposition/ Analysis Anion Salt
AB → A + B HCO3- Bicarbonate (Hydrogen carbonate)
i.e. HSO3- Bisulfite
• Complete combustion: HSO4- Bisulfate
CH4 O2 CO2 + H2O HPO4-2 Biphosphate
• Incomplete combustion: H2PO4-1 Dihydrogen phosphate
CH4O2 CO + C(5) + H2O
G. MOLE RELATIONSHIPS
Single Displacement
AB + X → AX + B
Avogadro’s #
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 atoms/ molecules
Double Displacement/ Metathesis/ Exchange 𝑔
AB + CD → AC + BD 𝑀𝑊 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙
i.e.
• Neutralization: Ex. Calculate the no. of NaOH atoms using Avogadro’s no. (Mass =
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O 20g, MW = 40/mol)
• Precipitation:
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl2 + NaNO3 20𝑔 6.022𝑥1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑥
40𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
AgCl2 – white curdy ppt.
Ans = 3.011 x 1023 atoms
C. REACTIVITY SERIES
Molarity/ Formality (M) 3N HCl or 3K HCl
• Metals 𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Li > K > Ba > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Mn > Zn > Cr > Fe > 𝑀=
Cd > Co > Ni > Sn > Pb > H2 > Cu > Ag > Hg > Pt > Au 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
• Nonmetals (bases on electronegativity)
Molality (m)
F > Cl > Br > I 𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Examples: 𝑚=
Co + MgCl2 → NR 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
NaBr + Cl2 → NaCl + Br Normality (N)
𝐺𝐸𝑊
𝑁= 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 𝑥 𝑓
D. NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 𝐿
Factor (f)
1. Covalent compounds Acid (H): HCl = 1; H2SO4 = 2
• CO: Carbon monoxide Base (OH): Al(OH)3 = 3
• SiO2: Silicon dioxide Salt (M): Al2O3 = Al: 3x2 = 6; Na2SO4 = 2
• N2O: Dinitrogen monoxide
• CCl4: Carbon tetrachloride V. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
2. Ionic compounds
Ex: Pb(NO3)4 Aufbau Principle
• Classical: Plumbic nitrate • Atoms may be built by progressive filling of energy of main
• Stock: Lead(IV) nitrate energy sub level (i.e., levels of lower energy levels are
occupied first)
E. MONOATOMIC IONS • s=2, p=6, d=10, f=14

A. Monovalent
+1 = Group 1 (H, Li, Na, K ‫ ׀‬Ag)
+2 = Group 2 (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba ‫ ׀‬Zn, Cd)
-2 = Group 6A (Oxide, Sulfide)
-1 = Group 7A (Fluoride, Chloride, Bromide, Iodide)

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Ex. Calcium = Atomic # 20; Atomic mass 40 Quantum theories
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s6 4s2
[Argon] 4s2 1. Pauli’s exclusion theory
• No 2 e- will have same set of quantum number (“exclusive”
Shortcut – Noble gas:
He = 2 2. Heisenberg’s uncertainty theory
Ne = 10 • Impossible to predict/ accurately determine the particle’s
Ar = 18 velocity (position & momentum)
Kr = 36
Xe = 54 3. Hund’s rule
Rn = 86 • Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up
• Most stable arrangement of e- in subshells is the one with
greatest no. of parallel spins.

VI. GAS LAWS

Boyle's/Mariotte
P₁𝑽₁ = 𝑷₂𝑽₂ 𝑜𝑟 𝑷 ∝ 1𝑣
• Temperature (in K)

Charles
𝑻₁ 𝑻₂
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 ∝ 𝑻
𝑽₁ 𝑽₂
• Pressure (in atm)

Gay-Lussac's
𝑷₁ 𝑷₂
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑷 ∝ 𝑻
𝑻₁ 𝑻₂
• Volume (in L)

Combined
𝑷₁𝑽₁ 𝑷₂𝑽₂
A. QUANTUM NUMBERS “fingerprints” =
𝑻₁ 𝑻₂

Principal Quantum Number (n = 1 to 7)

