River Engineering and Sediment Transport Mechanics

University of Gondar

School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering

Department of Hydraulic Engineering

Getachew Tegegne (Ph.D.)

Hydrologic, Hydraulic and Civil Engineering
E-mail: getachewtegegne21@gmail.com
 Course Outline
Lecture 1: Introduction to sediment transport in rivers
Lecture 2: River hydraulics
Lecture 3: Watershed erosion
Lecture 4: Sediment transport
Lecture 5: Design of stable channels, bed sediment entrainment and transport
Lecture 6: River engineering
Lecture 7: River management
Lecture 8: Sediment samplers and sampling
Lecture 9: Lake and reservoir sedimentation
Lecture 10: Numerical modelling of sediment transport
 Chapter 0ne
Introduction
 Introduction to sediment transport in rivers

 Why do we study sediment

transport mechanics?

o Nile river delta, historical change of

shoreline

o Aswan high dam (1967)

 Sediment Transport
o Transport of granular particles by fluids
o Two-phase flow: fluid phase and solid phase
• Fluid phase is river water
• Solid phase is sediment grains (e.g., quartz sand)
 The most common modes of sediment transport
o Bed-load and suspended load
• Dissolved load: Travels in solution
• Suspended load: Particles transported in water column, not in contact with bed
• Bed load: Particles transported by rolling, sliding, or saltation
 Bedload
o Rolling
o Sliding
o Saltating
o Never deviating too far above bed
 Suspended load
o The fluid turbulence comes into play carrying the particles
well up into the water column.
o What is the main driving force for loading?
• Gravity on the fluid phase and it is transmitted to the
particles via drag.
 Phases
o Solid Phase can vary greatly in size
• Clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders
• Rock types can include quartz, feldspar, limestone, granite, basalt, and other
less common types
o Fluid phase
• Can be almost anything that constitutes a fluid.
• In geophysical sense, the two fluids of major importance are water and air.
 Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and
which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bottom of a
body of water
 Sedimentation embodies the processes of erosion, transportation, deposition,
etc..
 Sedimentation is essential for the conservation, development, and utilization of
our soil and water development
 The study of sediment transport is thus basic to the proper planning, design,
installation, and maintenance of water works of improvement for the
development, use and conservation of our soil and water resources.
 Example: Dam service life
 Origin of Sediments
 Weathering – breaking down of rocks
o Expansion and contraction by thermal heating and cooling
o Frost action – repeated freezing and thawing in rock fractures,
movement of water into a freezing zone
o Cracking by plant roots, burrowing animals
o Chemical decomposition
 Erosion detachment and removal of weathered material
 Transport Mechanism
 Principal external dynamic agents of sedimentation are water, wind, gravity, and ice
 Our concern: sediment transport by water - hydrospheric forces of streamflow
o Sediment transport by water = fluvial or marine sediment transport
o Sediment transport by wind = Aeolian sediment
o Sediment transport by ice = Glacial sediment
 Detachment of sediment particles in the erosion process occurs through the kinetic
energy of rain drop impact, or by the force generated by flowing water
 Once a particle has been detached, it must be entrained before it can be transported
away
 Both entrainment and transport depend on the shape, size and weight of the particle
and the forces exerted on the particle by the flow
 Nature of Sedimentation Problems
 Geologic Erosion
o It is erosion of the surface of the earth under natural and undisturbed
conditions
o Economic feasibility – the land on which serious geologic erosion often
occurs is usually of lower agricultural productivity
 Vast extent and great thickness of sedimentary rocks found on the earth’s
surface provide evidence of geologic erosion and deposition that has occurred
throughout geologic times
 Accelerated Erosion
o It is the increased rate of erosion over the normal or geologic erosion brought
by man’s activity
o Erodibility of natural materials can be altered by:
• Disturbing the soil structure through plowing or other tillage activities
• Changing the protective vegetative canopy by grubbing, cutting, or burning
existing vegetation and introducing new species
• Altering the natural characteristics of stream channels, e.g., channel cross
sections, alignments, or gradients
 Agricultural Activities
o Widespread use of land and associated practices for agricultural purposes leads all
other activities resulting in accelerated erosion and the production of sediment
o Opening of new lands for agricultural purposes necessarily disturbs the natural
conditions
o The rate of loss of productivity of farm fields depends on the depth of erosion of
plant-producing topsoil
 Holding accelerated erosion of farmland to an acceptable maximum needs
• Continued efforts in education in respect to the desirability of proper land
use and conservation
• Provisions for technical assistance in the planning and application of
measures
 Urbanization
o When fully developed, are actually low sediment‐producing areas, because a large
percentage of the land is protected against erosion by roofs, streets, parking lots
etc.
o Erosion rates are high during actual construction as a result of the removal of trees
and other vegetation, and excavation and grading activities
o Serious erosion can occur when protective vegetation is removed and steeply
sloping cuts and fills are left unprotected
o Such erosion can create local problems of serious downstream sediment damages
 Altering Runoff Conditions
o Erosion energy is a function of the runoff volume and its velocity
