UNI

VERSI
TYOFOUAGADOUGOU BURKI
NAFASO
ENGLI
SHDEPARTMENT Uni
ty-
Progr
ess-
Just
ice
3r
dyear
,5t
hsemest
er

Br
it
ishandCommonweal
thCi
vi
li
zat
ion

Lect
urer
:Dr
.YODA

Thi
sclassisaboutGreatBr
it
ainbet
hewor
ldi
nar
oundt
hemi
d-19t
hcent
ury
.[Readbooksont
he
I
ndust
ri
alRevolut
ionandBrit
ishEmpir
e].

Chapt
erI
:TheBr
it
ishI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ion
Thet erm“ Indust
ri
alRev olution”wasf ir
stusedt odescr
ibethechangest hathadt akenpl ace
between1760and1830.I tmustbenot icedt
hattherehadbeenagradualpr
ocessofchangeswhichcanbe
ref
err
edt oas“ ev
oluti
onary”rathert han“r
ev ol
uti
onary”
.Whatcharacter
izedtheperiodref
erredt oas
I
ndustrialRevoluti
onwast hegreaterr at
eofchanget hathadoccurr
edafter1760.By1850,Br i
tai
nwas
qui
teadi f
ferentcountrycompar edt owhati thasbeeni n1750.Thankstoitsagri
cultur
eandi ndustry
,
whichwer eproducingmor ewealth,thecountr
ycamet obeknownast he‘Workshopoftheworl
d.’
I
nthemid-
19t
hcent
ury
,Br
it
ainwast
hemai
neconomi
cpoweri
nthewor
ld.I
twast
hesuppl
i
eroft
her
estof
t
heworl
d.

I
. Br
it
aini
n1760
I
twasaruralcountr
y,undevel
oped,peopl
ecoul
dhardlyfeedt
hemsel
ves,
andther
ewerenoindustr
ialat
al
l
,wecouldnotev enspeakofnat i
onaleconomybecauseofthever
yfew meansofcommunicat
ion( no
pr
opermeansofcommuni cati
on).
Brit
ainin1760hadapopul at i
onof6, 5mi ll
ion.Mostpeopl ewhol i
vedinsmal lv
il
lagesarel i
kel
yto
l
ivei naf ai
rlylargetownt oday.Londonwi thi t
s500, 000i nhabit
antswasconsi der edasov er
populated.
BristolandNor wichwer et henex tlargercenterswi thpopul ati
onsofabout30, 000.Li v
erpool,Newcast l
e,
ExeterandPl ymout hwer egr owingcent ersoft radewi t
hpopul ati
onsofabout15, 000.Mostpeopl emade
theirliv
ingf rom f ar
mi ng,Briti
shmadei ndustryin1760.Usi ngpr i
miti
vetoolsandmet hods,theycould
produceonl yenoughf orthemsel v
es.Thest andar dofl ivi
ngwasi ngenerall
owandmostpeopl ebesides
theirregularwor kont hefar m hadtot akeanot herjob.Mosti ndustr
ywasdomest i
c, t
hatist osay,thewor k
wascar ri
edoni nthewor kers’ownhomes.Thet erm“ cott
agei ndustr
y”wasusedt odescr i
besuchki ndof
i
ndust ry.Goodswer enott radedwi delybecauseoft heabsenceofanyspeedymet hodofcommuni cat
ion.
Unt i
ltherailwayswer edev elopedint he1840sandt he1850s, i
twasnotpossi bl
ef oramanuf act
urertosell
hisgoodst hroughoutthecount r
y.
I
n1760:mai
nact
ivi
tywasagr
icul
tur
e,mai
nindust
rywast
he‘
’Cot
tagei
ndust
ry’
’
.

I
I. Thef
orces(
causes)ofchange
Whychangest
ookpl
ace?Ther
ear
e2mai
nreasons:
• Thef
ir
stf
orcewasagr
owt
hint
heBr
it
ishpopul
ati
ons.I
n1780(
12.
98mi
l
li
on)
,1801(
15.
74mi
l
li
on)
,
1831( 24.
15mi l
li
on),1851(27.39mi l
li
on)=t otal)
.Thisgrowthwasduet oar apiddecl
ineinthedeathrate
after1740.Ther easonforthefallwasthatt hereweremanyv erygoodhar vestsbetween1690and1740.I t
i
sbel ievedthattheintr
oducti
onofpot atohadagooddealt odowi t
ht hefalli
nt hedeathrat
e.Althoughthe
bi
rthr atedecl
inedafter1800,t
hepopul ati
onst i
lli
ncr
easedlargel
ysot hatthereweremor epeopletobefed,
cl
ot hedandhoused.Theagr i
cultur
al,industri
alandt r
ansportrevol
uti
onswer ethedi r
ectresult
soft he
growt hinthepopulati
on.
ThomasMal t
hus(resear
ch).Hesaidthatthepopulati
onwasgrowi ngatageometr
icalr
ate(1248=)
butthepopulat
iongrowthisari
thmeti
crate(1234) .Hewasagainstpopulati
ongrowt
h,hewasagai nstthe
“Poorlaws”sotheposit
iveimpactofpopulat
iongr owt
honagr i
cul
tur
e,industr
yandtr
ansportwentagainst
histheor
yonpopulati
on.HisbookisAnEssayont hePri
ncipeofPopul
ation.
• Thesecondf orcewhichproducedt heI
ndustri
alRev
olut
ionwasani ncreaseddemandf orBri
ti
sh
goodsafter1760.Bri
tainacqui
redbyconquestal ar
geEmpireBrit
ishmerchant
swer eeagertotradewi
th
thenewt err
it
ori
esandpeoplesandt heybegantodemandmor eandmor egoodswhi chtheycoul
dexport.
Theoldsy st
em ofpr
oductioncoul
dnotsatisfyt
hisneedandchangeshadtobemade.
TheEmpi
recanbeseenasacauseandconsequenceofI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ion.

