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Cement 1
Cement 1
Promotion of Benchmarking Tools for Energy Conservation in Energy Intensive Industries in China
Imprint
Contract: Promotion of Benchmarking Tools for Energy Conservation in Energy Intensive Industries in China
Contract No.: EuropeAid/123870/D/SER/CN Contractor: The Administrative Centre for Chinas Agenda 21 (ACCA21) Room 609, No. 8 Yuyuantan South Road, Haidian District, Beijing, P.R. China, Postal Code: 100038
Partners:
CENTRIC AUSTRIA INTERNATIONAL (CAI) Beijing Energy Conservation & Environment Protection Center (BEEC)
Disclaimer
This publication has been produced within the frame of the EU-China Energy and Environment Programme project Promotion of Benchmarking Tools for Energy Conservation in Energy Intensive Industries in China. The EU-China Energy and Environment Programme (EEP) was established to correspond to the policies of the Chinese Government and the European Commission to strengthen the EU-China cooperation in the area of energy. The project was formally started on the 1. September 2008. The total duration is 12 months. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the project team and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union. Beijing, 2009
Table of Contents
Summary and Acknowledgments.............................................................................. 5 1 2 3 Cement Production Worldwide with Particular Reference to China ........... 6 Cement Manufacturing - Overview ................................................................... 9 Processes and Techniques ................................................................................. 12 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.7 3.8 4 Main Technologies and Process Routes.................................................. 13 Technology Choice .................................................................................... 15 Winning of Raw Materials .......................................................................... 16 Kiln Feed Preparation ................................................................................. 16 Raw Material Storage ............................................................................ 17 Grinding of Raw Materials ..................................................................... 17 Fuel, storage and preparation ................................................................. 18 Storage of Fuels ....................................................................................... 19 Preparation of Fuels................................................................................ 20 Use of Waste as Fuel............................................................................... 20 Clinker burning (pyro-processing) ............................................................ 21 Rotary Kilns Equipped with Preheaters and Precalciner .................. 22 Kiln Exhaust Gases................................................................................... 24 Clinker Cooling ........................................................................................ 24 Cement grinding......................................................................................... 25 Packing and storage.................................................................................. 26
Consumption/Emission Levels and Benchmarks ............................................ 27 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 Consumption of raw materials ................................................................. 27 Use of energy............................................................................................... 28 Energy Consumption Benchmarks (Average Ranges).................. 28 Energy Consumption Benchmark (World Best)............................... 29 Consumption data overview................................................................ 29 2
Specific Characteristics of Kiln Processes ........................................... 30 Energy Consumption for Different Types of Cement........................ 30 Emissions........................................................................................................ 31
Energy Efficiency Technologies and Measures .............................................. 33 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.2.7 5.2.8 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.8 5.3.9 5.3.10 5.4 5.4.1 Overview of Measures................................................................................ 34 Raw materials preparation........................................................................ 36 Efficient Transport Systems (Dry Process)............................................. 36 Raw Meal Blending (Homogenizing) Systems (Dry Process) ........... 36 Slurry Blending and Homogenizing (Wet Process) ............................ 37 Wash Mills with Closed Circuit Classifier (Wet Process) .................... 37 Use of Roller Mills (Dry Process) ............................................................. 37 High-Efficiency Classifiers/Separators.................................................. 38 Fuel Preparation ...................................................................................... 38 Roller Press for Coal Grinding................................................................ 39 Clinker Production All Kilns...................................................................... 39 Process Control & Management Systems for Kilns ............................ 39 Kiln Combustion System Improvements .............................................. 40 Indirect Firing............................................................................................ 41 Oxygen Enrichment................................................................................ 41 Seals .......................................................................................................... 42 Kiln Shell Heat Loss Reduction and Refractories................................ 42 Kiln Drives.................................................................................................. 42 Use of Waste-Derived Fuels ................................................................... 43 Conversion to Reciprocating Grate Cooler....................................... 44 Optimization of Heat Recovery/Upgrade Clinker Cooler ........... 44
Clinker Production - Wet Process Kilns..................................................... 45 Wet Process Conversion to Semi-Dry Process (Slurry Drier) .............. 45
5.4.2 5.4.3 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5 5.6 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3 5.6.4 5.7 5.7.1 5.7.2 5.7.3 5.7.4 5.7.5 5.8 5.8.1 5.8.2 5.8.3 5.8.4 5.9 6
