1. what is thermal comfort?

Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the

thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation.

In simple words, is the comfortable condition where a person is not feeling too
hot or too cold.

Human thermal comfort cannot be expressed in degrees and can’t be defined by

an average range of temperatures. It is a very personal experience and a function
of many criteria, which differs from person to person in the same environmental
space. The Health and Safety Executive estimates that reasonable comfort can be
established when a minimum of 80% indoor occupants are feeling comfortable
with the thermal environment.

In building science studies, thermal comfort has been related to productivity and

health. Office workers who are satisfied with their thermal environment are more
productive. The combination of high temperature and high relative humidity
reduces thermal comfort and indoor air quality.

Parameters of thermal comfort

 Air temperature
 Mean radiant temperature
 Air speed
 Relative humidity
 Natural ventilation

Air temperature
The air temperature is the average temperature of the air surrounding the
occupant, with respect to location and time. According to ASHRAE 55 standard,
the spatial average takes into account the ankle, waist and head levels, which vary
for seated or standing occupants. The temporal average is based on three-
minutes intervals with at least 18 equally spaced points in time. Air temperature
is measured with a dry-bulb thermometer and for this reason it is also known
as dry-bulb temperature

Mean radiant temperature

The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred

from a surface, and it depends on the material's ability to absorb or emit heat, or
its emissivity. The mean radiant temperature depends on the temperatures and
emissivity of the surrounding surfaces as well as the view factor, or the amount of
the surface that is “seen” by the object. So the mean radiant temperature
experienced by a person in a room with the sunlight streaming in varies based on
how much of his/her body is in the sun.

Air speed

 Air speed is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to
direction.
it is the average speed of the air to which the body is exposed, with respect to
location and time. The temporal average is the same as the air temperature, while
the spatial average is based on the assumption that the body is exposed to a
uniform air speed.

Relative humidity

Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the
amount of water vapor that the air could hold at the specific temperature and
pressure. While the human body has sensors within the skin that are fairly
efficient at feeling heat and cold, relative humidity is detected
indirectly. Sweating is an effective heat loss mechanism that relies on evaporation
from the skin. However, at high RH, the air has close to the maximum water vapor
that it can hold, so evaporation, and therefore heat loss, is decreased.
Natural ventilation

Many buildings use an HVAC unit to control their thermal environment. Other
buildings are naturally ventilated and do not rely on mechanical systems to
provide thermal comfort. Depending on the climate, this can drastically reduce
energy consumption. It is sometimes seen as a risk, though, since indoor
temperatures can be too extreme if the building is poorly designed. Properly
designed, naturally ventilated buildings keep indoor conditions within the range
where opening windows and using fans in the summer, and wearing extra
clothing in the winter, can keep people thermally comfortable.

2. Features incorporated in the building design to make them climate

responsive with respect to the sun.

When sunlight strikes a building, the building materials can reflect, transmit, or
absorb the solar radiation. In addition, the heat produced by the sun causes air
movement that can be predictable in designed spaces. These basic responses to
solar heat lead to design elements, material choices and placements that can
provide heating and cooling effects in a home.

Passive Solar Heating

The goal of passive solar heating systems is to capture the sun’s heat within the
building’s elements and to release that heat during periods when the sun is
absent, while also maintaining a comfortable room temperature.

The two primary elements of passive solar heating are south facing glass and
thermal mass to absorb, store, and distribute heat. There are several different
approaches to implementing those elements.
Direct Gain
The actual living space is a solar collector, heat absorber and distribution system.
South facing glass admits solar energy into the house where it strikes masonry
floors and walls, which absorb and store the solar heat, which is radiated back out
into the room at night.

These thermal mass materials are typically dark in color in order to absorb as
much heat as possible. The thermal mass also tempers the intensity of the heat
during the day by absorbing energy. Water containers inside the living space can
be used to store heat.

Indirect Gain
Thermal mass is located between the sun and the living space. The thermal mass
absorbs the sunlight that strikes it and transfers it to the living space by
conduction. The indirect gain system will utilize 30-45% of the sun’s energy
striking the glass adjoining the thermal mass.
Trombe Wall at Zion Visitor Center at Zion National Park in Utah.

The most common indirect gain systems is a Trombe wall. The thermal mass, a 6-
18-inch-thick masonry wall, is located immediately behind south facing glass of
single or double layer, which is mounted about 1 inch or less in front of the wall’s
surface.

Passive Solar Cooling

Passive solar cooling systems work by reducing unwanted heat gain during the
day, producing non-mechanical ventilation, exchanging warm interior air for
cooler exterior air when possible, and storing the coolness of the night to
moderate warm daytime temperatures. At their simpliest, passive solar cooling
systems include overhangs or shades on south facing windows, shade trees,
thermal mass and cross ventilation.

Shading

To reduce unwanted heat gain in the summer, all windows should be shaded by
an overhang or other devices such as awnings, shutters and trellises. If an awning
on a south facing window protrudes to half of a window’s height, the sun’s rays
will be blocked during the summer, yet will still penetrate into the house during
the winter.  The sun is low on the horizon during sunrise and sunset, so overhangs
on east and west facing windows are not as effective.

Vegetation can be used to shade such windows. Landscaping in general can be

used to reduce unwanted heat gain during the summer.

Thermal Mass
Thermal mass is used in a passive cooling design to absorbs heat and moderate
internal temperature increases on hot days. During the night, thermal mass can
be cooled using ventilation, allowing it to be ready the next day to absorb heat
again. It is possible to use the same thermal mass for cooling during the hot
season and heating during the cold season.

Ventilation
Natural ventilation maintains an indoor temperature that is close to the outdoor
temperature, so it’s only an effective cooling technique when the indoor
temperature is equal to or higher than the outdoor one. The climate determines
the best natural ventilation strategy.

3.(a) Stack effect.

Stack effect is air movement caused by thermal differences. Higher-temperature

air is less dense than cooler air. As the warmer air rises, it creates a pressure
difference, with lower pressure below and higher pressure above. In buildings
during the winter, the lower pressure allows cooler air from outside to move into
the bottom floors. The temperature of the cooler air starts to increase, continuing
the cycle. During summer or in warmer climates, the stack effect is reversed. The
hot air outside enters the upper portion of the cooler building and creates a draft
down.