Ideal
• main energy level; size of orbital (electron cloud), distance of e-
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
from nucleus 𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚
• Ex. O2 = 1s2. 2s2. 2p4 (n=2) R = 0.08205
𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
At STP
Azimuthal/ Angular Momentum (ℓ = 0 to 3) T = 273.15 K
• Angular momentum & shape of orbital; subshell P = 1 atm
ℓ = 0 ─ s : sharp (spherical shape) V = 22.4 L
ℓ = 1 ─ p : principle (dumbbell shape)
ℓ = 2 ─ d : diffuse (clover leaf) Avogadro’s
ℓ = 3 ─ f : fundamental • Equal volumes of different gases have same no. of moles at
• Ex. O2 = ℓ = 1 STP
𝑽₁ 𝑽₂ 𝑽
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 ∝ 𝒏 𝑜𝑟 = 𝒌
𝒏₁ 𝒏₂ 𝒏
Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ = -ℓ, 0, +ℓ)
k = 6.022 X 1023
• Orientation of orbital in space
• Ex. O2 = mℓ = -1, 0, +1
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
n = 1, ℓ = 0 (s) : mℓ = 0
• Total pressure in a mixture (non-interacting gases) is equal to
n = 2, ℓ = 0,1 (s,p) : mℓ = -1,0,+1 [3 degenarate orbitals] = same
energy levels the sum of the partial pressures of each gas. 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3
n = 3, ℓ = 0,1,2 : mℓ = -2,-1,0,+1,+2 [5 DO]
n = 4, ℓ = 0,1,2,3 : mℓ = -3,-2,-1, 0, +1,+2,+3 [7 DO] Graham’s
• Rate of effusion (diffusion) and speed gas are inversely
Magnetic Spin (ms = + ½ , - ½ ) proportional to the square root of their density providing the
• Magnetic moment/ Rotation temperature and pressure are same for 2 gases
Spin • Diffusion – rate at which 2 gases mix
↑ = Incomplete; clockwise + ½ • Effusion – rate at which gas escapes through a pinhole
↑↓ = Complete; counterclockwise = - ½ vacuum. Rate 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 1√𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Ex. Oxygen = ms= + ½
Fick’s 1st Law
• Diffusion rate (flux) of liquid or gas is directly proportional to the
concentration gradient (ftom high concentration to low
n ℓ mℓ ms concentration)
1 0=s 0 Henry’s Law of Gas Solubility
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∝ 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
2 0,1 = p -1,0,+1 • Decrease temperature, Increase Pressure (i.e., sealed
container), more CO2 is dissolved in water.
3 0,1,2 = d -2,-1,0,+1,+2 Real/Van der Waals
𝒂𝒏𝟐
4 0,1,2,3 = f -3,-2,-1, 0, +1,+2,+3 (𝑷 + ) (𝑽 − 𝒏𝒃) = 𝒏𝑹𝒕
𝒗𝟐
an2 = internal pressure per mole
nb = incompressibility

Raoult’s
𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑿𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
• Magnetism types: X = mole fraction
o Diagmagnetism – no unpaired e- • Temperature
o Paramagnetism – at least 1 unpaired e-
Module 1 – General Chemistry Page 4 of 8 RJAV 2022
 A. TEMPERATURE Entropy (∆S) = measure of system’s thermal energy per unit
temperature; degree of disorderliness or randomness
°C = (°F – 32) / 1.8 ∆S = (+) → spontaneous; increase (irreversible) – real case
°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32 ∆S = (-) → non spontaneous; constant (reversible) – ideal case (in a
K = °C + 273.15 steady state/ equilibrium)
• Absolute temperature ∆H → does not predict spontaneity
• 0K = absolute zero (lowest possible temperature)
3RD LAW:
VII. SOLUTION • If an object reaches absolute zero temperature (0 K = -273.15 =
-459.67 °)
• Solute + Solvent • Entropy of perfect, solid, crystalline substance is zero at
Colligative properties (See Physical Pharmacy) absolute 0 temperature
• Dependent on the amount of solute present in the solution Gibb’s free energy (∆G)
• Vapor pressure lowering • Thermodynamic state function that combines enthalpy and
• Boiling point elevation (Ebullition) entropy
• Freezing point depression • ∆G = ∆H ‒ T∆S
• Osmotic pressure (Π) • ∆G < 0 (-) → spontaneous
• ∆G > 0 (+) → non spontaneous
Vapor Pressure Lowering • ∆G = 0 → equilibrium (no more work to be done)
Raoult's Law : vapor pressure of a solution is dependent IX. CHEMICAL KINETICS
on the amount of nonvolatile solute added to solution