Wet Process Conversion to Semi-Wet Process (Filter Press System) 45 Wet Process Conversion to Pre-Heater/Pre-calciner Kiln................. 46 Clinker production - dry process preheater kilns................................... 46 Low Pressure Drop Cyclones for Suspension Preheaters .................. 46 Heat Recovery for Cogeneration ........................................................ 46 Dry Process Conversion to Multi-Stage Preheater Kiln...................... 47 Upgrading to a Preheater/Precalciner Kiln........................................ 47 Conversion of Long Dry Kilns to Preheater/Precalciner Kiln ............ 48 Finish Grinding.............................................................................................. 48 Process Control and Management Grinding Mills ......................... 48 Advanced Grinding Concepts ............................................................ 48 High-Efficiency Classifiers....................................................................... 49 Improved Grinding Media..................................................................... 50 Plant-Wide Measures.................................................................................. 50 Energy Management............................................................................. 50 Preventative Maintenance ................................................................... 51 Motor Systems.......................................................................................... 51 Compressed Air Systems........................................................................ 52 Lighting ..................................................................................................... 52 Product Changes........................................................................................ 53 Alkali Content .......................................................................................... 53 Blended Cements ................................................................................... 53 Limestone Portland Cement ................................................................. 54 Reducing the Fineness for Particular Applications............................ 54 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 55
Percentage growth in cement consumption 2005-2008. Source: USGS 2006 report and the USGS 2008 report.
The Chinese cement industry is characterized by the use of many different technology types. There are basically two types of cement kilns used for the production of clinker (the first production stage of cement manufacture). These are 7
vertical (or shaft) kilns and rotary kilns, but many variations of each type exist in China. Over half of China's cement production is still by vertical shaft kilns. The remainder is produced by both wet and dry rotary kilns; wet kilns comprised only 5% of production in 2003. About 30% of China's cement production in 2004 was from advanced dry rotary kilns that have new suspension preheaters which include precalciners (NSP or precalciner kilns) or suspension preheaters (SP kilns). Energy savings and GHG emissions reductions in the Chinese cement industry can be realized through energy-efficiency retrofits, increased use of blended cements, and substitution of coal with waste fuels, use of waste heat for power generation, and structural shifts (closing older shaft kilns and building modern rotary kilns).
Naturally occurring calcareous deposits such as limestone, marl or chalk provide the source for calcium carbonate. Silica, iron oxide and alumina are found in various ores and minerals, such as sand, shale, clay and iron ore. Power station ash, blast furnace slag, and other process residues can also be used as partial replacements for the natural raw materials. 9
To produce 1 ton of clinker the typical average consumption of raw materials in the EU is 1.57 tons. Most of the balance is lost from the process as carbon dioxide (CO2) emission to air in the calcination reaction (CaCO3 CaO + CO2). Clinker burning usually takes place in a rotary kiln which can be part of a wet or dry long kiln system, a semi-wet or semi-dry grate preheater (Lepol) kiln system, a dry suspension preheater kiln system or a preheater/precalciner kiln system. According to state of the art modern cement production uses dry process kilns. Vertical (or shaft) kilns are almost never used now in developed countries largely because of energy inefficiencies. Where semi-dry, semi-wet, and wet process kilns are still in use then they are generally expected to be converted to dry process kiln systems when renewed for similar reasons. In addition there are further grinding plants (mills) without kilns, which are not considered further in this reference book, because the major part of energy consumption in cement production concerns the clinker production with kilns. The best available technique for the production of cement clinker is considered to be a dry process kiln with multi-stage suspension preheating and precalcination. In recent years typical kiln size has come to be around 3000 tons clinker/day. The associated average benchmark heat balance value is 3000 MJ/ton clinker. The clinker burning is the most important part of the cement manufacturing process in terms of the key environmental issues of energy use and emissions to air. Clinker making accounts for up to 90% of the total energy consumption of cement manufacturing. Further key environmental emissions are nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and dust. Whilst dust abatement has been widely applied for more than 50 years and SO2 abatement is a plant specific issue, the abatement of NOx is a relatively new issue for the cement industry. Many modern cement plants have adopted general primary measures, such as process control optimization, use of gravimetric solid fuel feed systems, optimized cooler connections and use of power management systems. These measures usually improve clinker quality and lower production costs but they also reduce the energy use and air emissions. A number of environmental issues, especially its large carbon dioxide emissions, potentially affect the cement industry. As a rule of the thumb, one ton of cement produced releases one ton of CO2. Carbon dioxide reduction strategies by the cement industry aim at lowering emissions per ton of cement product rather than by
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plant. These strategies include installation of more fuel-efficient kiln technologies, partial substitution of noncarbonated sources of calcium oxide in the kiln raw materials, and partial substitution of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) additives, such as pozzolans, for Portland Cement in the finished cement products and in concrete. Because SCM do not require the energy-intensive clinker manufacturing (kiln) phase of cement production, their use therefore reduce the monetary and environmental costs of the cement component of concrete. Fossil fuel cost are a main concern of the cement industry; even in times of cement shortages, the industry has historically found it difficult to fully pass on the cost increases of fuels to the customers. Some cement plants burn waste materials in their kilns as a low-cost substitute for fossil fuels. Cement kilns can be an effective way of destroying such wastes, but can result in other emission related problems. The viability of the practice and the type of waste burned hinge on current and future environmental regulations and their associated costs. The trend appears to be toward increased use of waste fuels, while separate emission related issues are being addressed more directly through the waste incineration industry.
