Thermal-hydraulic Design of A Printed-Circuit

Steam Generator for Integral Reactor

Han-Ok Kang*†, Hun Sik Han*, Young-In Kim*

Abstract
The vessel of integral reactor contains its major primary components such as the fuel and core,
pumps, steam generators, and a pressurizer, so its size is proportional to the required space for the
installation of each component. The steam generators take up the largest volume of internal space
of reactor vessel and their volumes is substantial for the overall size of reactor vessel. Reduction
of installation space for steam generators can lead to much smaller reactor vessel with resultant
decrease of overall cost for the components and related facilities. A printed circuit heat exchanger
is one of the compact types of heat exchangers available as an alternative to conventional shell and
tube heat exchangers. Its name is derived from the procedure used to manufacture the flat metal
plates that form the core of the heat exchanger, which is done by chemical milling. These plates
are then stacked and diffusion bonded, converting the plates into a solid metal block containing
precisely engineered fluid flow passages. The overall heat transfer area and pressure drops are
evaluated for the steam generator based on the concept of the printed circuit heat exchanger in this
study. As the printed circuit heat exchanger is known to have much larger heat transfer area density
per unit volume, we can expect significantly reduced steam generator compared to former shell
and tube type of steam generator. For the introduction of new steam generator, two design
requirements are considered: flow area ratio between primary and secondary flow paths, and
secondary side parallel channel flow oscillation. The results show that the overall volume of the
steam generator can be significantly reduced with printed circuit type of steam generator.

1. Introduction
The Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute began research and development on SMART
(System Integrated Modular Advanced Reactor), a small and medium-sized integrated reactor that
can be used for a variety of purposes, such as power supply, seawater desalination, and district
heating, and completed the conceptual design in 1999. After completing the basic design of the
system, it began to develop as an export strategy type reactor targeting the small-scale power
generation and seawater desalination market.(1) Since 2009, the “SMART technology verification
and standard design license acquisition project” has been carried out. It was completed and
obtained standard design approval from the Nuclear Safety Committee on July 4, 2012. SMART
reactors have gained the world's first standard design approval in the field of small and medium-
sized nuclear power plants, laying the foundation for preoccupying the global small and medium-
sized nuclear power plant market. SMART was developed with a heat output of 330MWt and is a
new export-type reactor that radically eliminates LBLOCA (Large Break Loss Of Coolant
Accident), improving safety 100 times compared to existing pressurized water reactors, and
innovatively reducing the amount of radioactive waste. The SMART reactor was developed with
90 MWe of electricity and fresh water production capacity of 40,000 tons/day to supply water and
electricity to 100,000 cities in Korea. SMART's steam generator is in the form of a once-through
spiral, the primary reactor coolant flows outside the heat transfer tube, that is, toward the shell,
and the secondary water supply flows inside the heat transfer tube, that is, to the observation. A
total of eight steam generators discharge steam with a superheat of 30°C at an outlet pressure of
5.2 MPa to the turbine through the steam generator header.

Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE), which is attracting attention in recent years, forms a fine
flow path through which a fluid passes by a chemical etching method, and a channel plate with
flow paths is formed using a diffusion bonding process as a form of stacked and bonded heat
exchanger, it is known as a compact heat exchanger with a small volume of heat exchanger
compared to its heat exchange capacity and excellent heat exchange efficiency.(2)

In this study, a thermohydrodynamic model was developed for the case of introducing a steam
generator based on the concept of a printed board type heat exchanger into an integrated reactor,
and an analysis of heat transfer and pressure drop was performed. The area of the steam generator
primary side and secondary side flow paths to satisfy the system design requirements of the
integrated reactor was evaluated, and the design characteristics of the secondary side to prevent
abnormal flow insecurity on the secondary side were reviewed.