Boiling Point Elevation ∆Tb = 𝑖𝐾𝑏𝑚 • Study of reaction rates and reaction mechanism

Freezing Point Depression ∆Tf = 𝑖𝐾𝑓𝑚 Reaction Rate (M/s)

• Change in concentration of a reactant or product concentration
Osmotic Pressure (Π) Π=
𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑇 with time
- pressure needed to stop osmosis 𝑉
• aA + bB → cC + dD
*small letters: coefficient that balance the chemical reaction
1 ∆[A] 1 ∆[B] 1 ∆[C] 1 ∆[D]
VIII. THERMODYNAMICS 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = − =− = =
𝑎 ∆t 𝑏 ∆t 𝑐 ∆t 𝑑 ∆t
• Study of energy conversion/ transformation in the universe
Rate Law
• Expresses relationship of the rate of reaction to the rate
A. PARTS OF THE UNIVERSE
constant (K) and concentration of reactants raised to some
power
A. System
• aA + bB → cC + dD
Rate = K [A]x [B]y (xy=order of reaction)
• Open System - allows exchange of energy and matter
Where x & y = order of reaction (0th, 1st, or 2nd)
• Closed System - allows exchange of energy but not matter\
• Isolated System "Adiabatic Walls" - does not allow exchange
A. REACTION RATE THEORIES
of both energy and matter
1. Collision Theory
B. Surrounding – everything outside the system
• rate of chemical reaction is proportional to the number of
collisions per time
B. PATH DEPENDENCE
Requirements for effective collision:
• Proper orientation
State Function
• Activation energy (Ea) – minimum amount of energy required to
• Independent (depends only on initial & final states of system)
initiate chemical reaction
• Ex. Enthalpy (H), Internal energy (U), Gibb’s Free Energy (G),
Entropy (S)
2. Transition Theory
• (Formation of Intermediate Complex) - rate depends on Ea
Non-State Function
required to form intermediate state (where new bonds are
• Dependent
formed and old bonds are broken)
• Work and Heat
B. FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE (Directly
Zeroth Law
proportional)
• If two systems are in thermal equilibrium respectively with a
third system, they must be in thermal equilibrium with each
Nature of Reactants
other
= ↑ reactivity ↑ reaction rate (faster)
a=c
b=c
Concentration of Reactants (except Zero order)
a=b
= ↑ concentration ↑ reaction rate
C. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Catalyst (Enzyme – Michaelis Menten Kinetics)
= ↑ reaction rate
1ST LAW: Law of conservation of Energy
Enzymes – speeds up the chemical reaction by lowering Ea
• Energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be transformed
from one form to another
Surface Area
Enthalpy (H) = U, P, V
= ↑ SA ↓ particle size ↑ reaction rate ↓ reaction time
Hess' Law: ∆H is independent of reaction/steps that occurred (only
the initial and final steps is the basis)
Temperature
q = Heat
= ↑ Temp ↑ KE ↑ mobility of molecules ↑ collision ↑ reaction rate;
∆H = (+) → heat is absorbed; COLD (endothermic)
Arrhenius Equation (T, Ea, RR)
∆H = (-) → heat is released; HOT (exothermic)
X. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
2ND LAW: Law of Entropy
• No way but UP
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
• For an isolated system, Total entropy can never decrease over
time