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The following sub-processes are discussed in more detail in the next chapters: Winning of raw materials Kiln feed preparation Fuels storage and preparation Clinker burning Cement grinding and storage Packing and dispatch
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depending on their chemical suitability. More than 1.5 tons of raw materials are required to produce one ton of Portland cement. After primary crushing the raw materials are transported to the cement plant for storage and further preparation. Other raw materials, such as bauxite, iron ore, blast furnace slag or foundry sand, are brought in from elsewhere.
The fineness and particle size distribution of the product leaving a raw grinding system is of great importance in the subsequent burning process. The target given for these parameters is achieved by adjusting the separator used for classifying the product leaving the grinding mill. For dry classification, air separators are used. The newest generation, rotor cage type separators, have several advantages including: lower specific energy consumption of the grinding system (less over-grinding), increased system throughput (efficiency of particle separation), A more favorable particle size distribution and product uniformity.
Accurate metering and proportioning of the mill feed components by weight is important for achieving a consistent chemical composition. This is essential for steady kiln operation and a high-quality product. Metering and proportioning is also an important factor in the energy efficiency of the grinding system. Raw material preparation is an electricity-intensive production step requiring generally about 25-35 kWh/ton raw material, although it could require as little as 11 kWh/ton. Further energy is required to dry the raw material. The moisture content in the kiln feed of the dry kiln is typically around 0.5 % (0 0.7 %); waste heat from the kiln exhaust clinker cooler is commonly used for this purpose. For raw materials with relatively high moisture content, and for start up procedures, an auxiliary furnace may be needed to provide additional heat.
whereas the remaining 15-35% may be fed in coarse crushed or lump form. The main fuels used in the cement industry are petcoke and coal (black coal and lignite), which has also process specific benefits: the main ash constituents of these fuels are silica and alumina compounds. These combine with the raw materials to become part of the clinker. This has to be considered in calculating the raw material composition. Thus it is desirable to use fuel with a consistent, though not necessarily low, ash content. Low rank lignitic and sub-bituminous coals are therefore sometimes favored for cement manufacture. Cost normally precludes the use of natural gas or oil, but the selection of fuels depends on the local situation (such as availability of domestic coal). However, the high temperatures and long residence times in the kiln system implies considerable potential for destruction of organic substances. This makes a wide variety of less expensive fuel options possible, in particular different types of wastes.
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consumption of a dry kiln with 4 or 5-stage preheating can vary between 3.2 and 3.5 GJ/ton clinker (109-120kgce/t); electricity use increases slightly due to the increased pressure drop across the system. A six stage preheater kiln can theoretically use as low as 2.9-3.0 GJ/ton clinker (98-102kgce/t). The most efficient pre-heater, precalciner kilns use approximately 2.9 GJ/ton clinker (97kgce/t). Alkali or kiln dust (KD) bypass systems may be required in kilns to remove alkalis, sulfates, and/or chlorides. But such systems lead to additional energy losses since sensible heat is removed with the bypass gas and dust.
