River Engineering and Sediment Transport Mechanics

University of Gondar

School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering

Department of Hydraulic Engineering

Getachew Tegegne (Ph.D.)

Hydrologic, Hydraulic and Civil Engineering
E-mail: getachewtegegne21@gmail.com
 Chapter Two
River Hydraulics

 Overview of open channel flow

o Types of open channel flow
 Flow velocities and bed shear stress in rivers
 Overview of open channel flow
o Open channel flow is a flow which has a free surface and flows due to gravity
o Pipes not flowing full also fall into the category of open channel flow
o In open channels, the flow is driven by the slope of the channel rather than the
pressure
o Types of Flows:
• Steady and Unsteady Flow
• Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
• Laminar and Turbulent Flow
• Sub-critical, Critical and Super-critical Flow
 Steady and Unsteady Flow
o Steady flow happens if the conditions (flow rate, velocity, depth etc.) do not
change with time.
o The flow is unsteady if the depth is changing with time
 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
o If for a given length of channel, the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of
the channel and cross section remain constant, the flow is said to be
uniform
o The flow is non-uniform, if velocity, depth, slope and cross section is not
constant
 Non-uniform Flow
o Types of non-uniform flow:
• Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)
 If the depth of the flow in a channel changes gradually over a length of
the channel.
• Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)
 If the depth of the flow in a channel changes abruptly over a small
length of channel
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
o Laminar flow refers to flow in the form of thin sheet (Lamina).
• This is only possible when velocity of flow is very small.
o In the most of the cases, the velocity of flow is large therefore paths of each
particles are crossing each other. This type of flow is defined as turbulent flow.
o Laminar and turbulent flows can be identified based on the Reynolds number (Re)
o Re = ρVR/µ
• ρ = density of water = 1000 kg/m
• µ = dynamic viscosity
• R = Hydraulic Mean Depth = Area / Wetted Perimeter
• V = average velocity of fluid flow
 Re < 500: Laminar flow
 500 < Re < 1000: Transitional flow
 Re > 1000: Turbulent flow
 Sub-critical, Critical and Super-critical Flow
o The flow in open channel can be classified based on the Froude number (Fe)
o The Froude number is defined as
𝑉
𝐹=
𝑔𝐷
V = mean velocity
D = hydraulic depth of channel; it is equal to the ratio of wetted area (A)
to the top width of the channel (T)
𝐴
𝐷=
𝑇
 F < 1: Sub-critical flow
 F = 1: Critical flow
 F > 1: Super-critical flow
 Velocity and shear stress distribution
o Velocity is always vary across channel because of friction along the boundary
o The maximum velocity usually found just below the surface

a) Velocity distribution throughout the cross

section
b) Shear stress distribution on the wetted
perimeter
 Fluid Velocities and Bed Shear Stresses
o Sediment transport processes are dominant near the near-bed region
o Boundary layer flows: A boundary layer is defined as the flow region next to a
solid boundary where the flow field is affected by the presence of the boundary
• At the boundary, the velocity is zero
• In a boundary layer, momentum is gained from the main stream (or free
stream) and contributes to the boundary layer growth
• A boundary layer is characterized by its thickness  defined in terms of 99%
of the free-stream velocity;
𝛿 = 𝑧 𝑢 𝑧 = 0.99𝑈
 where z is measured perpendicular to the boundary and u is the free-
stream velocity.
 Equation of motion
o For steady uniform (turbulent) flow
𝜏𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑧 𝐼
where I = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
 varies linearly with z; for z = 0 this yields 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐼

Fluid forces and

bottom shear stress
 By definition
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌 𝑢 ∗ 2