o When the volume of runoff water is increased, or is concentrated in natural or
artificial channels, its erosive energy is increased
 Stream and River Control Works
o Any structural work of improvement that changes the direction of flow or
increases the depth, duration, and, velocity of flow may result in erosion
• Channel straightening, which increases the channel gradient and flow
velocity, may initiate channel erosion
• Constricting the cross section of channels usually increases velocity and depth
of flow and the eroding and transport power of streams
o Construction of a dam influences downstream channel stability in two ways:
• it traps the sediment load
• it changes the downstream natural flow characteristics
o Both the sediment load and flow conditions were responsible for establishing the
natural regime of the channel prior to construction of the dam
o Clear water released from a reservoir immediately picks up a new load
downstream if the discharge is sufficient to erode the bed and transport the
sediment
o Seriousness of the problem of degradation of channels below dams depends on
the erodibility of downstream channel materials in respect to the hydraulic
characteristics of outflow from the dam
 Water Quality
o Sediment is not only the major water pollutant by weight and volume but it
also serves as a catalyst, carrier, and storage agent of other forms of pollution
• sediment alone degrades water specially for municipal supply, recreation,
industrial consumption and cooling, hydroelectric facilities, and aquatic
life
• chemicals and wastes are assimilated onto and into sediment particles
• Sediment has become a source of increased concern as a carrier and
storage agent of pesticide residue, adsorbed phosphorus, nitrogen and
other organic compounds, and pathogenic bacteria and viruses
 Sediment in Suspension
o It has adverse effect on the size, population, and species of fish in a stream
o Cost of treatment to remove suspended sediment from water to render it suitable
for industrial use and human consumption is closely related to water Turbidity
 Problems of Sediment Deposition
o Deposition is the counterpart of erosion
o Products of erosion may be deposited immediately below their sources, or may be
transported considerable distances to be deposited in channels, on flood plains, or
in lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and oceans
o All sediment deposition is not injurious: some deposits may form fertile flood‐plain
or delta soils
 Deposits in Lakes and Reservoirs
o When streamflow enters a natural lake or reservoir, its velocity and transport
capacity is reduced and its sediment load is deposited
• in natural lakes that have no outlets, the total incoming sediment load is
deposited
• in artificial lakes with outlets, e.g., reservoirs, the amount deposited depends
on the detention storage time, the shape of the reservoir, operating
procedure, and other factors
• loss of storage capacity is usually a more important, because the loss of
carryover storage effects the proper functioning of the reservoirs
 Solution of Sediment Problems
o Many problems arising from sediment transport and deposition would be solved
by stopping upstream erosion completely
o Stopping erosion completely is not always physically possible, or economically
feasible in the solution of specific downstream sediment problems
o Solution of one problem in this manner can often lead to the creation of others,
and in such instances, alternatives must be considered
o Several methods of reducing specific sediment damages can be considered:
• erosion control of primary upstream sediment‐source areas
• trapping sediment in sedimentation basins
• allowance for storage of sediment in structure design
• dredging, sediment bypassing, and etc.
 Properties of Sediments
o Sedimentation processes (erosion, entrainment, transport, and subsequent
deposition of sediment) depend on:
• properties of the sediment
• characteristics of the flow involved
 Size and Shape of Sediment Particles
o Size and shape of grains making up a sediment vary over a wide range
• meaningless to consider in detail the properties of individual particle;
thus, it’s necessary to determine average or statistical values
o Sediments are grouped into different size classes or grades
o Natural sediment particles are of irregular shape
o Sediment particles are classified, based on their size, into six general
categories:
• Clay,
• Silt,
• Sand,
• Gravel,
• Cobbles, and
• Boulders
o Any single length or diameter that is to characterize the size of a group of
grains must be chosen arbitrarily or according to some convenient method of
measurement
Sediment Grade Scale
o Sieve diameter is the length of the side of a square sieve opening through which the
given particle will just pass
• sieving is convenient to determine the size of sands
o Sedimentation diameter is the diameter of a sphere of the same specific weight and the
same terminal settling velocity as the given particle in the same sedimentation fluid
• size of silts and clay is generally expressed as sedimentation diameter
o Nominal diameter is the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as the given particle
o Shape of particle describes the form of the particle without reference to the sharpness
of its edges; it has been expressed in terms of true sphericity
• sphericity is the ratio of the surface area of the sphere with the same volume as
the grain to the surface area of the particle
o Roundness is the ratio of the average radius of curvature of individual edges to the
radius of the largest circle that can be inscribed within either the projected area or a
cross section of the grain
• Roundness depends on the sharpness or radius of curvature of the edges
o In studying the fall velocity, the shapes of the particles have been expressed by shape
factor, SF, given by