Left: Four stage cyclone preheater. Right: Four stage cyclone preheater plus precalciner
The exhaust gas, which has a temperature of around 330 C, is normally used for raw material drying. When the meal enters the rotary kiln, calcination is already about 30% completed. Severe problems have been encountered in the past with four stage preheaters in cases where inputs of circulating elements (chlorides, sulphur, and alkalis) from the feed and/or fuel were excessive. Highly enriched cycles of these elements lead to build-ups in cyclone and duct walls, which frequently cause
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blockages and kiln stops lasting several days. Kiln gas bypass, i.e. extraction of part of the particulate laden gas stream leaving the kiln so that it bypasses the cyclone system, is a frequently used solution to the problem. This bypass gas is cooled to condense the alkalis and then passed through a dust collector before discharge. Whilst in some regions it is necessary, for the control of clinker alkali levels, to send the bypass dust and part of the kiln dust to landfills, in all other cases it is fed back into the production process. Almost all four-stage suspension preheaters operate with rotary kilns with three supports. This has been the standard design since around 1970. Kilns with diameters from 3.5 to 6 m have been built with length to diameter ratios in the range 13:1 to 16:1. Mechanically simpler than the long wet and dry kilns, it is probably the most widely used kiln type today. The precalcination technique (see right figure above) has been available to the cement industry since about 1970. In this procedure the heat input is divided between two points. Primary fuel combustion occurs in the kiln burning zone. Secondary burning takes place in a special combustion chamber between the rotary kiln and the preheater. In this chamber up to 60% of the total fuel can be burned in a typical precalciner kiln. This energy is basically used to calcine the raw meal, which is almost completely calcined when it enters the kiln. Hot air for combustion in the calciner is ducted from the cooler. Material leaves the calciner at about 870 C. For a given rotary kiln size precalcining increases the clinker capacity. Earlier precalciner systems had only four preheater stages with accordingly higher exhaust gas temperature and fuel consumption. Kiln systems with five cyclone preheater stages and precalciner are considered standard technology for new dry process plants. Where natural raw material moisture is low, six-stage preheaters can be the preferred choice, particularly in combination with bag-filter de-dusting. The size of a new plant is primarily determined by predicted market developments, but also by economy of scale. Typical unit capacity for new plants in Europe today is from 3000 to 5000 tons/day. Technically, larger units with up to 15000 tons/day are possible, and three 10000 tons/day kilns are currently in operation in Asian markets. Where excessive inputs of circulating elements are present, a kiln gas bypass is required to maintain continuous kiln operation. However, due to the different gas flow characteristics, a bypass in a precalciner kiln is much more efficient than in a straight preheater kiln. In spite of the fact that the meal enters the kiln 75 to 95% calcined, most precalciner kilns are still equipped with a rotary kiln with a calcining zone, i.e. 23
with an L/D ratio of 13:1 to 16:1 as in the case of the straight preheater kilns.
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depends strongly on the hardness of the material and the desired fineness of the cement as well as the amount of additives. Blast furnace slags are harder to grind and hence use more grinding power, between 50 and 70 kWh/ton for a 3,500 Blaine1 (expressed in cm2/g). Traditionally, ball mills are used in finish grinding, while many plants use vertical roller mills. In ball or tube mills, the clinker and gypsum are fed into one end of a horizontal cylinder and partially ground cement exits from the other end. Modern ball mills may use between 32 and 37 kWh/ton for 3,500 Blaine cement. Modern state-of-the-art concepts utilize a high-pressure roller mill and the horizontal roller mill that are claimed to use 20-50% less energy than a ball mill. The roller press is a relatively new technology, and is more common in Europe than in North America. Various new grinding mill concepts are under development or have been demonstrated
Blaine is a measure of the total surface of the particles in a given quantity of cement, or an indicator of the fineness
of cement. It is defined in terms of square centimeters per gram. The higher the Blaine, the more energy required to grind the clinker and additive.
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The final energy electricity demand - for raw material, solid fuel and additives preparation and grinding - is about 90-130 kWh/ton (~320-430 MJ/ton) cement. This number is equivalent to 270-400 kWh/ton (~990-1420 MJ/ton) cement of primary energy electricity, which includes electricity generation, transmission and distribution losses.