resulting

𝑢∗ = 𝑔ℎ𝐼 0.5 = 𝑔ℎ𝐼

Where
 b = bed-shear stress, N/m2
 𝑢∗ = bed-shear velocity, m/s
  = fluid density, kg/m3
 g = gravity acceleration, m/s2
 ℎ = flow depth, m
 Turbulent flow
o Turbulence is a random fluctuating velocity field which interacts with and derives
its energy from the mean flow field
o In turbulent flow, the water particles move in very irregular paths, causing an
exchange of momentum from one portion of fluid to another, and hence, the
turbulent shear stress (Reynolds stress)
o In turbulent flow both viscosity and turbulence contribute to shear stress
 Turbulent flow
o According to the Reynolds’ procedure, the shear stress in turbulent flow at height
z in a steady uniform flow can be described as:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜌𝑣 − 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′
𝑑𝑧
𝜏𝑧 = 𝜏𝑣 + 𝜏𝑡
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣
𝑑𝑧
o u = time-averaged fluid velocity at height z
o 𝜏𝑡 = 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ = turbulence shear stress
o U’ = turbulent fluid velocity fluctuation in horizontal direction
o W’ = turbulent fluid velocity fluctuation in vertical direction
o  = fluid density
o  = kinematic viscosity coefficient
 Turbulent flow
o Although the time-averaged vertical velocity w is equal to zero (w = 0), the
vertical turbulent fluctuations are not equal to zero (w’  0)
o Consequently, the turbulent shear stress can be expressed as
𝜏𝑡 = −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ ≠ 0

Turbulent shear
stress 𝜏𝑡 is dominant
in the major part of
the flow depth
 Turbulent flow

 In case of a smooth bottom, the viscous shear stress becomes dominant close to the
bottom because the turbulent fluctuations u’ and w’ die out near the bottom and are
equal to zero at the bottom (u’ = w’ at z = 0)
 The layer where viscous shear stress is dominant is called the viscous sublayer (δv)
 The most important turbulent sublayer is the logarithmic sublayer
 Between the viscous sublayer and the logarithmic sublayer there is a transition
sublayer, sometimes called buffer sublayer
 Above the viscous sublayer the flow is turbulent
 Hydraulic Regimes
o The roughness elements mainly influence the velocity distribution close to the
bottom by generating eddies distribution close to the bottom by generating
eddies (with a size of the order of the roughness elements)
o Further away, the eddies will rapidly be absorbed in the general existing
turbulence pattern
o The type of flow regime can be related to the ratio of the Nikurdase roughness
(ks) and a length scale of the viscous sublayer (v/u*) in which v = kinematic
viscosity coefficient (m2/s) and u* = bed‐shear velocity (m/s)
o Based on experimental results, it was found that:
o Hydraulically smooth flow, for
𝑘𝑠 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
= ≤5
𝑣 Τ𝑢∗ 𝑣
 Hydraulic Regimes
o Roughness elements are much smaller than the thickness of the viscous sublayer
and do not affect the velocity distribution
o Hydraulically rough flow, for
𝑘𝑠 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
= ≥ 70
𝑣 Τ𝑢∗ 𝑣
• Bed roughness is so large that it produces eddies close to the bottom
• Viscous sublayer does not exist and the flow velocity distribution is not
dependent on the viscosity (v) of the fluid
o Hydraulically transitional flow, for
𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
5< < 70
𝑣
• The velocity distribution is affected by viscosity as well as by the bottom
roughness
 Mixing Length
o Fluid parcel travels over a length  before its momentum is transferred, i.e., before
losing their identity by mixing
 Mixing Length
o Fluid parcel, located in layer 1 and having the velocity u1, moves to layer 2 due to
eddy motion
o There is no momentum transfer during movement, i.e., the velocity of the fluid
parcel is still u1 when it just arrives at layer 2, and decreases to u2 sometimes later
by momentum exchange with other fluid in layer 2
o This action will speed up the fluid in layer 2 which can be seen as a turbulent shear
stress t acting on layer 2 trying to accelerate layer 2
o Horizontal instantaneous velocity fluctuation of the fluid parcel in layer 2 is

𝑑𝑢
𝑢′ = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑙
𝑑𝑧
 Mixing Length
o Assuming the vertical instantaneous velocity fluctuation having the same
magnitude
′
𝑑𝑢
𝑤 = −𝑙
𝑑𝑧
 where negative sign is due to the downward movement of the fluid parcel
o Products of velocity fluctuations were then formulated in terms of the mixing
length
𝑑𝑢
2  Turbulent shear stress
𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ = −𝑙2 depends on the magnitude
𝑑𝑧
of the velocity gradient and
o Turbulent shear stress now becomes the mixing length
2
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑡 = −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ = 𝜌𝑙2
𝑑𝑧
 Mixing Length
o Mixing length is related to the distance to the wall:
𝑙 = 𝑘𝑧
 k is the von Kármán constant ( ≅ 0.4)
o After substituting the above equation into the turbulent shear stress and total
shear stress equations, the viscous and turbulent shear stress components are