𝑐
𝑆𝐹 =
𝑎𝑏
• a = length of the longest perpendicular axis
• b = length of the intermediate perpendicular axis
• c = length of the shortest perpendicular axis
 Values of 0.7 are typical for natural particles
 Specific Weight of Sediment Particles (s)
o Particle specific weight corresponds to the solid weight per unit volume of solid
o It can be also expressed in terms of the mass density of a solid particle times the
gravitational acceleration: 𝛾𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 × 𝑔
o The average specific gravity of sand is very close to that of quartz, i.e., 2.65, and
this value is used often in calculations and analysis
 Fall (Settling) Velocity of Particles
o Defined as the terminal velocity attained when the grain is settling in an extended
fluid under the action of gravity; this characterizes its reaction to flow
o Important for processes such as sedimentation and suspension
o Reflects the integrated result of size, shape, roughness, specific gravity and
viscosity of the fluid
o Its magnitude reflects a balance between the downward acting force due to the
submerged particle weight and opposing forces due to viscous fluid resistance and
inertia effects (drag forces)
o The drag force on a submerged body is given by the general expression

1
𝐹 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴
2
• CD = drag coefficient
• ρ = density of the fluid
• V = relative velocity
• A = projected area of the body upon a plane normal to the flow direction
o The combined action of gravity and buoyancy on a single spherical particle of
diameter d gives the force
𝜋 3
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾 𝑑
6
o This must be balanced by the drag force under equilibrium, so that we obtain
𝜋 3 1 2
𝜋 2
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾 𝑑 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑊 𝑑
6 2 4
• from which we obtain
4 𝑠 − 1 𝑔𝐷
𝑤=
3𝐶𝐷
o For a single spherical particle in an extended fluid, the value of CD depends on the
grain Reynolds number
𝑤𝑑
𝑅=
𝑣
o When Reynolds number is less than 0.1 for small particles in the silt‐clay range,
viscous resistance dominates and inertia is negligible
o For particles coarser than 2 mm encounter resistance from the inertia of the water
as they fall, and viscosity unimportant
o For a sphere of diameter d, the fall velocity, w, for values of Reynolds number less
than approx. 0.1 is given by Stokes law
𝐹 = 3𝜋𝜇𝑑𝑤 = 3𝜋𝑣𝜌𝑑𝑤
• Thus, fall velocity of spheres can be expressed as
ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾 𝑔𝑑2 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑 2  = specific weight of the fluid
𝑤= = s = specific weight of the sphere
𝛾 18𝑣 18𝑣
g = acceleration of gravity
S =specific gravity
o Fall velocity over the entire range of Reynolds umbers, in terms of the drag
coefficient (CD) is given by