Final energy intensity kgce/t clinker from 97.2 105.8 112.6 up to 102.4 143.3 153.5 170.6 170.6 105.8 204.7 143.3 5,000 3,100 MJ/t clinker from 2,850 3,100 3,300 up to 3,000 4,200 4,500 5,000 6,000 4,200 170.6 105.8
Primary energy intensity kgce/t clinker from 97.2 105.8 112.6 up to 102.4 143.3 153.5 170.6 204.7 143.3 5,000 3,100 MJ/t clinker from 2,850 3,100 3,300 up to 3,000 4,200 4,500 5,000 6,000 4,200
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Final energy intensity kgce/t cement from 2.9 2.7 3.1 8.7 up to 4.3 3.1 8.6 16.0 kWh/t cement from 24 22 25 71 up to 35 25 70 130
Primary energy intensity kgce/t cement from 8.9 8.2 9.3 26.4 up to 13.0 9.3 26.1 48.4 kWh/t cement from 73 67 76 215 up to 106 76 212 394
clinker. The above reported energy consumption figures relate to these types of cement. For composite Portland Cements (CEM II), up to 35% can be fly ash and 65% clinker. Total energy consumption for the production of these types of cements can up to about 20% less. For blast furnace slag cements (CEM III/A), up to 65% can be blast furnace slag and only 35% clinker. The total energy consumption for the production of these types of cement can be up to about 45 % less.
4.3 Emissions
This topic was included because the Chinese cement industry. like its international counterparts, is under increasingly pressure to adopt stricter environmental protection standards. The main polutants from the production of cement are releases to air from the kiln system. These derive from the physical and chemical reactions involving the raw materials and the combustion of fuels. The main constituents of the exit gases from a cement kiln are nitrogen from the combustion air; CO2 from calcination of CaCO3 and combustion of fuel; water vapor from the combustion process and from the raw materials; and excess oxygen. There are also releases of particulates from all milling operations including raw materials, solid fuel and product. There is potential for the release of particulates from any outside storage of raw materials and solid fuels as well as from any materials transport systems, including cement product loading. The magnitude of these releases can be significant if they are not well engineered or maintained. Even at low levels, such releases can lead to local nuisance problems. Cement plant operation and literature on air pollution and abatement techniques generally focus on three pollutants, which are also used for fixing emission limit values: oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and other nitrogen compounds sulphur dioxide (SO2) and other sulphur compounds 31
dust
The following pollutants are also considered to be of concern for the production of cement: carbon monoxide (CO) volatile organic compounds (VOC)
Other pollutants to be considered in relation to the production of cement in case of waste fuels are: polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs and PCDFs) metals and their compounds hydrogen fluoride (HF) or hyroflouric acid hydrogen chloride (HCl) or hydrochloric acid
Not mentioned in the list, but considered to be relevant for cement production is carbon dioxide (CO2). Other emissions the effect of which is normally slight and/or local, are waste, noise and odor.
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Dry process
Wet process
Efficient transport systems Slurry blending and homogenization Raw meal blending systems Conversion to closed circuit wash mill High-efficiency roller mills High-efficiency classifiers Fuel Preparation: Roller mills
X X X X X X X X
Clinker production
Dry process
Wet process X X X X X X X X
Energy management and process control Seal replacement Kiln combustion system improvements Kiln shell heat loss reduction Use of waste fuels Conversion to modern grate cooler Refractories Optimize grate coolers Addition of pre-calciner to pre-heater kiln Low pressure drop cyclones suspension pre-heaters Heat recovery for power generation Long dry kiln conversion to multi-stage pre-heater kiln Conversion to pre-heater, pre-calciner kilns Conversion to semi-dry kiln (slurry drier) Conversion to semi-wet kiln Efficient kiln drives Oxygen enrichment
X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X
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Finish grinding
Dry process
Wet process X X X X X
Energy management and process control Improved grinding media (ball mills) Kiln combustion system improvements High-pressure roller press High efficiency classifiers
X X X X X
General measures
Dry process
Wet process X X X X X
Preventative maintenance High efficiency motors Efficient fans with variable speed drives High-pressure roller press Efficient lighting
X X X X X
Dry process
Wet process X X X X X
Blended Cements Limestone cement Low Alkali cement Use of steel slag in kiln Reducing fineness of cement for selected uses
X X X X X
Not all measures mentioned above will apply to all plants. Application will depend on the current and future situation in individual plants. For example, expansion and large capital projects are likely to be implemented only if the company has about 50 years of remaining limestone reserves onsite. Plants that have a shorter remaining supply are unlikely to implement large capital projects, and would rather focus on minor upgrades and energy management measures.