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 A. LAW OF MASS ACTION Acids & Bases Hard Soft
Ionic radius Small Large
• reaction rate proportional to the product of the concentrate of Oxidation states High Low
the reactants to the power of its coefficient in a balanced Polarizability Low High
equation Electronegativity High Low
𝐶 𝑐 𝐷𝑑 Ex. Ions of alkali & Heavy metals:
𝐾𝑒𝑞 = 𝑎 𝑏
𝐴 𝐵 alkaline earth Ag+, Au+, Hg22+/
Keq = 1: No shift (in equilibrium) metals, H+, NH4, Hg2+, Cd2+
Keq > 1: Favors product formation (to the right/ forward reaction) Ti4+, Cr3+
Keq < 1: Favors reactant formation (to the left/ backward or reverse
reaction) OH-, F-, Cl-, CO32-, H- (Hydride), I-,
CH3COO- SCN-
Le Chatelier’s Principle (# stress reliever)
• If an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the A. ACID-BASE FORMULA
system adjusts in such a way that stress is partially offset as
the system reaches new equilibrium Acids & Bases General Ionic equilibria
formula For Weak Acids & Bases (with
External Stressors: Equilibrium Change constant)
shift Equilibrium pH = -log[H+] pKa = -log[ka]
constant (Kc) - 25°C pOH = -log[OH-] pKb = -log[kb]
Concentration Yes No pH + pOH = 14 pKa + pKb = 14
Pressure & Volume Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1x10-14 Kw = Ka x Kb = 1x10-14
(For Gases only) *pKa is constant, while pH varies
[]–M
↑ P = shift to side
with lesser gas Yes No Ionic equilibria
moles • Ex. HA (aq) + H2O (I) ↔ H2O H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq)
↓ V = shift to side [𝐻 +][𝐴−]
with greater gas 𝐾𝑎 =
[𝐻𝐴]
moles
Conjugate Base = -1H+ to subs in question
Temperature
Conjugate Acid = +1H+ to subs in question
Yes Yes
↑ T, Endo: Right
In writing Equilibrium constants:
↑ T, Exo: Left
- Aq. & gaseous reacting spp. (constant: S & L)
Catalyst No No
- Unit should be in M
XI. ACIDS AND BASES Common ion effect
Acids Bases Addition of compound having an ion in common with the dissolved
Taste Sour Bitter substance will result to:
pH <7 >7 • Equilibrium shift (either to the left or right)
+ Litmus paper Red Blue • Suppressed ionization of the dissolved substance (WA or WB)
+ Metals → H2 gas (corrode • pH change
-
metals)
+ Carbonates/ → CO2 gas Ex. CH3COOH – CH3COONa Mixture
-
Bicarbonates (effervescence) • CH3COONa (s) → Na+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) - ↑ pH
+ Fat → Soap: Slippery • CH3COOH (aq) ↔ H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) - suppressed
(Saponification) ionization
- Henderson-Hasselbalch/ Buffer pair equation
Ex. Manuf
NaOH – Hard soap
KOH – Soft soap • For buffer solutions (WA + CB or WB + CA)
HAc + Ac-
Theories Acid Base NH3 + NH4+
Arrhenius Liberates H+ Liberates OH- 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
Bronsted-Lowry Donates p+ Accepts p+ Weak acids 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑
Lewis e- pair acceptor e- pair donor 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
Weak bases 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
Lewis Theory: *pH = pKa (@ half neutralization point)
Lewis’s acid/ Electrophile
• e- loving Buffer Solution
• (+) iron or metal (e- poor spp.) • has the ability to resist changes in pH upon addition of small
amounts of either acid or base
Lewis’s base/ Nucleophile • Weak acid and its CB (salt of WA)
• (-) ion or nonmetal (e- rich spp.) • Weak base and its CA (salt of WB)
Lewis’s acid (+) Lewis’s base (-) Van slyke
Ni + CO Ni CO • Buffer capacity Bmax (degree or magnitude of capability to resist
Cl- + SnCl4 SnCl4 Cl- change in pH of the buffer)