A. Thechangesdur
ingt
heper
iodof1760-
1850
1. Thechangesi
nAgr
icul
tur
e(or“
Agr
ari
anRev
olut
ion”
).
In1760,therewasasy st em ofopenf ields.Thiswasunabl et opr ovideenoughf oodfort hegr owi ng
popul ati
on.I
neachv i
ll
age,t herewer ethreemai nfi
eldsinwhi cheachi ndivi
dualf armerhadast ripofl and,
therewasal soacommonl and.Thegr oupingt ogetherofl andswasseenasameanswher ebyt he
l
andowner scouldusemachi ner y,drai
nandi mpr ovethebr eedoft hei rlands,gr ownewcr opsi nwhat ever
system t heythoughtf it(conv enient)andi mpr ov
et hebr eedoft hei ranimal s.Asmat teroff act,t he
“Agrar i
anRev oluti
on”ev ol
v edatt hesamet ime.Thef ir
stwasaser iesoft echni cali
mpr ov ement si n
farming.Thesecondwast hegr adualreplacementoft heopenf ieldsbyencl osur es.Somel andowner s
appliedt oparl
iamentf oranEncl osureActwhi chwoul dal l
ow t here-al l
ocationoft hesepar ateshi psi nto
compacthol di
ngs.I nthesummerof1781,t heActwaspassedandt hef aceoft hecount rysidehad
changedandt heopenedf i
eldshadal mostdi sappeared.Thei ntr
oduct i
onofnew andv ari
edmachi ner y
helpedt omaket hefarmer s’wor keasier.New met hodsofbr eedi
ngwer edev elopedandt husl edt ot he
product i
onofmor emilk,cheeseandmeat .Thishugei ncreasei nthequal i
tyandquant i
tyoff oodmadei t
possi bl
etokeeppacewi thrapi dlygr owi
ngpopul ati
on.

2. Thei
ndust
ry
a. Thet
ext
il
eindust
ri
es
Woolencl oth(cot t
on)hadbeent hebasisofEngl and’st r
adef orcenturies.Dur i
ngt he18t hcent ury ,a
seri
esofi nventionsallowedt hetex t
il
et obetransformed.I twast hecotton’sindust r
yt hatledt heway .The
text
il
ei ndustrywasdi videdi ntospinningandweav i
ng.Spi nningwassl owandusedal otofdomest i
clabor .
Theweav ershadt owai tfort hespi nners.Manyi nvent i
onshadbeent ri
ed,usual lydev elopingex isti
ng
machines.Somesi mpl yspeededupt heworkbutot her swer eusedt oest ablishupt hef actorysy stem.
JohnKay ’sfl
y i
ngShut tle( 1783)begant hegr eatchangesi nt heweav i
ngpr ocessbuti tdidnotal t
ert he
domest icsystem.Howev er,itdidemphasi zetheneedf oramor er apidspinningpr ocess.Thebi gadv ance
camewi thJamesHar gr eave’sspi nni
ng ( 1764).Althoughi tgr eatl
yincreasedt heout putofspi nners, did
notleaddi rectl
yt otheempl oymentofanynew f orm ofpowerort othef actor ysyst em.I twasRi char d
Arkwrightwhochangedt hings.I n1769,hedev el
opedawat erf rame,awat er-poweredspi nningmachi ne
producingf i
net hread.I tmadecot t
ongoodsi ntoalmostanew pr oduct.Ar kwr i
ghtopenedasuccessf ul
fact
oryatCr awf ordin1771andi n1780,heopenedt hebi ggestf act
oryatManchest er,empl oyi
ngsi x
hundred wor kers.The mosti mpor tantspinning machi ne was SamuelCr ompt on’s mul es (1779) ,a
combinat
ionofHar
greav
e’sandArkwr
ight’
smachi
nes.Thethr
eadofCrompton’
sinvent
ionwasf
ineand
str
ong.Ther
ewasnowsomucht hr
eadbeingmadethati
twasdif
fi
cul
ttof
indenoughweavers.
Cart
wri
ght
’sinventi
onofthepowerloom bet
ween1785and1787madetherev
oluti
oni
nt heclot
h
i
ndust
rycompl
ete.Inplaceofthequi
etcountr
yvi
ll
ageswi
tht
hehand-
loomsandspi
nningwheels,t
her
e
wer
enowhugemi l
lscrowdedwithmachi
nes.
Allt
heseinv
enti
onsinthetext
il
eledtoanenor
mousi
ncreasei
ntheproduceofcheapcl
oths,
ofwhi
ch
v
astquanti
ti
eswereexpor
ted.Engl
andbecamethewor
ldl
eaderint
heproduct
ionofcot
tongoods.

b. I
roni
ndust
ri
es
Thei roni ndust
rychangedi nthesamewayast het extil
eindust
ry.In1700,i twasacr af
tindust ry
,
i
ncapabl eofsuppl yi
ngal ar
gemar ket.Andby1800,i thadmov edtonewanddev elopednewt echniques
thatmademuchpr oduct
ionpossible.Tr adi
ti
onal
lyironwassmel t
edwithchar coalandt heindustrywas
l
ocat ednearf or
est
.Butthetradit
ionalar easwerebei ngwor kedout(exhaust ed)andcost swerer i
sing.If
theindust rywast oexpand,itneededanew sour ceoff uel.Coalsuppl
iedt heneed,i mprovedtranspor t
,
helped and t he st
eam engine per mitted l
argerblastf urnaces to be const ruct
ed and power s-dri
v en
machi ner
yt obeusedi nsmel t
ingandpr ocessi
ng.Thisledt otheindustr
yshi f
t i
ngf rom it
soldcentersi nto
thecoalf iel
dsofScot l
and,YorkshireandSout hWales.Cheapi r
onmadei tpossi bl
eanageofmachi ner y
,
providi
ngst rongandlasti
ngmat er
ial essenti
altomechani caldevel
opment.

