Bronze 

is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with

the addition of other metals (such as aluminium, manganese, nickel or zinc) and sometimes non-
metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such as arsenic, or silicon. These additions produce a
range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such
as strength, ductility, or machinability.
The archaeological period in which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as
the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia and India is conventionally
dated to the mid-4th millennium BCE, and to the early 2nd millennium BCE in China;[1] elsewhere it
gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about
1300 BCE and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BCE, although bronze continued to be much
more widely used than it is in modern times.
Because historical artworks were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes with different
compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the
generalized term "copper alloy" instead.[2]

Contents

 1Etymology
 2History
o 2.1Transition to iron
 3Composition
 4Properties
 5Uses
o 5.1Sculptures
o 5.2Mirrors
o 5.3Musical instruments
o 5.4Biblical references
o 5.5Coins and medals
 6See also
 7References
 8External links

Etymology[edit]
Houmuwu ding (Chinese: 后母戊鼎; pinyin: Hòumǔwù dǐng), the heaviest Chinese ritual bronze ever found;
1300–1046 BCE; National Museum of China (Beijing). This ding's name is based on the inscription in the
bronze interior wall, which reads Hòumǔwù, meaning 'Queen Mother Wu'

The word bronze (1730–1740) is borrowed from Middle French bronze (1511), itself borrowed from

Italian bronzo 'bell metal, brass' (13th century, transcribed in Medieval Latin as bronzium) from
either:

 bróntion, back-formation from Byzantine Greek brontēsíon (βροντησίον, 11th century),

perhaps from Brentḗsion (Βρεντήσιον, 'Brindisi', reputed for its bronze;[3][4] or originally:
 in its earliest form from Old Persian birinj, biranj (‫برنج‬, 'brass', modern berenj) and piring (
‫' )پرنگ‬copper',[5] from which also
came Georgian brinǯi (ბრინჯი ), Turkish pirinç, and Armenian brinj (բրինձ), also
meaning 'bronze'.

History[edit]

A hoard of bronze socketed axes from the Bronze Age found in modern Germany. This was the top tool of the
period, and also seems to have been used as a store of value.

Roman bronze nails with magical signs and inscriptions, 3rd-4th century AD.

The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable
than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative
tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors.
Initially, bronze was made out of copper and arsenic, forming arsenic bronze, or from naturally or
artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic.[6]
The earliest artifacts so far known come from the Iranian plateau, in the 5th millennium BCE, and are
smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-arsenides, such as algodonite and domeykite.
[7]
 The earliest tin-copper-alloy artifact has been dated to c. 4650 BCE, in a Vinča culture site
in Pločnik (Serbia), and believed to have been smelted from a natural tin-copper ore, stannite.
[8]
 Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BCE in Egypt, Susa (Iran) and some ancient
sites in China, Luristan (Iran),[7] Tepe Sialk (Iran),[7] Mundigak (Afghanistan),
[7]
 and Mesopotamia (Iraq).[citation needed]
Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could be more easily
controlled, and the resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin
and fumes from tin refining are not toxic.
Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE.[9]
Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions include Cornwall in the
United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always
involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a major influence on the development of
cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall, which were
traded as far as Phoenicia in the eastern Mediterranean.
In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also
represented a store of value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze
tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear.
With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other
sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used
by the living for ritual offerings.

Transition to iron[edit]
Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron, with Vickers hardness of 60–258 vs. 30–80,
[10]
 the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population
migrations of around 1200–1100 BCE reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean and
from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices.[11] As the art of working in iron improved, iron
became cheaper and improved in quality. As cultures advanced from hand-wrought iron to machine-
forged iron (typically made with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths learned how to
make steel. Steel is stronger than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer.[12]
Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the
modern day.

Composition[edit]

Bronze bell with a visible crystallite structure.

There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin.
[13]
 Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin
are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Historical "bronzes" are highly variable in
composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap was on hand; the metal of the
12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead,
nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic and an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base
and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture suggest that the candlestick
was made from a hoard of old coins. The 13th-century Benin Bronzes are in fact brass, and the
12th-century Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is described as both
bronze and brass.
In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was
used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed
weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armor were hammered from mild
bronze.
Commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead,
40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main
alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications.[14][15]
Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity[16] possibly
used by the ancient Greeks in their ship construction.[17]
Silicon bronze has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50%
max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance.[18]
Other bronze alloys include aluminum bronze, phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, bell
metal, arsenical bronze, speculum metal and cymbal alloys.