Pearson's Hard and Soft Acid and Base (HSAB) XII. SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT (Ksp)

Hard-Hard/ Soft-Soft • ↑ Ksp = ↑ solubility

• Thermodynamically Stronger interaction
• Hard Acid + Hard Base → Ionic complexes Solubility (g/L)
• Soft Acid + Soft Base → Covalent complex • Number of grams of solute dissolved in in 1L of saturated
solution
Hard-Soft/ Soft-Hard
• Thermodynamically Weaker interaction Molar solubility (mol/L)
• Number of moles of solute dissolved in 1L of saturated solution
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Predicting formation of precipitate formation (Q ion product constant)
– computed based on initial concentration:
• Q < Ksp → unsaturated
• Q = Ksp → saturated
• Q > Ksp → supersaturated ↓↓

Noyes Whitney equation

• Dissolution rate is directly proportional to the solute surface
area, solute concentration at boundary layer, and diffusion
coefficient

XIII. ELECTROCHEMISTRY

• study of the production of electricity from energy released

during spontaneous and nonspontaneous chemical reactions
1. Spontaneous
• Voltaic cells/ galvanic cells Johan Wolfgang Dobereiner
• REDOX reaction (Anode - Oxidation; Cathode – Reduction) • "Law of Triads"
• Electrons migrate from Anode → Cathode
John Newlands
2. Nonspontaneous • "Law of Octaves"
• Electrolytic cells: Electric current is applied to remove e- and • Periods
transfer to another cell (Electroplating) Dmitri Mendeleev
• "Father of Modern Periodic Table"
XIV. PERIODIC TABLE • (Lothar Meyer) Atomic Mass/ Weight
Antoine Lavoisier Henry Moseley
• first extensive list of elements (~ 33) • "Created Modern Periodic Table"
• Metals vs Nonmetals • property varies with increasing atomic number
Metal Nonmetal Glenn Seaborg
Oxides Basic Acidic • Discovered transuranic elements. > Uranium Actinides below
Good Reducing agent Oxidizing agents
lanthanides (exhibit radioactivity; unstable proton-to-neutron
Conductor ✓ x ratio)
Malleable ✓ Brittle
Ductile ✓ x Law of Octaves
Metallic luster ✓ X (except I2) • Every 8th element similar physicochemical property when
State at RT Solid (except Hg) Solid, liquid, gas arranged according to increasing Atomic weight (Ex. H, F, Cl)

Octet rule
Hg – only liquid metal • Elements (Atomic nos. 1-20) with < 8 electron “react” to
Amphoteric – can act as acid or base achieve 8 electrons (stable)
Malleable – ability to be pounced into thin sheets
Ductile – ability to be drawn into wires Valence e- – electron found in outermost shell

A. PERIODIC TABLE Group A Valence Valence/ Elements (together

e- charge with other
Elements: 118 valences, if any)
Periods (Horizontal rows): 7 1A (Alkali M) 1 +1 H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs,
Groups/ Family (Vertical columns): 18 Fr, NH4
• Groups A: Representative elements (s & p block) 2A (Alkaline Earth M) 2 +2 Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba,
Ra
• Groups B: Transition elements (d block)
3A (Boron G.) 3 +3 B, Al, Ga, In, Tl
• Actinides & Lanthanides: Inner transition elements (f block) 4A (Carbon G.) 4 (+/- 4) C, Si │Ge, Sn, Pb (+2,
+4)

B. PERIODIC TRENDS 5A (Nitrogen G.) 5 -3 N, P │As, Sb, Bi (+3,

+5)