c. Tr
anspor
t
Mostoft hegr eatchangesi nagr icul tureandi ndust r
yt ookpl acei nt hesecondhal foft he18t hcent ury.
Theybr oughtwi tht hem inev i
tablechangesi nt ranspor tthatincr easedt hespeedofcommuni cat ion.Ev eni f
i
tdi dnotr educet hecostofpr oduct ion,i twasv i
talast her oadsact edasner vesbet weent henat i
on’ s
economi cbr aininLondonandi t
smuscl esi nWal esi nt heMi dlandsandt heNor th.Canal s( man- made
wat erway s,l i
nkonpat hofcount ryt oanot her )
,roadsandshi psbecamet henat ion’spr ide.Forabout
sevent y( 70)y ears,t he canalwas t he mosti mpor tantmet hod ofi ndustri
alt ranspor ti n Engl and.
Inexpensi veI rishlaborwasusedt ocov erBritainwi thanet wor kofcanal s.By1830,t herewer eov er4, 000
mi l
esofnav igablewat erway si nBr i
tain.Thecanal sdi dmucht opr omot et heIndust ri
alRev olutionby
maki ngpossi blet hedi stri
butionofi tsessent ialfuel,that '
scoal .Theirgr eatagel ast edunt ilthe1840' s.
Thei rdisappear ancewasmai nlyduet ot hecomi ngofanot herf orm oft ranspor tequal l
ycapabl eofcar r
y i
ng
heav ygoodsandmanyt imesf aster.Thi snewwayoft ranspor ti sther ailway.Theper i
od1830- 1850was
theer aoft her ailway.Thecomi ngoft her ail
way saccel erat edt her ate(speed)atwhi chBr i
tainwas
becomi ngani ndust r
ialcount ry.Somef oundi tpossi blet ospeakofasecondI ndust ri
alRev olut i
on.Thei r
buil
di nggav eempl oymentt othousandsofmen.Theymadehugenewdemandsont hei roni ndust ryand
coalmi nes.Theywer ev i
taltot hepr osper it
yofVi ctorianBr it
ain.I n1830, theLiverpoolt oManchest erline,
thef irstli
nebui l
tspeci ficall
yf orpassenger saswel lasgoodswasopened.By1843,Londonhadbeen
l
inkedbyr ailwi t
hDov er,Br i
ghton, Brist ol,Sout hampt on, Bir
mingham, Lancashi reandYor k.By1850, some
6,000mi lesofr ailwayswer ewor kingi nBr itainwi thoutt her ailway s,ther ewoul dhav ebeennonat i
onal
newspaper .In1844,aRai l
wayActwaspassedt oregul atetheact iv
iti
esoft her ai
lwaycompani esast hey
realizedt hatt heirgr eatestpr ofitwast obemadef rom car ryinggoodsandnotpr ovidingaser v
icef or
passenger s.Ther eissi mplejust i
ficationf orcal l
ingthemi ddley ear soft he19t hcent ury,the“ Rai lwayAge” .

B. Thesoci
alandpol
it
icalconsequencesoft
heI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ion
Wi t
ht heI ndustrialRevoluti
on,t hetraditi
onalindustr
ieschangedf rom domest i
cbusinesseswiththe
workers’cottagesast hewor kplacetobecomef actory–based.Thechangewasaccompani edbyashi f
tof
i
ndustrialcentersfrom South-EastandSout h-
Westi nt
othepresenceofcoalt here,
theirmai
nenergytoget
cl
osert omai nsour ceofener gy.Indust
rialtownsexpandedasf actory
-owner sandmi nedevel
opershadto
buil
dhousesf ortheirworkers.By1851, halfofthepopulati
onli
vedinanur banenv i
ronmentthati
sintowns
over50,000peopl e.Thef i
rsthalfofthe19t hcent ur
ysawt heverylargesttownscont i
nuetogrowrapidl
y
(
London,
Manchest
er,
Bir
mingham …)
.
By1900,t hree-
quar
ter
softheBrit
ishpopul
ati
onl
i
vedi
nanurbanar
ea.Thesechangesdist
urbedthe
soci
alstructuresofthecount
ry.Byitwasthenew mi
ddl
ecl
asswhichbenef
it
edf r
om theIndust
rial
Revol
uti
on.
I
ndustr
ial
i
stsandmerchant
sbecamer ichandbegantodemandashareint
hepolit
icalsy
stem,whi
ch
hadbeendomi nat
edbythelandedari
stocracy(
theHouseofLords)
.TheNew Par
li
amentActof1911
symboli
zedthevi
ctor
yoftheI
ndust
ri
alcl
assesoverthel
andedar
ist
ocr
acy.
Becausei
tmar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hesupr
emacyoft
heHouseofCommonsov
ert
heHouseofLor
ds.

Thi
swasanincent
ivefort
hewor
kingcl
asseswhoal
sodeci
dedtodemandtheirshar
einthepoli
ti
cal
sy
stem.Thebi
rt
hoft heLaborPar
tywasasuccess,i
npartofl
i
stasit
sobject
iveswast or
epresentthe
i
nter
estoft
hel
abori
ngclasses.
Thef
ir
str
esul
toft
heI
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
oni
sthatt
hecount
rybecameweal
thi
ert
hanev
er.

Themostimportantresul
toftheIndustr
ialRev
olut
ionremai
nst
heincreaseinweal
th.Theannualval
ueof
t
he‘goodsandser vi
ces’producedinBritai
nin1688was￡ 48,000,000.In1801,thi
shadi ncr
easedto
￡232,000,
000and1901, wehadav alueof￡1,642,000,
000.
Somethingtookpl
aceinLondonin1857thatsymboli
zestheBri
ti
shIndustr
ialRev
olut
ion(economi
c
andsoci
alsupremacyovert
herestofthewor
ld),i
tisTheGreatExhi
bit
ionoftheWor l
dofIndustr
yofall
Nati
onsoff
icial
l
yknownasCryst
alPal
ace,t
hebuil
dingwherei
ttookpl
ace.
Briti
shagr icult
urewaspr oduci
ngmor eandmor ewealtheachy ear.Butthi
sweal thwasf irstbadl
y
dist
ributedasi twenttomi ddleclass.Butby1914,t heworki
ngclasseshadlearnthowt ouset hei
rnew-
wonpol i
ticalpowert ocompelpol i
ti
cianstot akesomepar toftheweal t
htolaythef oundationsf ort
he
Wel f
areSt at
e.Brit
ain’
sindustri
alpowerwast hekeyt oherfor
eignandimperi
alpoli
cies.Ifithadbeent he
foundingoft heEmpi r
ewhi chhadspar kedofft heIndust
ri
alRevolut
ion,i
twasthepowerwhi chwast he
resul
toft hatRev oluti
onwhi chall
owedBr i
ti
shpol i
ti
cianstoexpandthatEmpir
e.Brit
ishsupr emacyatsea
andf i
nallyonl andrestedonherindust ri
alpower.
Questi
on:Whatarethevi
ewsofPai
neandBur
keont
heFr
enchRev
olut
ion?(
pp.10-
13)
.Pai
nei
sagai
nsta
monarchi
calsy
stem i
ngeneral
.