Properties[edit]
Bronzes are typically ductile alloys, considerably less brittle than cast iron. Typically bronze oxidizes
only superficially; once a copper oxide (eventually becoming copper carbonate) layer is formed, the
underlying metal is protected from further corrosion. This can be seen on statues from the Hellenistic
period. However, if copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called "bronze disease" will
eventually completely destroy it.[19] Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron
and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent
denser than steel, although alloys using aluminum or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronze is a
better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally
higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-base alloys.
Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical,
and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure
copper, low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%),
resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and resistance to corrosion by seawater of
several bronze alloys.
The melting point of bronze varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components and is about
950 °C (1,742 °F). Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may
have magnetic properties.

Uses[edit]

Bronze weight with an inscribed imperial order, Qin dynasty

Industrial products of the Bunting Brass and Bronze Company, 1912

Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period. Bronze was
especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless
steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still
commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings.
In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with
wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Sculptors may prefer
silicon bronze because of the ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-
matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum
bronze.
Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs.
Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it important for cannons prior to
modern tolerancing, where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.[20] It is still widely
used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar
fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is
particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings.
Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium
copper) is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be used in
explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze is used to make bronze
wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would discolor oak.
Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts.
[21]
 Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make
the proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant,
and is used for bearings and machine tool ways.[22]

Sculptures[edit]
Main article: Bronze sculpture
See also: Ormolu
Bronze is widely used for casting bronze sculptures. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and
desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould.
Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould.[23]
The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BCE) claims to have been the first to cast monumental
bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method.[24]
Bronze statues were regarded as the highest form of sculpture in Ancient Greek art, though survivals
are few, as bronze was a valuable material in short supply in the Late Antique and medieval periods.
Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble,
which were more likely to survive.
In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana (Chausa hoard) and Gupta periods (Brahma from
Mirpur-Khas, Akota Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha) and later periods (Hansi Hoard) have been found.
[25]
 Indian Hindu artisans from the period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create
intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities
of Hinduism. The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas
of Swamimalai and Chennai.
In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example: in Africa,
the bronze heads of the Kingdom of Benin; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures
from Greek mythology; in east Asia, Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty—more
often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze sculptures, although known
for their longevity, still undergo microbial degradation; such as from certain species of yeasts.[26]
Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary.

The Dancing Girl, an Harappan artwork; 2400–1900 BCE; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National

Museum (New Delhi, India)
 

Ritual tripod cauldron (ding); circa 13th century BCE; bronze: height with handles:
25.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
 
 

Ancient Egyptian statuette of a Kushite pharaoh; 713–664 BCE; bronze, precious-metal leaf;

height: 7.6 cm, width: 3.2 cm, depth: 3.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Etruscan tripod base for a thymiaterion (incense burner); 475-450 BCE; bronze; height:
11 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

The Artemision Bronze; 460-450 BCE; bronze; height: 2.1 m; National Archaeological

Museum (Athens)
 
 

Ancient Egyptian statuette of Isis and Horus; 305–30 BCE; solid cast of bronze; 4.8 ×

10.3 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)
 

Ancient Greek statue of Eros sleeping; 3rd–2nd century BCE; bronze; 41.9 × 35.6 × 85.2 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Gupta sculpture of Buddha offering protection; late 6th–early 7th century; copper alloy;
height: 47 cm, width: 15.6 cm, diameter: 14.3 cm; from India (probably Bihar); Metropolitan
Museum of Art
 
 

French or South Netherlandish Medieval caldron; 13th or 14th century; bronze and wrought
iron; height: 37.5 cm, diameter: 34.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Pair of French Rococo firedogs (chenets); circa 1750; gilt bronze; dimensions of the first:
52.7 x 48.3 x 26.7 cm, of the second: 45.1 x 49.1 x 24.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

French Neoclassical mantel clock (pendule de cheminée); 1757–1760; gilded and patinated

bronze, oak veneered with ebony, white enamel with black numerals, and other materials;
48.3 × 69.9 × 27.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 


Pair of French Chinoiserie firedogs; 1760–1770; gilt bronze; height (each): 41.9 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Pair of Chinese vases with French Rococo mounts; the vases: early 18th century, the
mounts: 1760–70; hard-paste porcelain with gilt-bronze mounts; 32.4 x 16.5 x 12.4 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