2
𝑑𝑢 2 2
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 𝑧 =𝜇 + 𝜌𝑘 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑢 2 2 𝑑𝑢 2
 Note that 𝜇 is viscous term, and 𝜌𝑘 𝑧 is turbulent term
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

o The shear stress 𝜏 𝑧 in the region close to the wall is assumed to remain constant
and equal to the boundary shear stress 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑢∗2
 Turbulent sublayer
o In the turbulent sublayer, the total shear stress contains only the turbulent shear
stress. Note that the total shear stress increases linearly with depth
𝑧
𝜏𝑡 𝑧 = 𝜏𝑏 1 −
ℎ
o By Prandtl’s mixing length theory
2
2
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑡 = 𝜌𝑙
𝑑𝑧
𝑧 1Τ2
o Assuming the mixing length 𝑙 = 𝑘𝑧 1 −
ℎ
o Where von Kármán constant k = 0.4, we get
𝑑𝑢 𝜏𝑏 Τ𝜌 𝑢∗
= =
𝑑𝑧 𝑘𝑧 𝑘𝑧
o Integration of the equation gives the famous logarithmic velocity profile
𝑢∗ 𝑧
𝑢 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑘 𝑧0
 Viscous sublayer
o In the case of hydraulically smooth flow there is a viscous sublayer
o Viscous shear stress is constant in this layer and equal to the bottom shear stress
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑢∗2
𝑑𝑧
o Integrating and applying 𝑢𝑧=0 = 0 gives
𝜏𝑏 Τ𝜌 𝑢∗2 Linear velocity distribution
𝑢 𝑧 = 𝑧= 𝑧 in the viscous sublayer
𝑣 𝑣
o Linear velocity distribution intersect with the logarithmic velocity distribution at the
elevation 𝑧 = 11.6𝑣Τ𝑢∗ yielding a theoretical viscous sublayer thickness
𝑣
𝛿𝑣 = 11.6
𝑢∗
o With shear velocities of the order of 0.1 m/s, the laminar sub-layer thickness in
open-channel flow is typically of the order of 0.1 mm, which is the size of sands
o Generally speaking, a plane bed surface is hydraulically smooth for silts and clays
 Transition (buffer) zone
o Approximation to the velocity profile between turbulent flow and the laminar sub-
layer has been given by Spalding
𝑢∗ 𝑧 𝑘 𝑢
෤ 2 2 𝑘𝑢෤ 2 3
= 𝑢෤ + 0.1108 𝑒 𝑘𝑢෥ − 1 − 𝑘𝑢෤ − −
𝑣 2 6
𝑢෤ = 𝑢(𝑧)Τ𝑢∗
o Alternatively, an explicit formulation has been proposed by Guo and Julien (2007)
𝑢(𝑧) −1
𝑢∗ 𝑧 7 −3
𝑢∗ 𝑧 −4
𝑢∗ 𝑧
= 7𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 − 0.52𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑢∗ 7𝑣 3 7𝑣 7𝑣
• This formulation with argument in radians is useful for
𝑢∗ 𝑧
4≤ ≤ 70
𝑣
• Logarithmic velocity profile is valid when
𝑢∗ 𝑧
70 ≤ ≤ 1000
𝑣
 Velocity profiles for smooth surfaces
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
o Natural boundaries are hydraulically smooth when the surface grain roughness

𝛿 𝑢∗ 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠 < 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒∗ = <4
3 𝑣
o A transition zone exists where

𝛿 𝑢∗ 𝑧
< 𝑑𝑠 < 6𝛿 𝑜𝑟 4 < < 70
3 𝑣
o Turbulent flows are hydraulically rough when the grain diameter ds far exceeds
the laminar sub-layer thickness
𝑑𝑠 > 6𝛿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒∗ > 70
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
o In early experiments, Nikuradse glued sand particles and measured velocity
profiles for turbulent flow over boundaries with grain roughness height ks
o On rough boundaries, the corresponding value of

