Lesson I.

Chemistry
Content Standards
1. Greek views of matter, motion, and the universe
2. Competing models of the universe by Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, Copernicus, Brahe, and Kepler
3. Evidence that the Earth is not the center of the universe
Learning Competencies
1. Explain what the Greeks considered to be the three types of terrestrial motion
2. Explain what is meant by diurnal motion, annual motion, precession of the equinoxes
3. Explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical
4. Explain how Plato’s problem of “Saving the Appearances” constrained Greek models of the Universe
5. Compare and contrast the models/descriptions of the universe by Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and
Copernicus
6. Cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the advent of telescopes
7. Compare and contrast explanations and models of astronomical phenomena (Copernican, Ptolemaic, and
Tychonic)
8. Explain how Galileo’s astronomical discoveries and observations (lunar craters, phases of Venus, moons of
Jupiter, sun spots, supernovas, the apparently identical size of stars as seen through the naked eye, and
telescope observations) helped weaken the support for the Ptolemaic model.
9. Explain how Brahe’s innovations and extensive collection of data in observational astronomy paved the way
for Kepler’s discovery of his laws of planetary motion
10. Apply Kepler’s 3rd law of planetary motion to objects in the solar system

 Models of the Universe by Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy and Copernicus

Aristotle (geocentric)
- The foremost Greek scientist that based on his experience all motion was subject to resistance(failed to
recognize inertia)
- Motion according to him was either violent or natural, imparted to objects
- Natural motion (straight up/down, rising of smoke/steam, falling of the stone to the ground, objects like
wood/metal all fall toward earth and fire rose form sun and stars
- Violent motion was conceived as a result of the push and pull
- Natural state of objects was one of rest if they are not pushed or pull
- Proclaimed that circular motion was natural (planets and stars move in a perfect circles and motion was not
cause by force)
- Planets were attached to a transparent sphere whose centers were located at the center of the Earth
Ptolemy (geocentric)
- A native of Alexandria advocated the Ptolemaic system where Earth leis stationary at the center of the celestial
sphere
- In his system the planets is supposed to travel around Earth in loops while the orbits of the Sun and the Moon
are in circular (sun was moving once a day and the moon was much slower)
Aristarchus (heliocentric)
- Greek (Samos) astronomer and mathematician first presented that the Sun was the center of the universe
Nicolaus Copernicus (heliocentric)
- Polish(Poland) astronomer
- Formulated his theory of moving earth
- Earth rotates on its axis, revolves with the other planets around the sun in circular orbits
Galileo (heliocentric)
- First to recognized the Copernican model

 Astronomical phenomena before the Advent of the Telescopes

**telescope was invented 1600. It was refined by several physicist including Galileo and Newton for
their study of the solar system
Tyco Brahe
- Danish astronomer
- Observed 777 stars and several planets using large sextants and compass
**sextants an instrument used to determine the position of the ship or plane by measuring the positions of the
stars and the sun
- Find the accuracy in the positions of the planet Jupiter and Saturn
- Found the 1577 comets moving in space telling the heavenly bodies were not on a fixed speheres
- Developed accurate table of planetary motions, accurate measurements and observations of the positions of the
stars, Sun, Moon and planets
- Through his observation of Mars he discovered that planets move in ellipses wherein one focus is the Sun
justifying Kepler’s assumptions on causes of planetary motions
ACTIVITY: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE SAID/DISCUSSED MODELS. DRAW EACH MODELS IF
NECESSARY
 Comparison of Copernican, Ptolemaic, Tychonic models of Astronomical phenomena
Ptolemaic Model
 - Geocentric model (earth as the center and the planets and the sun revolves around it)
- Terrestrial objects move towards Earth, celestial objects were perfect and moving in a perfect circles
Copernican Model
- Planets orbit around the sun
- Motions of the celestial objects(planets) are involved only on perfect circles not the terrestrial objects
Tychonic theory (more or less equivalent to Copernican theory)
- Held that the Sun and the Moon circled around the Earth while the planets orbited the sun

 Galileo’s Astronomical Observations and Discoveries (weaken the Ptolemaic Model)

1609 Galileo built his first telescope and began making observations of the heavenly bodies. Among his observations
were:
- Lunar craters of the moon
- Four largest moons of Jupiter
- Discovered sunspots on the Sun confirming that the rotates and the planets orbits around the sun
- Confirmed that the orbits of the planets were in circular in shape which was proven wrong by Kepler using the
mathematical analysis of the data of Brahe (orbits of the planets are ellipses where the Sun is at one foci of the
ellipses)
- Gave public lectures on supernova when he was able to observe one during 1604
- Explained the nature of the new stars
- Using parallax, he was able to demonstrate that new stars was well beyond the Moon
- Explained why sizes of stars were identical as seen by the naked eye. Stating that fixed stars did not appear to
change in position except for their apparent movement across the sky due to rotation of the Earth on its axis.
- Nature of the fixed stars is like the sun and their distances were very far from earth and their movements
cannot be perceived.
- His observation of the planet Venus gave strong evidences to heliocentric theory (Copernicus) showing that
Venus was observed to exhibit a complete range of phases (from crescent to full) which would not be observed
if the distance between the Earth and the Venus was constant thus leading to weakening of the Ptolemaic
model

 Kepler’s Discovery of his Law of Planetary Motion

Obtained all Brahe’s recorded data and analyzed them formulating the three laws of planetary motion.
Kepler’s three Laws of Planetary Motion
1. The planets move in elliptical orbits. The paths of the planets are ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
**the paths of the planets are ellipses with the Sun at one focus: F 1P +F2P are the same for all points on curve
Planet

Sun
F2
F1

2. An imaginary line from the planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal time intervals whether the planet
is close to or far from the Sun. Planets move fastest when they are closest to the sun.
L K
M
J
A I

B H

C
G
D
3. The ratio of the squares of the periods
E (T) of the
F planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean
distances (R) from the Sun. this can be mathematically expressed as

T2/R3 = K or T2 = kR3 where k is the constant proportionality. The relationship applies to all planets.

The mathematical expression can be used to find the period of the planets by its mean distances form the Sun if
one of them is known. To find the value of k for the Sun, the value of the Earth’s orbit can be used
T earth = 365.24 days
R earth = 92 million miles

Example:
The period of a planet is 200 days. Find the mean distance from the Sun.
Given: T = 200 days Find: Rplanet

( 200 days )2 ( 365.24 days )2

Solution: 3 = 3 Rplanet = 62 million miles
( R¿¿ planet ) ¿ (92 million miles)