2. SMART Introduction

2.1 SMART nuclear steam supply system

SMART is an integral type pressurized water reactor in which the reactor coolant system and main
unit are arranged in one pressure vessel without connecting pipes, unlike the existing commercial
separate pressurized water reactors. By installing the main unit in the reactor pressure vessel
without piping connection, it has the characteristic of fundamentally eliminating the large-sized
coolant loss accident, which is the weakness of the existing separate reactor. The SMART reactor
system is a reactor assembly and a reactor coolant system that has a reactor coolant flow path and
maintains a pressure boundary, and a passive residual heat removal system, a safety injection
system, a stationary cooling system, a system that supports the reactor coolant system in case of
normal and accidents. It consists of control systems, etc. The main design parameters of the
SMART reactor system are summarized in Table 1.
 Core Thermal Power 330 MWt

Design life 60 years

Reload cycle 3 years

Nuclear Fuel UO2

Cladding material Zircaloy alloy

Reactor system design pressure 17 MPa

Reactor system operating pressure 15 MPa

Reactor core inlet temperature 295.7 °C

Reactor core outlet temperature 323°C

Main steam temperature 298°C

Main steam pressure 5.2 MPa

Water supply temperature 200°C

Normal output operation range 20-100%

Number of reactor coolant pumps 4 reactor coolant pumps

Number of steam generators 8 steam generators

The reactor coolant system serves as a barrier to prevent the reactor coolant and radioactive
materials from being released into the reactor building without being controlled. The reactor
coolant system must have a sufficient core cooling function in conjunction with the related
connected system to prevent damage to the reactor core during all design-based accidents including
normal operation and expected operation transients. In addition, the reactor coolant system is
designed to have the function of transferring heat generated from the reactor core to the secondary
side of the steam generator during all normal operations including natural convection operation.
The main equipment of the reactor coolant system is composed of the nuclear fuel assembly, which
is the core of the nuclear reactor, the internal structure of the reactor, the control rod drive device,
4 reactor coolant pumps, 8 steam generators, and pressurizers. Figure 1 shows the container and
the internal structure of an integrated reactor.
The reactor coolant system flow path is formed in the order of the core outlet, the reactor coolant
pump, the steam generator, and the core inlet. By the reactor coolant pump mounted on the side of
the reactor vessel, a forced circulation flow of the reactor coolant is formed by the steam generator
located in the annular space between the core located at the bottom of the center of the reactor
vessel and between the core support passage and the inner wall of the reactor vessel. Heat is
transferred to the secondary side in the steam generator heat pipe. Heat transfer in the reactor
coolant system is achieved by a method in which the reactor coolant flows outside the steam
generator heat transfer pipe, the secondary water supply flows inside the heat transfer pipe, and is
transferred through the heat transfer pipe. The pressure of the reactor coolant system is maintained
and controlled using a pressurizer that maintains thermal equilibrium between the steam and the
coolant. The pressurizer of the SMART reactor does not exist as a separate structure and is formed
between the reactor cover and the upper guide structure assembly. The free space to be used is
used as the pressurizer area.

When the pressure in the reactor system decreases, the pressure is maintained by generating steam
by operating the submerged heater in the pressurizer, and when the pressure increases during the
plant transient, the steam space of the pressurizer is designed to be large, so that the system
pressure is reduced without the aid of a separate sprinkler.

The passive residual heat removal system has a function of removing residual heat from the core
until it reaches a state in which the stationary cooling system can be operated (200℃, 2.8MPa)
when cooling of the reactor coolant system using the secondary system is impossible after the
reactor is stopped. The residual heat transferred to the secondary side of the steam generator is
removed through the passive residual heat removal system condensation heat exchanger by the
natural circulation flow. The safety injection system is designed to inject coolant for cooling the
core in case of an accident such as a loss of coolant that is unlikely to occur. The safety injection
system limits nuclear fuel damage to prevent serious deformation of the core for a considerable
period of time after the loss of coolant accident, limits the reaction between the nuclear fuel
cladding and coolant, removes energy generated in the core, and maintains the core in a subcritical
state. Is guaranteed. The stationary cooling system is used to reduce the temperature of the reactor
coolant system from the normal operating temperature to the reloading temperature after shutdown
together with the main steam system and main water supply or passive residual heat removal
system. The chemical and volume control system performs a purification operation to control the
water chemical conditions and purity of the reactor coolant, and compensates for the contraction
and expansion of the reactor coolant and other reactor coolant losses and increases due to
temperature changes. It performs the function of maintaining. During normal operation, the reactor
coolant is replenished due to leakage of the reactor coolant system, the reactivity is controlled by
controlling the boron concentration, and the radioactivity level is continuously measured.