4 𝑔𝑑 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾
𝑤2 =
3 𝐶𝐷 𝛾

o Drag coefficient in the Stokes range (R < 0.1) is given by

24
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅
o For larger Reynolds number, CD can also be expressed as a function of R but it has
been determined experimentally
 Fall Velocity of Non‐Spherical Particles
o Shape effect is largest for relatively large particles ( > 300 μm) which deviate more
from a sphere than a small particle
o Fall velocity of non‐spherical sediment particles can be expressed as follows:
• For 1  d  100 m
𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑 2
𝑤=
18𝑣
• For 100  d  1000 m
3 0.5
10𝑣 0.01 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑
𝑤= 1+ −1
18 𝑣2
• For d  100 m
0.5
𝑤 = 1.1 𝑆 − 1 𝑔 • d =sieve diameter
• S = specific gravity (= 2.65)
• v = kinematic viscosity coefficient
 Effect of sediment concentration on fall velocity
o Fall velocity of a single particle is modified by the presence of other
particles due to the mutual interference of the particles
• If only a few closely spaced particles are in a fluid, they will fall in a
group with a velocity that is higher than that of a particle falling
alone
• If particles are dispersed throughout the fluid, the interference
between neighboring particles will tend to reduce their fall
velocity – referred to as hindered settling
o According to Richardson and Zaki, the fall velocity in a fluid suspension can be
determined as
𝑊𝑠,𝑚 = 1 − 𝑐 𝛾 𝑊𝑠
• Ws,m = particle fall velocity in a suspension
• Ws = particle fall velocity in a clear fluid
• c = volumetric sediment concentration
• γ = coefficient (varies from 4.6 to 2.3 for R increasing from 10-1 to 10-3;
= 4 for particles in the range of 50 to 500 m)
o Oliver formula
𝑊𝑠,𝑚 = 1 − 2.15𝑐 1 − 0.75𝑐 0.33 𝑊𝑠
• Which yields good results over the full range of concentrations
 Effect of Turbulence on Fall Velocity
o Spherical particles would settle more slowly in a fluid oscillating in the
vertical direction than in one at rest
o Reduction in fall velocity resulted from the non-linear relation between
drag on the particle and their velocity relative to the fluid
o Another mechanism may be intensive eddy production close to the bed
inducing vertically upward motions which may reduce the fall velocity
until the eddies dissolve at higher levels
o Asymmetric fluid motion in vertical direction with relatively high (short
duration) downward velocities may result in a slight increase of the fall
velocity
 Angle of Repose (φ)
o The angle of repose of submerged loose material is the side slope, with
respect to the horizontal,
o Referred to as the angle of internal friction, it is related to the particle
stability on a horizontal or slopping bed
o Usually determined from the initiation of motion experiment
o Sand sizes from 0.001 to 0.01 m show values in the range of 30o to 40o
 Size - Frequency Distribution
o Because natural sediments are made up of grains with wide ranges of size, shape,
and other characteristics, it is natural to resort to statistical methods to describe
these characteristics
o Process of obtaining size distribution by separation of a sample into a number of
size classes is known as mechanical analysis
o Results are usually presented as cumulative size‐frequency curves, where the
fraction or percentage by weight of a sediment that is smaller or larger than a
given size is plotted against the size
 Cumulative frequency of normal
Normal size-Frequency distribution curve
distribution i.e % finer
o Frequency distribution is characterized by
• Median particle size d50 which is the size at which 50% by weight is finer or coarser
• Mean particle size 𝑑𝑚 = σ 𝑝𝑖 𝑑𝑖 Τ100 with pi represents the percentage by weight
of each grain size fraction di
• Standard deviation 𝜎𝑑 = σ 𝑝𝑖 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑𝑚 2 Τ100 or 𝜎𝑑 = 0.5 𝑑50 Τ𝑑16 + 𝑑84 Τ𝑑50
• Geometric mean 𝑑𝑔 = 𝑑84.1 𝑑15.9 0.5 , in which d84.1 and d15.9 are the grain sizes for
which 84.1% and 15.9% by weight, respectively of the sediment is finer
• Geometric standard deviation 𝜎𝑔 = 𝑑84.1 Τ𝑑15.9 0.5

• 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝑔 Τ𝑑50 ൗ𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎𝑔

• 𝐾𝑢𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑16 Τ𝑑5 𝑑95 Τ𝑑84 ൗ𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎𝑔

 Parameters
o Particle diameter, D*
• Reflects the influence of gravity, density and viscosity and expressed as

1Τ3
𝑆−1 𝑔
𝐷∗ = 𝑑50
𝑣2

• d50 = median particle diameter of bed material

• s = specific gravity (=ρS/ρ)
• ν = kinematic viscosity coefficient
• g = gravitational acceleration
 Particle Mobility Parameter, θ
o Plane bed
• θ is the ratio of the hydrodynamic fluid (drag and lift) forces and the
submerged particle weight
• Fluid force is proportional to 𝜌𝑑2 𝑢∗ 2 and the submerged particle weight is
proportional to 𝜌𝑆 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑑3 , yielding a ratio of:

𝑢∗ 2 𝜏𝑏 ℎ𝐼
𝜃= = =
𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑50 𝜌𝑆 − 𝜌 𝑑50 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑50

• τb = overall time-averaged bed-shear stress

• 𝑢∗ = overall bed shear velocity (τb = ρu2∗ )
• h = flow depth
• s = specific gravity (= ρs/ρ)
• I = energy gradient
 Suspension parameter, Z
o Z reflects the ratio of the downward gravity forces and the upward fluid forces
acting on a suspended sediment particle in a current and expressed as:

𝑊𝑠
𝑍=
𝛽𝑘𝑢∗
• 𝑊𝑠 = particle fall velocity in a clear fluid
• u* = overall bed-shear velocity
• K = von Karman constant
• β = ratio of sediment and fluid mixing coefficient
 Transport Rate, φ
o Dimensionless transport φ usually represented as:

𝑞𝑡
𝜙= 0.5 𝑔0.5 𝑑1.5
𝑆−1 50
o Another dimensionless expression is:

𝑞𝑡
𝜙=
𝑊𝑆 𝑑50
o 𝑞𝑡 = volumetric total transport rate (m2/s)
o d50 = median particle size of bed material (m)
o g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
o WS = Particle fall velocity of bed material (m/s)
o S = specific density (ρs/ρ)
o Volumetric sediment transport rate (qt) can also be made dimensionless
with the specific flow discharge (q), yielding the discharge-weighted
concentration

𝑞𝑡
𝐶𝑡 =
𝑞
o 𝑞𝑡 = volumetric total transport rate (m2/s)
o q = specific flow discharge (m2/s)