I
II
. Thegr
eatFr
enchWar(
1793-
1815)andi
tsaf
ter
mat
h
Theall
iedvi
ctor
ymar
kedt
heendofNapoleon’
spower.Buti
tal
somar kedt
heopeni
ngofoneoft
he
gr
immestperi
odsi
nmoder
nBri
ti
shhi
stor
y,y
ear
sofdist
ressandcl
asshat
red.
1. Ev
idenceofdi
scont
ent
a. Luddi
sm
I
nv ar
ious par
ts oft
he count
ry,working men who f ound thei
rjob pl
aced i
n dangerfor
med
t
hemselvesinmil
it
antanddestr
ucti
vegroups.Manyoft hesegroupswer eor
ganizedbymenwhousedt he
f
ict
it
iousnamesofNedLuddandt hemachine-wrecker
s( dest
royer
s),
becameknownast heLuddit
es.
Theywereagainsttheuseofmachi
ner
y,whi
cht
heyt
hinkr
educest
henumberofj
obs;t
heycoul
dgot
o
fact
ori
esanddestroymachi
nes…

Publ
i
cdemonst
rat
ions
They
ear
s1816-
1819,sawaser
iesofpubl
i
cdemonst
rat
ions,ar
isi
ngf
rom t
hesoci
alandeconomi
c
pr
obl
emsf
aci
ngt
hecount
ry.Someoft
hemosti
mpor
tantpubl
i
cdemonst
rat
ionsoft
hatper
iodar
e:
• SpaFiel
ds,in1816,therewasameet i
ngatSpaFi
eldi
nLondonwherealeadingradi
calHenryHunt
addressedacrowdofwor kers.Here,aresol
uti
onwaspasseddemandi
ngparl
iamentaryref
ormsasast ep
towardsthecreat
ionofamor ejustsociet
y.Thi
smeeti
ngturnedi
ntoari
otthatendedinaconf r
ontat
ion
withthepol
ice.
• Themar chofBl anketeers,1817:i
n1817,agr oupofcot
tonworkerssetoutfrom Manchesterto
mar chtoLondonwher etheyhopedt opresentapet
it
iontothePri
nceRegentt
oaskhi mtohelprel
iev
et he
depressedstat
eoft hecottonindustry
.Theyneverr
eachedLondonasmostoft hem weret
urnedonatt he
borderofDerbyshi
re.
• The Derby
shi
reInsurr
ecti
on:the mar
ch ofthe Bl
anket
eer
s wasf ol
lowed byt
he i
nsur
rect
ion
unempl
oyedfr
ameworkknit
ter
s.Threeoft
hem wer
ehangedandmanyother
st r
anspor
tedf
orl
i
fe.
• St.Pet
er’
sFiel
d,1819.Theunr estcametoacl i
maxi n1819,whenHenryHuntwasaddr essi
nga
meetingatSt.Pet
er’
sFieldsinManchesteronthequesti
onofparli
amentar
yandotherr
eforms.Thelocal
magistr
ateswerealarmedbyt hesizeofcr owdandf r
ight
enedatt hepossi
bil
i
tyofanotherSpaFields
deci
dedt oarr
estHunt.Thelocalsol
dier
schargedi
ntothecrowdand11peopl ewereki
ll
edandhundr eds
i
njur
ed.

Themai nfact
orswhi
chi
ncr
easedthedi
str
essaft
er1815wer
etheresul
tsoftheendi
ngofthewar
andther esul
tsofthepoli
cyoft
hegover
nmentalt
houghsomeofthefact
orsarethedir
ectr
esul
tsofthe
I
ndustr
ial Rev
olut
ion.
• Thei ndustr
ialchange:thetext
il
eindustr
ywascar r
iedoni nthecott
agesofdomest i
cwor kers
befor
et heinvent
ionofsteam-dri
venmachiner
ywhi chl
edtoafalli
nthewagespaidtohand-
loom wor
kers.
Power-dri
venloomsr equir
edlesshand-
loom workerssot
hattherewasahighlev
elofunemploymentand
thosefort
unateenought ohaveworkcouldhar
dlycomplai
naboutlowwagelaborl
evel.

• Agricul
tur
echange/ encl
osur
emov ement
:theenclosuremovementsaw t
hedisappear
anceof
commonl ands,thei ncr
easeuseofmachiner
yont helargerfar
msandadecl i
neinthenumberof
agri
cul
turalworkers.Manywenttoworki
nthenewfact
ori
es.Thosewhoremai
nedonthel
andwerefor
ced
toacceptlowwages.

• Al
argerwor
kfor
ce1815 [
400,
000sol
dier
s]
I
n1815,about400,000sol
dier
sreleasedfrom thear
myt r
yingt
ofi
ndworkinal
abormarketwhi
chwas
al
readyovercr
owded.Theywerethet housandsofIr
ishmenwhohadmigrat
edt
oLancashir
eandother
i
ndustr
ial
areas.

• Fal
li
ngdemandwiththeendoft hewarcametheendofgovernmentcontract
sforclot
hing,f
ood,
armamentsandother
ssuppli
es.Forei
gncount
ri
es,i
mpoveri
shedbythelongwarandanxi oustodevelop
thei
rownindust
ri
esal
soreducedthevol
umeofthegoodst
heyimport
edfrom Br
it
ain.

• Low wages(andal
sojuv
enil
elabor
):j
uvenil
elaborwaspl
enti
fulandcheap.I
ncreasednumberof
I
ri
shi
mmi gr
ants,comi
ngfr
om acount
rywherepovert
ywasevenworsethani
twasinBrit
ain.

• Pri
ces:I
n1814,pr i
ceswer eabouttwi
cewhattheyhadbeenin1793befor
etheFrenchwarhad
brokenout.By1816,t
heyhadf al
l
ent oali
tt
leabov
ethelev
elof1793andt
heyconti
nuedt
of al
lunt
il1822.
Therearemanyreasonsforthi
sfalli
npri
ces.
Reasons:
• Reduct
ionont
hespendi
ngofgov
ernment
.
• Expansi
onofoutput(product
ion)duri
ngthewar:af
terthewar,thedemandfellwhereasthecapaci
ty
t
oproduceremained.Howeverthefall
inpri
ceswasnotasshar pasthef al
li
nwagel evel
s.Fortheworkers,
t
her
ewasaf al
li
nrealwages.Themaj ori
tyofworki
ngpeopleexper
iencedaf al
li
ntheirst
andardofli
ving.