2.2 Conventional SMART Steam Generator

The SMART steam generator is a key device that determines the major thermal and hydraulic
phenomena of the steam supply system that transfers the heat generated from the core to the
secondary side. In an integrated reactor, the steam generator must be installed and operated in the
reactor vessel, so it must be able to operate without problems in a high irradiation area, the weight
and dimensions must be optimized to minimize, and the resistance of the steam generator must be
small in the reactor coolant side channel. It is designed to meet the performance standards of the
steam generator even if some of the heat transfer pipes are blocked.

In SMART reactors, a once-through steam generator was introduced in which the secondary side
water supply flows into the inside of the heat transfer pipe and the reactor coolant flows through
the heat transfer pipes in consideration of the spatial constraints and operation requirements that
the steam generator is installed inside the reactor. The heat transfer tube of the once-through steam
generator is made of a material that is resistant to stress corrosion and a material that can be
affected by the strength even when it is irradiated with radiation. There are a number of heat
transfer tubes with small diameters to increase the effect of heat transfer and to reduce the flow
resistance of the reactor coolant side. It is used, and it is designed to be tightly wound in a spiral
shape. The once-through steam generator produces superheated steam when the reactor is operated
and removes heat from the reactor coolant until the point where the stationary coolant system is
connected when the reactor is stopped. SMART's once-through steam generator produces
superheated steam of 30°C or more when operating at rated output.
The once-through steam generator includes a heat transfer pipe for heat exchange, a water feed
header and a steam header, and a heat transfer pipe support. SMART's steam generator consists of
a number of once-through steam generators, which are annular spaces between the core support
cylinder and the reactor vessel. Each once-through type steam generator has a cylindrical shape
with a steam header and a water supply header at the top and bottom, and a number of heat transfer
pipes connecting the water supply header and the steam header are spirally wound inside the
cylinder. The reactor coolant flowing into the top of the once-through steam generator flows
outside the heat transfer pipe, transfers heat from the reactor coolant to the secondary side, and
then exits the lower part of the steam generator. The water that flows into the water supply header
at the bottom of the once-through steam generator rises through the inside of the heat transfer pipe,
receives heat from the reactor coolant, is converted into steam, and is discharged to the outside of
the reactor through the steam header on the top of the once-through steam generator. Figure 2
shows the appearance of the previously introduced once-through spiral steam generator.

2.3 Printed board type steam generator

A printed board type heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger in which a fine flow path through
which a fluid passes is formed by a chemical etching method, and a flow path plate in which the
flow paths are formed is laminated and bonded using a diffusion bonding process. (Diffusion
bonding) A compact heat exchanger refers to a manufacturing technology in which chemically
etched microchannel thin plates are laminated and adhered to the base metal at a temperature below
the melting point of the base material to the extent that plastic deformation does not occur. It has
the advantage of being able to significantly reduce its size compared to existing heat exchangers
due to its high heat transfer efficiency, and that it can withstand high temperatures and pressures.
Until now, the diffusion junction heat exchanger was successfully commercialized for the first
time in the world by Heatric in the UK, and under the name of printed board type heat exchanger
(PCHE), a cryogenic and high pressure LNG liquefaction plant, fuel cell reactor, reformer, CO2
heat pump and water heater, etc. It is applied to the heat exchanger of the device, and the scope of
its application is gradually expanding significantly. (2) Figure 3 shows the path of the fluid in the
internal flow path of the PCHE released by Heatric of the UK [Fig. [Fig. 3(b)] represents the
organization. (2).