𝑢(𝑧) 1 30𝑧 2.3 30𝑧 30𝑧

= 𝑙𝑛 ≡ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑘𝑠 𝑘 𝑘𝑠 𝑘𝑠

o In practice, gravel- and cobble-bed streams are considered hydraulically rough

o Compared with the particle size distribution of the bed material, the roughness
height has been shown to be approximately
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3𝑑90 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑠 ≅ 6.8𝑑50
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
o Flow velocity at an elevation z = d90 is equal to 𝑣𝑥 = 5.75𝑢∗ , and the velocity
against a particle is thus roughly 𝑣𝑝 ≈ 6𝑢∗
o Reference velocity is the velocity at 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑟 = 8.5𝑢∗
o Integration constant of the logarithmic velocity profile, z0 corresponding to the
elevation of zero velocity is given as
• Smooth flow regime:
𝑣 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
𝑧0 = 0.11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤5
𝑢∗ 𝑣
• Rough flow regime:
𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
𝑧0 = 0.033𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≥ 70
𝑣
• Transition flow regime:
𝑣 𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠
𝑧0 = 0.11 + 0.033𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5 < ≤ 70
𝑢∗ 𝑣
 Hydraulically rough and smooth boundaries
 Resistance to flow
o In open channels, resistance to flow describes the property of the channel to reduce
the mean flow velocity. Three commonly used parameters that define resistance to
flow and respective flow velocity relationships are:
 Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f
8 8
𝑢ത = 𝑔𝑅𝐼 = 𝑢∗ R = hydraulic radius
𝑓 𝑓 I = energy slope
 Chezy coefficient, C
𝑢ത = 𝐶 𝑅𝐼 Both f and I describe
 Manning coefficient, n resistance to flow, but
1 2Τ3 1Τ2 describes flow conveyance
𝑢ത = 𝑅 𝐼
𝑛
o The following identities can be defined from 𝑢∗ = 𝑔𝑅𝐼
𝑢ത 𝐶 8 𝑅1/6
= = =
𝑢∗ 𝑔 𝑓 𝑛 𝑔
 Mean Velocity
o Averaging logarithmic velocity profile over the depth yields:

ℎ ℎ ℎ
1 1 𝑢∗ 𝑧 𝑢∗ 𝑧 𝑢∗ 𝑧0 ℎ
𝑢ത = න 𝑢 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑙𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑙𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = − 1 + 𝑙𝑛
ℎ ℎ 𝑘 𝑧0 𝑘ℎ 𝑧0 𝑘 ℎ 𝑧0
𝑧0 𝑧0 𝑧0

𝑢∗ ℎ 𝑢∗ ℎ
𝑢ത ≈ −1 + 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑘 𝑧0 𝑘 𝑧0 𝑒
o Neglecting the z0/h parameter in 𝑢ത , the depth-averaged flow velocity does occur at
z = h/e  0.37h, in which e is the base of natural logarithm (e  2.72)
• This is the basis for the “Six-tenths-depth rule” for measuring local average
vertical velocity
 Mean Velocity
o Applying the average velocity (ത
𝑢) equation in the logarithmic velocity profile, the
velocity distribution can also be expressed as:

𝑢ത 𝑧
𝑢= 𝑙𝑛
𝑧0 Τℎ − 1 + 𝑙𝑛 ℎΤ𝑧0 𝑧0

o The mean flow velocity for hydraulically smooth and rough boundaries are,
respectively
𝑢ത 𝑢∗ ℎ
≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 3.25
𝑢∗ 𝑣
and
𝑢ത ℎ 12ℎ
≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 6.25 ≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑠 𝑘𝑠
 Mean Velocity
o For gravel-bed streams, Bray (1982) recommended
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3.1𝑑90
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3.5𝑑84
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 5.2𝑑65
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 6.8𝑑50
o The following relationship appears frequently in the literature
𝑘𝑠 ≅ 3𝑑90
o The resulting mean velocity for hydraulically rough channels with plane surface
can thus be approximated by
𝑢ത 4ℎ 2ℎ
≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔 ≅ 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑢∗ 𝑑90 𝑑50
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
o The overall time-averaged bed-shear stress is defined as:

𝑢ത 2 1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐼 = 𝜌𝑔 2 = 𝜌𝑓𝑢ത 2
𝐶 8
• ℎ = water depth (m)
• I = energy line gradient
• 𝑢ത = depth averaged velocity
• C = Chézy-coefficient (𝐶 2 = 8𝑔Τ𝑓), (m2/s)
• f = friction factor of Darcy-Weisbach
• ks = effective bed roughness height (m)
•  = fluid density (kg/m3)
• g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
o The frictions factor for laminar flow in a wide open channel is:

64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
• 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑢ത ℎΤ𝑣 = Reynolds number
0.5
• Using 𝑢∗ = 𝑔ℎ𝐼 𝑖𝑛 𝑢ത , 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠

𝑔0.5 ℎ 2.3𝑔0.5 0.37ℎ

𝐶= −1 + 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘 𝑧0 𝑘 𝑧0

• or using k = 0.4 and g = 9.81 m/s2

0.37ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑧0
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
• or using the corresponding expressions for integration constant, z0, yields:
• Hydraulic smooth flow:
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
3.3 𝑣Τ𝑢∗
11.4ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑣𝐶 Τ𝑢ത
• Hydraulic rough flow:
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠
• Transitional flow:
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠 + 3.3 𝑣Τ𝑢∗
12ℎ
𝐶 = 18𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠 + 1.05 𝑣𝐶 Τ𝑢ത
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
• The friction factor follows from:

8𝑔
𝑓= 2
𝐶
• That yields for hydraulic rough flow:

−2
12ℎ
𝑓 = 0.24 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑘𝑠

• Rough regime equation can be approximated by the Strickler formula (in the
range of C = 40 to 70 m0.5/s):

1Τ6
ℎ
𝐶 = 25
𝑘𝑠
 Bed Shear Stress and Bed Friction
• Another commonly used resistance equation is the Manning equation, which
reads as:

ℎ2Τ3 𝐼 1Τ2
𝑢ത =
𝑛
where
𝑛 = 0.045 𝑘𝑠 1Τ6 = 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
h = water depth (m)
ks = effective bed roughness (m)
 Note: the water depth (ℎ) should be replaced by the hydraulic radius for
narrow channels
 Turbulent Flow
o In a turbulent boundary layer, the flow can be divided into three
regions:
1) an inner wall region next to the wall where the turbulent
stress is negligible and the viscous stress is large
2) an outer region where the turbulent stress is large and the
viscous stress is small
3) an overlap region sometimes called a turbulent zone
 Turbulent Flow
o Log-wake law
• Departure from logarithmic velocity profiles are observed as the distance
from the boundary increases
• A more complete description of the velocity distribution u(z) is possible after
including the law of the wake for steady turbulent open-channel flow

𝑢 𝑧 2.3 𝑢∗ 𝑧 ∆𝑢 𝑧 2𝜋𝑤 2 𝜋𝑧
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 5.5 + + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (a)
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑣 ถ𝑢∗ 𝑘 2ℎ
𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

where
ℎ = total flow depth
Δu(z) = velocity reduction due to boundary roughness
w = wake strength coefficient
 Turbulent Flow
o The wake flow function equals zero near the boundary and increases gradually
towards 2w⁄k at the upper surface ( z = ℎ)
o With u(z) = u(zm) at z = ℎ, the upper limit velocity profile is
𝑢 𝑧𝑚 2.3 𝑢 ℎ ∆𝑢 𝑧 2𝜋𝑤
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ∗ + 5.5 − + (b)
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑣 𝑢∗ 𝑘

o The velocity defect law obtained after subtracting Equation (a) from (b)
𝑢 𝑧𝑚 − 𝑢(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑤 2.3 𝑧 2𝜋𝑤 2
𝜋𝑧
= − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑢∗ 𝑘 𝑘 ℎ 𝑘 2ℎ
o In this form, the term in brackets is the original velocity defect equation for the
logarithmic law
o The wake flow term vanishes as z approaches zero and the velocity defect
asymptotically reaches the term in braces as z/ℎ diminishes
 Turbulent Flow
o This means that the von Karman constant k must be defined from the slope of the
logarithmic part in the lower portion (lower 15%) of the velocity profile
 Turbulent Flow
o The wake strength coefficient w is then determined by projecting the straight line,
fitting in the lower portion of the velocity profile, to z/ℎ = 1
 Turbulent Flow
𝑘 𝑢 𝑧𝑚 −𝑢(𝑧)
o and calculating w from 𝜋𝑤 =
2 𝑢∗