• Governmentr eaction:t he weakness oft he government ’

spol i
cywas i tsfail
uret o adoptany
constructi
vemeasur est odealwi tht
hei ll
sthatcausedr i
ots.Itturnedtocrushal lrefor
m mov ement sinthe
beli
efthatatt hereformer swer edanger ousrev ol
uti
onari
es.Hence, thesuspensionofHabeasCor pus(an
Actpassedi n1679underChar lesII
)whi chenabledt hegov ernmentt odetainpr i
sonersasl ongasi tli
ked
withoutbringingthem t ot r
ialandt hebr eaki
ng-upofwor ki
ngcl assmeet i
ngs.Closelyconnect edwi ththese
met hodswast he enf orcementoft he English penalcode oft hatdaywi t
hi t
s provisi
on ofcapi tal
punishmentf orov er200of fencesandi tsextensiveuseoft ransportati
onforlif
e.Theset hingsr evealedthe
fearandi ntenti
onoft hegov erningclass.It
seconomi cpolicyseemedt oshowt hatitwant edf oritsown
i
nterest,notinthoseoft hewhol ecommuni t
y.
Exampl
eshowi
ngt
hatt
hegov
ernmentwasser
vingt
hei
nter
estoft
hel
eadi
ngcl
asses.

Cor
nLaw(
s)=f
ir
stonepassedi
n1815:
Thepri
ceofcor nf el
lafterthePeaceofParisin1814.AsBrit
ishpar
tswereonceagai
nt oi
mport
from FranceandEast ernEurope.Farmer sandlandownershadinvestedagooddealofcapit
alinthe
developmentofl andforcorn-growingdur
ingthewarswhent heyhadbeenassur
edofhighenoughpri
ces
topayt heint
erestont hei
rborrowedcapital
.Asharpfalli
nthepri
ceofcornwoul
dhaveledtobankr
uptcy
forthesepoli
ti
callyi
mpor t
antsect i
onsofpopul
ati
on.
Far
merssentapet
it
iontot
heParl
iamentaski
ngitt
opassal awandtoprot
ectt
heiri
nter
est
s,t
his
l
eadt
heyactual
l
ywantedParl
i
amentt
oregul
ateimpor
tat
ionofgoodsfr
om f
orei
gncount
ri
es.
Themaj or
it
yofMPswer elandowner
sandr epr
esentedthei
nter
estofot
herlandowner
s.Soin1815,
Parli
amentpassedt heCornLaw,thi
smeasur ewasai medatl i
miti
ngtheimportofcheapcor nand
safeguardi
ngthei
ncomesoff ar
mersandlandowners.Thi
shasledt ohi
ghpri
ces(maindrawbacks)f
or
bread,aswheatpr
iceswer
ehigh.

Theabol
it
ionofi
ncomet
ax
Thesecondeconomi
cmeasurewhichal sohitthepoor,wastheabolit
ionofincomet ax.I
twas
i
ntroducedin1798bythePr
imeMini
sterWil
li
am Pit
tt heYoungerwi
ththepledge(promise)t
hatitwoul
d
be withdr
aw immedi
atel
yaftert
he war.Againstthe gover
nment’
swi shes,the House ofCommons
aboli
shediti
n1816.
TheCommonsdi
dnotwai
ttoabol
i
shi
ncomet
ax,
because:
1. Bri
tai
nhadadebtof￡ 850,
000,
000t
opay
,andt
hegov
ernment
’smoneyder
ivesmai
nlyf
rom
tax
ati
on.
2. I
t’
sjustbecauset
her
ewer
esomehi
ghl
yri
chpeopl
ewhower
egoi
ngt
opaynot
hing.

Torepl
aceit,t
hegovernmentmadebigincr
easesini
ndi
rectt
axationsuchascust
omsandexci
se
duti
eswhichaf f
ectedfarmoreheavil
ythepoorthanthebett
er-
off(r
ich).Al
mosthalft
heent
ir
epubli
c
expendi
tur
ewentt opaythei
nter
estonthenat
ional
debt.
Thosewhol
entmoneyt
othegov
ernmentwer
eri
chpeopl
e,soi
nthi
scasei
tisast
hegov
ernmenti
staki
ng
moneyf
rom t
hepoorandgi
vei
ttot
her
ich:
badandunf
air
.

TheGameLaws:t hesel
awsli
mitedtheri
ghtt
oshootort akegametothelandowner
s.Thelands
againstpoachi
ngwer
emuchmor evi
gorous.I
n1816,t
hel abor
erfoundatni
ghtwit
hanetinhispossessi
on
becamel i
ablet
otr
anspor
tati
onf
orsevenyear
s,nomatterwhetherhewasactual
l
yfoundpoachi
ngornot.
Thespreadofsoci
aldi
str
essandeconomi
cupheav
alcombi
nedwiththev
ari
ousconf
li
ctsofeconomi
c
i
nterestcr
eat
edwhatsooncametobeknownas“t
hecondi
ti
onofEngl
andQuest
ion”
.

CONCLUSI
ON
Quest
ions:
1) Descr
ibel
i
ber
ali
sm.Whenwasi
tbor
n?
2) Gi
venamesassoci
atedwi
thl
i
ber
ali
sm i
nBr
it
ain.
3) Descr
ibel
i
ber
ali
sm t
owar
dst
heendoft
he19t
hcent
uryanswer
s.

Answer
s:
1. Li
ber
ali
sm i
s:
• Economi
cli
ber
ali
sm:wher
efr
eecompet
it
ion,f
reemar
ket
s,f
reet
rade,i
ndi
vi
dualent
erpr
isear
e
encour
aged.
• I
ntel
l
ect
uall
i
berali
sm:wherepeopl
ear ef r
eetovoi
cethei
ropi
nions,andt
hati
t’
smai
nlyt
hrough
di
scussi
onandconf
rontat
ionofi
deast
hatprogresscanbeat
tai
ned.
• Poli
ti
calli
beral
i
sm:“ t
hegr eatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber
”sentencebyBentham,he
i
ntr
oducedtheconceptof“
uti
li
tar
ianism”,usef
ulnessofameasure.Li
beral
i
sm wasborni
nthe18t
hcentur
y.