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substances, for example nitrogen, metals and organic compounds. There are, however, some differences between different kiln systems and feeding points. For example, fuel sulphur is not a problem for dry preheater and precalciner kiln systems, and all organic compounds in fuels fed through the main burner will be completely destroyed.
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Electricity consumption for a vertical roller mill is estimated at 16-18 kWh/ton coal. The investment costs for a roller mill are typically higher than that of a tube mill or an impact mill, but the operating costs are also lower; roughly 20% compared to a tube mill and over 50% compared to an impact mill. between 7-10 kWh/ton of coal. Energy savings are estimated
homogenizing the raw material, ensuring uniform coal dosing and improving the coolers operation. the maintenance of a steady fuel feed rate, with few peaks, is of great importance and requires good designs of hopper, transport conveyor and feeder systems and gravimetric solid fuel feed systems to achieve this objective. Heat from the kiln may be lost through non-optimal process conditions or process management. Automated computer control systems may help to optimize the combustion process and conditions. Improved process control will also help to improve the product quality and grindability, such as reactivity and hardness of the produced clinker, which may lead to more efficient clinker grinding. A number of management systems are marketed through the cement industry manufacturers and available and in use throughout the world. Most modern systems use so-called expert control (also known as 'fuzzy logic' or rule-based control strategies). Expert control systems do not use a modeled process to control process conditions, but try to simulate the best human operator, using information from various stages in the process. An alternative to expert systems or fuzzy logic is model-predictive control using dynamic models of the processes in the kiln. Additional process control systems include the use of on-line analyzers that permit operators to keep track of the chemical composition of raw materials being processed in the plant. This enables rapid changes to be made to the blend of raw materials. A uniform feed allows for steadier kiln operation, thereby saving fuel. Energy savings from process control systems may vary between 2.5% and 10%, and the typical savings are estimated at 2.5-5%. The economics of advanced process control systems are very good and payback periods can be as short as 3 months.
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generation.
5.3.5 Seals
Seals are used at the kiln inlet and outlet to reduce false air penetration, as well as heat losses. Seals may start leaking, hence increasing the heat requirement of the kiln. Most often pneumatic and lamella-type seals are used, although other designs are available (e.g. spring-type). Although seals can last up to 10,000 to 20,000 hours, regular inspection may be needed to reduce leaks. Energy losses resulting from leaking seals may vary, but are generally relatively small. The payback period for improved maintenance of kiln seals is estimated at 6 months or less.
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drive with an air clutch and a synchronous motor. The system would reduce power use for kiln drives by a few percent, or roughly 0.5 kWh/ton of clinker at slightly higher capital costs (+6%). More recently, the use of AC motors is advocated to replace the traditionally used DC drive. The AC motor system may result in slightly higher efficiencies (0.5 1% reduction in electricity use of the kiln drive) and has lower investment costs. Using high-efficiency motors to replace older motors or instead of re-winding old motors may reduce power costs by 2 to 8%. Adjustable or variable speed drives (ASDs) for the kiln fan result in reduced power use and reduced maintenance costs.
remaining air can be used as tertiary air for the precalciner. Rotary coolers (used for approximately 5% of the world clinker capacity for plants up to 2200-5000 tons/day of clinker) and planetary coolers (used for 10% of the world capacity for plants up to 3300-4400 tons/day of clinker do not need combustion air fans and use little excess air, resulting in lower heat losses. Improving heat recovery efficiency in the cooler results in fuel savings, but may also influence product quality and emission levels. Heat recovery can be improved through reduction of excess air volume; control of clinker bed depth and new grates such as ring grates. Control of cooling air distribution over the grate may result in lower clinker temperatures and high air temperatures. Additional heat recovery results in reduced energy use in the kiln and precalciner, due to higher combustion air temperatures. A recent innovation in clinker coolers is the installation of a static grate section at the hot end of the clinker cooler. This has resulted in improved heat recovery and reduced maintenance of the cooler. Modification of the cooler would result in improved heat recovery rates of 2-5% over a conventional grate cooler.