Since the PCHE can be designed in a compact manner and can obtain high heat transfer
performance, it is expected that the reactor vessel size will be drastically reduced when introduced
into the integrated type reactor. In the steam generator of the integrated reactor, the reactor coolant
flows into the primary channel, and water is introduced into the secondary channel, and the steam
is discharged. Heat transfer occurs as the temperature decreases in the primary side by single-phase
heat transfer, and heat transfer is mainly performed by the latent heat from which the water supply
evaporates in the secondary side. Since the latent heat related to the evaporation of the water supply
in the steam generator operation condition is much greater than the enthalpy change due to the
temperature change of the primary coolant, the coolant flow rate is much higher than the water
supply flow rate. In consideration of such flow rate characteristics, the ratio of the primary and
secondary channel areas in the conventional once-through steam generator was designed to be
about 4 to 1. In the conventional PCHE channel type, the flow ratio between the primary side and
the secondary side is 1 to 1, and when such a channel structure is introduced as it is, there is a
disadvantage that the pressure under the primary side becomes very large. In order to compensate
for these shortcomings, the primary side was configured as a 3D channel with a relatively large
flow path area, and the secondary side was configured as a 2D channel. Figure 4 shows the internal
flow path structure of the two-dimensional and three-dimensional channels.

In the conventional once-through steam generator, water flows into the inlet of the secondary
channel, the water is boiled through heat transfer with the primary side, and superheated steam is
discharged through the heat transfer pipe outlet. When a plurality of heat transfer pipes share inlet
and outlet headers and operate under abnormal flow conditions, flow instability may occur due to
density wave instability. In order to prevent this, it is necessary to increase the pressure drop in the
single-phase area through which the water supply passes, and an orifice is installed in the entrance
area of the heat transfer pipe to obtain a large pressure drop in a short passage section. Two
methods are possible to prevent secondary side flow instability in a printed board type steam
generator. The first solution is to implement an orifice in the inlet area like a conventional once-
through steam generator. The orifice is not separately installed and is implemented by adding a
section with a relatively small flow path area to the entrance area. The second method can prevent
flow instability by designing a channel so that cross flow can occur between flow paths on the
secondary side. In this study, the calculation of heat transfer area for a printed board type steam
generator designed by the second method was performed.

3. Analysis of pressure drop and heat transfer

The printed board type steam generator is manufactured by forming a fine flow path through which
the fluid passes by a chemical etching method, and laminating and bonding the flow path plates
with the primary/secondary flow paths using a diffusion bonding process. The primary and
secondary flow paths are formed in a counter-current format. The high-temperature coolant flows
into the top of the steam generator's primary side and transfers heat energy to the secondary side,
and then the temperature is reduced and discharged from the outlet of the lower steam generator.
The water in the supercooled state flows into the secondary channel, boils through heat transfer
with the primary, and superheated steam is discharged through the outlet of the heat transfer pipe.
In this study, based on the phase change on the secondary side, the secondary side was divided
into three zones: a supercooling zone, an abnormal zone, and an overheating zone, and the
corresponding primary side zone was modeled by dividing the same zone.

The printed board type steam generator analysis model was coded to calculate the heat transfer
area to obtain a given heat capacity. In other words, when 330MWt heat output is set and the
primary and secondary operating variables are given, the analysis model calculates the heat
transfer area to obtain the determined output. The main assumptions and calculation conditions
used in the analysis are as follows:

➢ The flow rate of the coolant on the primary side and the water supply on the secondary side
are equally distributed to the primary and secondary channels, respectively.
➢ Each pair of primary and secondary channels has the same thermal performance and the
heat flux at the boundary is zero.
➢ The heat transfer in each section is calculated using Log Mean Temperature Difference
(LMTD).
➢ The channel area of the primary and secondary channels is different, but the number of
channels is the same.

Based on the above assumptions, calculations were performed for the primary and secondary unit
channels, and the calculated results were converted into total steam generator values based on the
number of channels. Basically, all channels satisfy the following energy conservation equation.