2. Cont
radi
cti
on:
li
ber
ali
sm (
li
ber
ty)andi
mper
ial
i
sm (
oppr
essi
on)
.

3. Adam Smi
th(
book,
TheWeal
thofNat
ion)
,Jer
emyBent
ham.

Chapt
erI
I:Tr
adeuni
on

Tr
adeuni
oni
sm:
I
twast her esul
tinthe1820softhespreadofcapital
ism,i
ndust ri
ali
sm,politi
calradicali
sm and
l
aborideologywhi chgav eanewmeaningtotheword“cl
ass”.The‘l
aissez-f
aire′
economi csthatcoinci
ded
wi
thabr ieftradeboom wast heoccasi
onforagr eatf
loweri
ngofwor kers’organi
zati
ons.Int helar
ger
f
actor
iesandgr owingtowns,worker
sfoundacommonst r
engthintheircommongr i
evances( lowwages,
unempl
oyment,longwor
kinghour
s…)
.Theyt
ri
edt
ofor
mthei
rownsel
f-
prot
ect
ionsoci
eti
esknownas
“combi
nat
ions”
.
I
nt heday sofdomesticindustr
ies,therewer enobodi es( organi
zati
ons)thatcouldbecal l
eduni ons.
Howev er,t
hereweremanyt r
adeclubs.Int hetexti
leindust
rytheWoolComber sinBradfordhadtheirtr
ade
cl
ubssi ncethe1740s.InLancashi r
e,JohnDoher t
yt r
iedtosecur ethebargainingpoweroft hecot t
on
spinner
sandl aunchedhisambiti
ousGr andGener alUnionoft heOperati
veSpinnersofGr eatBri
tainand
Ir
elandin1829andhi sNati
onalAssociationfortheProtect
ionofLabort hefol
l
owi ngyear.
Rober
tOweninthe1830sbeliev
edt hatt
hecondi
ti
onofEngli
shmenwouldi
mpr ov
ei fthewealthbeing
pr
oducedini
ndust
ri
alBri
tai
ncouldbeusedt opr
ovi
deabett
erstandar
dofli
vi
ngcondit
ionsf ort
hemajor i
ty.
Owenwantedtoform anati
onaluni
on,sohehelpedtoest
abli
shtheGrandNati
onalConsol i
datedTrades
Uni
on.Hundr
edsofbr anchesweref or
medandi n1834,Owencl ai
medthathehadov erhalfami l
l
ion
members.
Hebel i
evedthatmandependsonhi senvi
ronment,i
fyouwantt ochangeaman( hi
scharacter)
,you
mustf i
rstchangehisenvir
onment,hesayst Man’
hat“ schar acteri
smadef or,andnot ,byhim”,healso
tr
iedtobeamodel employer,
payi
nghigherwagesthanotheremployees’chil
dren,bui
l
dinghousesf ort
hem,
openingsomeshopswher ehesol
dsomegoodsatcheaperpr i
ces.ButtofightOwenot heremployersused
whati sknownast he“ document
”i nwhichever
yempl oyeehadt osignandmeant hathe/shedoesnot
belongtoOwen’ smov ement.
Owen’si
deashadwonhimt heti
tl
eof‘
FatherofEngl
i
shSoci
ali
sm’
,hecont
ri
but
edmucht othegrowt
hof
t
hewor ki
ng-
classmovement
s.Butsoambiti
ousaschemeastheGNCTUwasi mpr
act
icabl
ei nt
he1830s
whenthevastmajor
it
yofworker
swerei
l
li
terat
e.
Worker
sturnedtopoli
ti
csasameansofobt
aini
ngaccesst
othebet
terl
i
fet
hatt
heywant
ed.Char
ti
sm
f
lour
ishedaf
terthef
ail
ureofOwen’
suni
on.
Inthe1840s,
twomaj ormovementswerepressingforr
eforms.OnewasknownasChart
ism,
becausei
ts
l
eaderswrotethei
rdemandsi nchar
terswhichwer esignedbyt hei
rfol
l
owersandthenpresent
edto
Parl
i
amentorthePress.Theotherwastheant
i-CornLawLeague.
I
n1836agr oupofpoli
ti
call
y-
mindedmenformedt heLondonWor ki
ngMen’sAssociat
ion.I
tssecr
etar
y
wasnamedWi ll
iam Lov
ett
.Itsobj
ectwastherefor
m ofParl
iamentandin1838,i
tissuedwhatbecamethe
People’
sChar
ter.Thi
sdemandedsixpoli
ti
calr
eforms.

• AnnualPar
li
ament
• Vot
ebybal
l
ot.
• Equalandel
ect
oraldi
str
ict
s.
• Abol
i
tionoft
hepr
oper
tyqual
i
ficat
ionf
orMPs.
• Pay
mentf
orMPs.
• Uni
ver
salmanhoodsuf
frage.