Ionization energy 6A (Oxygen G./ 6 -2 O, S, Se, Te, Po

• energy needed to remove outermost electron in neutral atom Chalcogens)
→↑ 7A (Halogens) 7 -1 F, Cl, Br, I, At
8A/ 0 (Inert/ Noble/ 8 0 He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe,
Stable Gases Rn
Electron affinity
• energy given off when neutral atom gains extra electron
Group B Valence Elements
(making it more negative) →↑
1B (Coinage M.) +1 Cu (+2), Ag, Au (+3)
2B (Volatile M.) +2 Zn, Cd, Hg & Hg2
Electronegativity
3B (Scandium Subgrp) - Sc, Y, Lanthanides (La-Lu),
• ability of an atom to attract electron pair to itself, forming Actinides (Ac-Ir)
covalent bond. →↑ 4B (Titanium Subgrp) - Ti, Zr, Hf
• F: most electronegative (most reactive Oxidizing agent) 5B (Vanadium Subgrp) - V, Nb, Ta
• O2: 2nd most electronegative 6B (Chromium Subgrp) - Cr, Mo, W
Note: Decrease – Top to Bottom; Increase – Left to Right 7B (Manganese - Mn, Tc, Re, Bh
Subgrp)
Atomic radius 8B (Iron Triad) - 1st Triad: Fe, Co, Ni (+2, +3)
• ½ difference between nucleus of 2 atoms ↓← 2nd Triad (Light): Rh, Ru, Pd
3rd Triad (Heavy): Os, Ir, Pt
Metallic property
New Elements
Note: Increase – Top to Bottom; Decrease – Left to Right Nihonium 113Nh

Atomic radius/ Metallic property Moscovium 115Mc

Tennessine 117Ts
Oganesson 118Og

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 XV. RADIOACTIVITY

• Spontaneous emission of particles/ ionizing radiation by

unstable nuclei of heavier elements (p+-to-n0 ratio) (atomic # 92
and above: transuranic elements)

Non-SI: Curie (Ci) │1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decay/ sec

• Discovered: Po & Ra

SI: Becquerel (Bq) │1 Bq = 1 decay/ sec

R.E.M. (roentgen equivalent in man)

• Unit of radiation damage
Rad/ gray
• Unit of amount of exposure to radiation

Radioactive Emissions
• Radioisotopes decay RANDOMLY
• Beta & Gamma can penetrate body tissue

Rays/ Mass Velocity Penetrating Prevented

Decay power by
Alpha Heaviest Slowest Low Paper
(4) (0.1 speed of
light)
Beta Light Fast Medium Al
(1/2000) (0.9 speed of
light)
Gamma No mass Fastest High Pb
& charge (speed of light)
0

A. MODES OF DECAY

Alpha (α) decay is the emission of α particle from the nucleus. For
example, polonium-210 undergoes α decay:

210 4 206 210 4 206

Po⟶ He + Pb or Po ⟶ α + Pb
84 2 82 84 2 82

Beta (β) decay is the emission of an electron from a nucleus. Iodine-

131 is an example of a nuclide that undergoes β decay:

131 0 131 131 0 131

I⟶ e + Xe or I ⟶ β + Xe
53 -1 54 53 -1 54

Gamma emission (γ emission) is observed when a nuclide is formed

in an excited state and then decays to its ground state with the
emission of a γ ray, a quantum of high-energy electromagnetic
radiation. The presence of a nucleus in an excited state is often
indicated by an asterisk (*). Cobalt-60 emits γ radiation and is used
in many applications including cancer treatment:

60 0 60
Co* ⟶ γ + Xe
27 0 27

Positron emission (β+ decay) is the emission of a positron from the

nucleus. Oxygen-15 is an example of a nuclide that undergoes
positron emission:

15 0 15 15 4 15
O⟶ e + N or O ⟶ β + N
8 +1 7 8 +1 7

Electron capture occurs when one of the inner electrons in an atom

is captured by the atom’s nucleus. For example, potassium-40
undergoes electron capture:

40 0 40
K + e ⟶ Xe
19 -1 18

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