̅̅̅𝑝 − 𝑇̅𝑠 )
𝑚̇𝑝 (𝐻𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑠 (𝐻𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑠 = 𝑃ℎ Δ𝑧ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑇 (1)

In the above equation, m, H, T, P, △z, h mean flow rate, enthalpy, temperature, reception length,
area length, and heat transfer coefficient, respectively. The subscripts p and s denote the primary
side and the secondary side, respectively. htot is the total heat transfer coefficient and is calculated
by the following equation.
−1
1 𝛿𝑥 𝑃𝑝 𝑃𝑝
ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡 =( + + ) (2)
ℎ𝑝 𝑘𝑃 ℎ𝑠 𝑃𝑠
The printed board type steam generator introduced in this study has a section for media confluence
and classification between channels in addition to the straight pipe section. The pressure drop
induced by the mixing section is calculated using the empirical correlation equation in the
reference. (4) The pressure drop for the straight pipe is calculated using the Moody friction factor.

1.325
𝑓𝑐 = (3)
𝑒 5.74 2
[ln (3.7𝐷 + 0.9 )]
𝑅𝑒
The pressure drop in the ideal region is obtained based on the homogeneous equilibrium ideal flow
model. The primary and secondary single-phase heat transfer coefficients are obtained using
Gnielinski's correlation equation, which is known to be suitable for small-diameter channels (5).

𝑓𝑐
(𝑅𝑒 − 1000)𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 8 𝑅𝑒 > 5000 (4)
2 𝑓
1+ 12.7 (𝑃𝑟 3 − 1) √ 8𝑐

The above equation is for the turbulent flow region, and in the laminar flow region where the Re
number is less than 2300, the fixed Nu number of 4.089 is used. In the transition region of
2300<Re<5000, the linear interpolation method of the values of the laminar and turbulent regions
is used. (6)

ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 𝑅𝑒 − 2300
ℎ𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛 = ℎ𝑙𝑎𝑚 + ( )( ) (5)
ℎ𝑙𝑎𝑚 5000 − 𝑅𝑒

The heat transfer coefficient in the ideal region is obtained using the modified Chen correlation
equation. In this correlation, the heat transfer coefficient is expressed as the sum of the boiling and
convective terms (7).

ℎ = ℎ𝑁𝐵 + ℎ𝑐 (6)

The heat transfer process by boiling is expressed in the following equation.

𝑘𝑓 0.79 𝐶𝑝𝑓 0.45 𝜌𝑓 0.49

ℎ𝑁𝐵 = 0.00122 [ ] Δ𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 0.24 Δ𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 0.75 𝑆 (7)
𝜎 0.5 𝜇𝑓 0.79 ℎ𝑓𝑔 0.24 𝜌𝑔 0.24

In the above equation, each variable is calculated using the following equation.
−1
[1 + 0.12𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑝 1.14 ] 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑝 ≤ 32.5
𝑆 = {[1 + 0.42𝑅𝑒 0.78 −1 (7𝑎)
𝑡𝑝 ] 32.5 < 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑝 ≤ 70
0.0797 70 < 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑝
The heat transfer process by convection is obtained using the following equation.

𝐺(1 − 𝑥)𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑝 = 𝐹1.25 (10−4 ) (7𝑏)
𝜇𝑓

The heat transfer process by convection is obtained using the following equation.

𝑘
ℎ𝑐 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4 ( ) × 𝐹 (8)
𝐷

𝐹 = 2.35(𝑋 −1 + 0.213)0.736 (8𝑎)