Thechar t
istsdemandedt hi
sseriesofr
eformsinordertocreat
eabet terdemocraticsociety
.They
hopedr ef
ormedPar li
amentwoul dpasslawsneededtoimprovetheeconomicandsoci alcondit
ionsofthe
massoft hepeopl e.Char
tism experi
encedanumberofupsanddownsi nit
sshor thi
story.Buti twasin
1848t hattheChar ti
stmov ementseemst omanyt oreachapeakandt obeonapoi ntofsucceeding
becauseofr ev
oluti
onsthroughoutWesternEur
ope.Manythoughtthattherev
oluti
onaryfevermightspread
acrosstheChannelt oBri
tain.Thechart
ist
sdeci
dedtoholdamassr al
lyinAPRIL1848andt hent omarch
ont heHouseofCommons, whentheywouldpr
esentt
heirt
hirdchart
er.
Themov ementwasnow l
edbyFer gusO’Connor
.Themarchwentof fpeacef
ull
y,t
hechar t
erwas
pr
esent
edandthenr
idi
cul
edbyi
tsopponent
s.Itwasfoundt
ocont
ainnott
he5,000,
000signat
ureswhi
ch
O’Connorhadcl aimedbutunder2,000,000,manyofwhi chwer ebogus.Par
li
amentdecl i
nedtodi scussit.
SoChar ti
sm endedi naf i
ascoalt
hought hemov ementl i
ngered/st
ayedoninnamef oranotherteny ears.
O’Connorwentoutofhi smindanddiedinanasy lum in1855.Chart
ism wasafail
urebecauseofsoci aland
economicr easons.Intheyearsofdepressi
on,Char t
ism t
endedt obev er
yact
iveandgai nedwidesuppor t.
Butafter1850,Britai
nbecamemor eprosperous.Itshouldbeaddedt hatmanywor ker
swer eatt
ract edby
othermov ements,part
icul
arl
ytheanti-
CornLawLeague.
Theant i-
CornLawLeague( apur elyeconomi cmeasur e)
: Theresult soft heCor nLawof1815di d
notr eall
ysat isfyany body.Thepoori nt ownshat edi tbecausei tkeptupt hepr iceofbr ead, t
heagr icult
ur al
Labor ersf oundi tmadenodi fferencei nt heirwageswhi chr emai nedv eryl ow.Ther i
singmanuf acturing
classdi sl
ikedi tbecauset heysawnogoodr easonwhyt helandl ordsshoul dr ecei v
et hi
sspeci almeasur eof
protection.TheAnt i
-CornLawLeaguewasf ormedi n1839i nManchest erwi thRi chardCobdenasoneof
i
tsl eaders.I twoni tsmai nsuppor tfr
om manuf acturerswhoev erst rongl
yi nf av oroff r
eetradeandl ocked
upont heCor nLawsast hegr eatestobst acle.Cor nLawspr ev entedBr i
tainf rom buy i
ngfor ei
gncor nand
thereforepr ev entedthecor npr oducingcount ri
esf rom buy i
ngBr i
ti
shmanuf act uredgoods.Thi sar gument
appeal edt omanuf acturerswhopr ovidedt heLeaguewi thfundswhi challowedi ttocampai gnceasel essl y
againstt heCor nLawsbyhol dingthroughoutt hecount r
y,publ i
cmeet ingsandpr i
nti
ngpamphl etsby
thousands.Cobdenandhi sfriendsent erPar li
amentanddev elopedt heat tackt here.ThePr ot ect i
onists
tookupt hechal l
engeoft heLeaguemai nt
ainingt hatthemanuf acturerswant edcor npr i
cesl ower ednott o
helpt hepoorbutt oenablet hem t ocutwages.Thest rugglewast henbetweent wogr eat“interests” ,t
hat ’
s
thel andedi nterestsandt hemanuf acturinginterests.
ThePM Rober tPEELt heYounger ,aLancashi r
emanuf acturer'
ssonwho camet o poweras
conserv ati
vePr i
memi nisterin1841soonr ealizedt hatt heneedsoft helandlordsmustt akesecond( 2nd)
placetot hoseoft hecommuni tyasawhol e.Inf act,Peelseemst ohav ebeenconv incedby1845t hatt he
Cor nLawswoul dhav et ogo.Howev er,thedeci siont or epealt heCor nLawswasf orceduponPeelby
events.I n1845,t hesummerwaswetandt heEngl i
shhar vestwasbad.I nI reland,t her ainsbr ought
catastrophef orbl i
ghtstruckt hepotatocr op,whi chmeantt hepr ospectofat er
riblef ami ne.TheLeague
l
aidt hedemandt hatpor tsshouldbeopent of oreigncor ni nordert ohelpI r
ishpeopl e.WhenPeel proposed
therepeal oftheCor nLaws, hewasat tackedsev erelybyt heprot ectioni
stsinhisownpar t
yf or“
treason”.In
theend,t her epealoft heCor nLawst ookpl acei n1846butt heni ghtt heLor dspassedt hebi l
l,the
protectioni
stsi nt heHouseofCommonsj oi
nedt heWhi gsandv otedagai nstPeelonanot herissue,so
forci
nghi mt oresi gnforgoodf rom office.Thi srepr esentedt hegr eatestoft hev ictoriesoff reetrade.It
alsomeantt hetriumphofmanuf act
urersov erlandowner s.

Model
uni
ons
AftertheupsanddownsofChar tism int he1830sandt he1840sandaf terthef ai
lur
eof1848,
wor ker
st urnedonceagai ntotradeuni onism.Thef i
rst(1st )uni ontoappearasamodelt radeunionwas
theAmal gamatedSoci etyofEngineer si n1851wi t
haf ulltimeGener alSecret
ary
.Tr adesCounci l
swer e
graduallyformedunt i
la‘TradeUni onism Congr ess’(TUC)washel dinManchesterin1868, establi
shingan
annualuni onsession.ItwasSam Ni cholson, aManchest erpr interand memberoft heManchest erTr ades
Councilwhosucceededi ncalli
ngt hi sCongr ess.34del egatest ookpar tanday earl at
er40del egates
attendedr epresenti
ngaquar terofami llionmember s.Byt hemi ddl
eoft he1870s,t r
adeuni onshad
becomeoneoft hemostaccept edandr espect abl
ei nstituti
onsofVi ctori
anBrit
ain.Int he1871,Tr ade
UnionActl egali
zeduni onsandf ort hef irsttimeuni onr epr esentati
veswer eelectedint heHouseof
Commonsi n1874.Unionmember shi preached1, 1mi ll
ionin1875.

Chapt
erI
II
:Par
li
amentRef
orms
 Radi
calsl
aidt
hedemandandt
heywer
esuppor
tedbymassmeet
ings.Theydemandedar
efor
min
t
hree(
3)part
softheoldsy
stems.

TheConst
it
uenci
es
MPswer eelectedinconst i
tuenci
esintheSouthernpar
tofBr itai
n.Thisarr
angementhadbeen
suit
ableforBri
tai
ninthe17t hcenturywhenagri
cul
turewasthecountr
y’smai ni
ndustr
yandt hemajorit
yof
peopleli
vedinthemor ef er
til
eSouth.Butby1830,anincr
easi
ngnumberofpeopl ewer el
ivi
nginindustr
ial
townsintheMi dl
ands, SouthWales,theNort
hWestandt heNort
hEastt ownssuchasManchest er,Leeds,
andShef f
iel
dwer el
ar gelyunrepr
esentedinaparl
iamentwhichnonet
hel esspassedlaws,i
mposedt axes
andgov er
nedthem.

Thev
oter
s(Fr
anchi
se)
Therewasauni f
orm quali
fi
cat
ionf
orv
oter
sincount
ryconst
it
uenci
esandv
ari
etyofqual
i
ficat
ions
f
orv
oti
ngindi
ff
erentboroughs(p.
14).