French Neoclassical mantel clock ("Pendule Uranie"); 1764–1770; case: patinated bronze
and gilded bronze, Dial: white enamel, movement: brass and steel; 71.1 × 52.1 × 26.7 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Pair of mounted vases (vase à monter); 1765–70; soft-paste porcelain and French gilt
bronze; 28.9 x 17.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 
 

Winter; by Jean-Antoine Houdon; 1787; bronze; 143.5 x 39.1 x 50.5 cm, height of the
pedestal: 86.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Mirrors[edit]
See also: Bronze mirror
Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard
material for mirrors. The reflecting surface was typically made slightly convex so that the whole face
could be seen in a small mirror. Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world,
probably based on independent discoveries.
Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1750 BCE). In Europe,
the Etruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BCE, and Greek and Roman mirrors
followed the same pattern. Although other materials such as speculum metal had come into use,
bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan in the eighteenth century AD.

Musical instruments[edit]

Chinese bells:Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Spring and Autumn period (476–221 BCE)

Singing bowls from the 16th to 18th centuries. Annealed bronze continues to be made in the Himalayas

Bronze is the preferred metal for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known colloquially as bell
metal, which is about 23% tin.
Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability
and timbre. Several types of bronze are used, commonly B20 bronze, which is roughly 20% tin, 80%
copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper. As the tin
content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops.[27]
Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of various stringed instruments such
as the double bass, piano, harpsichord, and guitar. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on
pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile
steel.[28]
Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around the world,
notably bells, singing bowls, gongs, cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples
include Tibetan singing bowls, temple bells of many sizes and shapes, Javanese gamelan, and other
bronze musical instruments. The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2
BCE, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet.[28][29] Ancient
bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and
Cambodia date back to 3,600 BCE.
Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1%
phosphorus content).[30] Bell bronze/B20 is used to make the tone rings of many professional
model banjos.[31] The tone ring is a heavy (usually 3 lb, 1.4 kg) folded or arched metal ring attached
to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it
is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble
register.[citation needed]

Biblical references[edit]
There are over 125 references to bronze (‘nehoshet’), which appears to be the Hebrew word used
for copper and any of its alloys. However, the Old Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have
had the capability to manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it is likely that 'nehoshet’
refers to copper and its alloys with tin, now called bronze.[32] In the King James Version, there is no
use of the word 'bronze' and ‘nehoshet’ was translated as 'brass'. Modern translations use 'bronze'.
Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus
Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils, and mirror (Exodus Ch.38). It was mentioned in the
account of Moses holding up a bronze snake on a pole in Numbers Ch.21. In First Kings, it is
mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and he made many furnishings
for Solomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and plates, some of which
were highly decorative (see I King 7:13-47). Bronze was also widely used as battle armor and
helmet, as in the battle of David and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron. 12:10).

Coins and medals[edit]

See also: Bronze medal
Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent
tin and 1 percent zinc.[33]
As with coins, bronze has been used in the manufacture of various types of medals for centuries,
and are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and
other events. The later usage was in part attributed to the choices of gold, silver and bronze to
represent the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology: the Golden Age, when men lived among
the gods; the Silver age, where youth lasted a hundred years; and the Bronze Age, the era of
heroes, and was first adopted at the 1904 Summer Olympics. At the 1896 event, silver was awarded
to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals.

See also[edit]
 Art object
  Bell founding
 Bronze and brass ornamental work
 Bronzing
 Chinese bronze inscriptions
 Dezincification resistant brass
 French Empire mantel clock
 List of copper alloys
 Ormolu
 Seagram Building, the first office building in the world to use extruded bronze on a
facade
 UNS C69100 (Tungum), a bronze alloy of copper, aluminium, nickel, tin, and zinc
 Yoruba art

References[edit]
1. ^ Thorp, Robert L. (2013). China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization. University of
Pennsylvania Press.[page  needed]
2. ^ "British Museum, "Scope Note" for "copper alloy"".  British Museum. Archived from the
original on 18 August 2014. Retrieved  14 September 2014.
3. ^ Kahane, Henry; Kahane, Renée (1981). "Byzantium's Impact on the West: The Linguistic
Evidence".  Illinois Classical Studies. 6  (2): 395.
4. ^ Originally Berthelot, M.P.E. (1888). "Sur le nom du bronze chez les alchimistes
grecs". Revue archéologique  (in French): 294–98.
5. ^ Originally Lokotsch, Karl (1927).  Etymologisches Wörterbuch der europäischen Wörter
orientalischen Ursprungs  (in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung.
p. 1657.
6. ^ Tylecote, R.F. (1992).  A History of Metal