Given the design specifications and operating conditions of the overall printed board type steam
generator as input data, the analysis program needs to convert this value into a value for a unit
channel. Assuming the number of primary and secondary channels, input data for a unit channel
can be produced. As the saturated steam pressure changes due to the pressure drop in the channel,
it consequently affects the heat transfer amount. To reflect this, the heat transfer and pressure drop
calculations are repeatedly performed to check the convergence of the secondary saturated steam
pressure. After that, the Newton-Raphson iteration method was used to find the channel length that
satisfies the given channel length. When the calculation for the unit channel is complete, the result
is converted into the overall steam generator design parameters. This process is shown in Fig. It is
shown in 5.
4.Results and discussion
In an integrated reactor, the steam generator is installed in the annular space between the core
support passage and the reactor vessel. Eight steam generators with a diameter of about 1.3m and
a height of 6m were installed in an integrated reactor incorporating a conventional spiral steam
generator. In this study, the calculation was performed on the assumption that 12 printed board
type steam generators are installed in the annular space between the core support passage and the
reactor vessel. This figure was determined in consideration of the size of the largest printed board
type steam generator that can be manufactured and the space inside the reactor vessel. In addition
to the effective heat transfer area where heat is transferred from the printed board type steam
generator, common headers are installed at the top and bottom. This common header has an almost
constant height without being largely dependent on the number of channels. Therefore, it is
advantageous to increase the length of the channel in order to efficiently utilize the space. If the
length of the channel is increased, it is possible to obtain a larger heat transfer area while sharing
the same header, and there is an advantage in that the heat transfer coefficient is increased.
However, an increase in the channel length causes an increase in the pressure drop due to an
increase in the flow velocity. In order to increase the safety of the integrated reactor, the flow rate
is designed as large as possible under the natural circulation operating condition in which the
reactor coolant pump is stopped. Considering these points, the height of the printed board type
steam generator should be appropriately determined.
Parameters Helical PCHE Unit
Power 41.25 27.5 MW
Primary Side
Mass flow rate 261 174 kg/sec
Inlet temperature 323 323 °C
Outlet temperature 294.5 294.5 °C
Inlet Pressure 15 15 MPa
Pressure drop 55 118 kPa
Hydraulic Diameter mm
Flow Area mm2
Secondary Side
Mass flow rate 20.1 13.4 kg/sec
Inlet temperature 200 200 °C
Outlet temperature 290.5 290.5 °C
Steam Pressure 5.2 5.2 MPa
Pressure drop 170 334 kPa
Hydraulic Diameter mm
Flow Area mm2
Overall HTC
subcooled 2109 13086 W/m2K
two-phase 3508 16275 W/m2K
superheated 1283 11554 W/m2K
Geometry
Volume 8.58 0.38 m3
Height 6 1.6 m3
Surface area density 37.8 104.8 m2/m3
Power density 4.8 72.4 MW/m3
In this study, the channel length of the heat transfer area was fixed at 0.8m and the calculation was
performed, and the results are shown in Table 2. The temperature and pressure conditions of the
primary side and the secondary side are the same as those of the conventional spiral steam
generator. On the other hand, since the number of steam generators has increased from 8 to 12, the
output and flow rate per steam generator decreases according to the ratio. The calculated results
show that when the printed board type steam generator is introduced, the power density and heat
transfer area density are very large compared to the conventional spiral steam generator. As a
result, the height and volume of the steam generator to produce the required output are very small.
On the other hand, the pressure drop on the primary side and the secondary side is larger than that
of the conventional steam generator, so that the pump capacity needs to be increased. Fig. Fig. 6
shows the arrangement of the printed board type steam generator when it is actually installed inside
the reactor vessel. The height of the wedge-type steam generator is the height of the heat transfer
area plus the height of the common headers at the top and bottom. The figure shows that the
introduction of the printed board type steam generator can significantly reduce the diameter and
height of the reactor vessel compared to the conventional spiral steam generator. In particular, the
reduction of the reactor vessel diameter greatly contributes to the reduction of the coolant volume
inside the reactor vessel, thereby easing the design requirements of the system related to the coolant
volume and water quality control.
6. Conclusion
In this study, a thermohydrodynamic model was developed to evaluate the possibility of
introducing a printed board type steam generator into an integrated reactor, and calculation of the
heat transfer area of the steam generator was performed to produce the required heat output. When
evaluating a printed board type steam generator, the channel shape and arrangement were
determined by considering the flow rate ratio of the primary and secondary sides. The calculated
results showed that the size of the reactor vessel can be significantly reduced compared to the case
of applying the conventional spiral steam generator due to the high power density of the printed
board type steam generator.

Review
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the
Korea Government (MSIP) (No. NRF-2012M2A8A4025974).

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