Cor
rupt
ion
Someboroughs( administ
rati
ve di
vi
sionsofalargecity)were‘ r
otten’inthattheowneroft hel
ocal
est
atewhowasof tenamemberoft heHouseofLor dsalr
eadycont rol
ledt heelecti
on.Al
thoughtherewere
l
aws againstbr
ibery( The practi
ce ofof feri
ng somethi
ng ( usuall
ymoney )i n 
order
 to gai
n an i
ll
ici
t
advant
age),f
ewelecti
onsev entwithoutoft
enandampl eevidenceofbr ibery.
Peopl
edemandedr
efor
msabout
:
- Const
it
uenci
es
- Thevot
ers’
franchi
se
- Cor
rupt
ion

1832=Ref
orm Act
• Theconst
it
uenci
es
Theref
orm Actt
ookaway143seat
sfr
om t
hesout
handdi
str
ibut
edmostoft
hem amongt
het
owns
wher
ethepopulat
ionwasgr
owingr
api
dly.

• TheFr
anchi
se(
ther
ightt
ovot
e)
TheActi mposedaunifor
m qualif
icati
onf orboroughconst i
tuenciesandext endedthefranchisef
or
countyconsti
tuenci
es.Whereasbefore1832, 440,000wer eenti
tl
edt ov ote,
af t
eronly217,000wer eadded
totheelect
oralrol
l.(
7%oft heUKpopul ati
on).TheActonl ygaveelectoralr
ecognitiontothenewcl assof
i
ndustri
ali
sts who were now on mor e orl ess equalt erm witht he old ari
stocracy
.Butt he l
anded
ari
stocr
acstswhocont r
oll
edtheLordswer est il
lpowerful
.TheActgav enothingtot heworkingclassbuti
t
rel
easedforceswhichwereeventual
lytoleadt hedemocr ati
csystem oftoday.

Theext
ensi
onoft
heFr
anchi
se
The1867Act&t
he1884–1885r
efor
ms.
• Thepar
li
ament
aryRef
orm Actof1867(
16%coul
dvot
e)doubl
edt
henumberofpeopl
ewhower
e
enti
tl
edtovoteandsowasact uall
yamor esi
gni
fi
cantcont
ri
but
iontothegrowt
hofdemocr
acyt
hanhad
beenthe1832Act.I
tincr
easedthepropor
ti
onofv
oterst
o16%oft headul
tpopul
ati
on.

• 1884-1885ref
orms(28%coul dv
ot e)weremoreradicalast heyi
nst
oredful
lquali
tybetweentowns
andcountyconst
it
uenci
es.79t ownswhichhadpopulati
onsofl essthan15,
000losttheirr
epresentat
ion
and36t ownswithpopulat
ionsofbetween15, 000– 50,000l ostoneseat.Townswi thpopulati
onsof
bet
ween50,000–165,
000wer egiv
en2seat s(
p.14).

El
ect
oralpr
act
ices
Bal
l
otAct1872,
Gladst
one
I
n1872,Gl adstone’
sgov er
nmentpassedtheBal
lotActwhichgavethev oterthesystem whichwe
havetoday.Beforethi
sAct ,el
ecti
onshadbeenconductedonthe“OpenSy st
em” .Thissystem forcedthe
vot
ertot akeaccountoft hewishesofhisemploymentagentorotherper
sonwhomi ghthavebeeni na
posi
ti
ont oinf
luencethewayi nwhichhevot
ed.The1872Actdidawaywiththatandi nsur
edaf ai
rervote.
I
n1885,theGladstoneGov
ernmentbroughti
ntheCorruptPr
act
icesActwhichl
i
mi t
edt heaccount
whichcandi
dat
escouldspendduringel
ect
ionsandsobroughttoanendthebri
ber
yandv ot
e-buyingwhich
hadalwaysexi
stedi
nt hepast.

TheHouseofLor
ds
Iti
sdi f
fi
culttoappreciatethepowerwhicht heHouseofLordsonceexer cised.I
twasi ndeedthe
“UpperHouse” ,superiorin almosteveryrespectt otheCommons.TheLor dswasa pr edominantly
conservat
iveHouse,t hemajor i
tyoftheri
cherclasseshavi
nggoneov ertotheconser v
ati
ves.Theant e-
l
iberal
bias( prej
udice)becamecl earaf
tert
heli
beralshadwonanoverwhelmingvictoryinthe1906elect
ion.
TheLordsr ejectedorseverel
yamendedLi ber
alproposal
soneducati
onandlicensinglaws.
The1911Reform Actr
educedt
hepoweroft
heLor
dstoonlydel
ayi
ngoramendi
ngbil
ls,
powerwasver
y
i
mport
antbecauseitisal
sowhentheMPbegantorecei
vesal
ary
.Itmarksal
sotheendoftheRef
orms
whi
chstar
tedi
n1832.

Women
Inallt
heseRef or
m Actstherewasnoment ionofwomen.Theywer econsi
deredt obesoci all
y
i
nferi
ortomen.Until
theMar r
iedWomen’sActwaspassedi n1870,theycouldnotbetrustedwit
htheirown
proper
ty.Theywerealsoeconomical
lyi
nferiortomen,notal
lowedt opract
iceaslawy er
s,notconsidered
capabl
eofwor kinginoffi
cesunti
ltheinventi
onofthetypewr i
terandt hetel
ephone.Womenf i
rstused
peacefulmeansbutfewmenpai dmuchattentiont
othei
rpamphletsandspeeches.
I
n1903,Mr s.Emmel inePankhur stfounded“ t
heWomen’ sSocialandPol iti
calUnion”t
o campaign
vi
olentlyforvotesforwomen.Thesemi li
tant
slearnedthename“ Suf f
ragett
es”.Theysetfir
etopubl i
c
bui
ldings,cuttel
ephonewi r
esandi nter
ruptedthespeechesofpol
it
iciansandt hedebatesint
heHouseof
Commons.I nspit
eoft heseprotest
s,womenhadt owaitunti
l1918bef orethoseovertheageof30wer e
gi
vent herighttovot
eandunt il1928beforetheyfi
nall
yachiev
edpoli
t i
calequali
tywit
hmen( p.
7). Before
1958, womencoul dnotseatintheHouseofCommons.