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efficiency of the existing kiln and on the new process parameters (e.g. degree of precalcination and cooler efficiency). Older calciners can also be retrofitted for energy efficiency improvement and NOx emission reduction.
riding on a horizontal grinding table. In a high-pressure roller press, two rollers pressurize the material up to 3,500 bar, improving the grinding efficiency dramatically. A variation of the roller mill is the air swept ring roller mill, which has been shown to achieve an electricity consumption of 23 kWh/ton of cement with a Blaine of 3000. Another mill concept is the Horomill; it is a horizontal roller within a cylinder. The centrifugal forces resulting from the movement of the cylinder cause a uniformly distributed layer to be carried on the inside of the cylinder. The layer passes the roller (with a pressure of 700-1000 bar. The finished product is collected in a dust filter. The Horomill is a compact mill that can produce a finished product in one step and hence has relatively low capital costs. Grinding Portland Cement with a Blaine of 3200 cm2/g consumes approximately 21 kWh/ton and even for pozzolanic cement with a Blaine of 4000, power use may be as low as 25 kWh/ton of cement. Today, high-pressure roller presses are most often used to expand the capacity of existing grinding mills, and are found especially in countries with high electricity costs or with poor power supply. New designs of the roller mills allow for longer operation times (> 20,000 hours). The electricity savings of a new finish grinding mill when replacing a ball mill are estimated at 25 kWh/ton cement. The addition of a pregrinding system to a ball mill will result in savings of 6-22 kWh/ton cement. Some new mill concepts may lead to a reduction in operation costs of as much as 30-40%.
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behavior and attitude may have a greater impact. Staff should be trained in both skills and the companys general approach to energy efficiency in their day-to-day practices. Personnel at all levels should be aware of energy use and objectives for energy efficiency improvement. Often this information is acquired by lower level managers but not passed to upper management or down to staff. Programs with regular feedback on staff behavior, such as reward schemes, have had the good results. Though changes in staff behavior, such as switching off lights or closing windows and doors, often save only small amounts of energy at one time, taken continuously over longer periods they may have a much greater effect than more costly technological improvements. Most importantly, companies need to institute strong energy management programs that oversee energy efficiency improvement across the corporation. An energy management program will see to it that all employees actively contribute to energy efficiency improvements.
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A systems approach typically involves the following steps: First, all applications of motors in a facility should be located and identified. Second, the conditions and specifications of each motor should be documented to provide a current systems inventory. Third, the needs and the actual use of the motor systems should be assessed to determine whether or not motors are properly sized and also how well each motor meets the needs of its driven equipment. Fourth, information on potential repairs and upgrades to the motor systems should be collected, including the economic costs and benefits of implementing repairs and upgrades to enable the energy efficiency improvement decision-making process. Finally, if upgrades are pursued, the performance of the upgraded motor systems should be monitored to determine the actual costs savings.
5.7.5 Lighting
Energy use for lighting in the cement industry is very small. Still, energy efficiency opportunities may be found that can reduce energy use cost-effectively. Lighting is used either to provide overall ambient lighting throughout the manufacturing, storage and office spaces or to provide low-bay and task lighting to specific areas. Highintensity discharge (HID) sources are used for the former, including metal halide, high-pressure sodium and mercury vapor lamps. Fluorescent, compact fluorescent (CFL) and incandescent lights are typically used for task lighting in offices. 52
standard has been developed for 25 types of cement (using different compositions for different applications). The European standard allows wider applications of additives. Many other countries around the world use blended cement. Blended cements demonstrate a higher long-term strength, as well as improved resistance to acids and sulfates, while using waste materials for high-value applications. Shortterm strength (measured after less than 7 days) may be lower, although cement containing less than 30% additives will generally have setting times comparable to concrete based on Portland cement. The costs of applying additives in cement production may vary. Capital costs are limited to extra storage capacity for the additives. However, blast furnace slag may need to be dried before use in cement production. This can be done in the grinding mill, using exhaust from the kiln, or supplemental firing, either from a gas turbine used to generate power or a supplemental air heater. The operational cost savings will depend on the purchase (including transport) costs of the additives, the increased electricity costs for (finer) grinding, the reduced fuel costs for clinker production and electricity costs for raw material grinding and kiln drives, as well as the reduced handling and mining costs. These costs will vary by location, and would need to be assessed on the basis of individual plants.
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the desired fineness could reduce the energy demand for grinding. The exact savings will depend on the grindability of the clinker. As a rule of thumb, for each 100 additional Blaine points, grinding power requirements increase by 5 %. Note that finer cement may reduce the amount of concrete needed for a structure, due to the higher strength. It is hard to estimate the total savings due to the many factors affecting strength of concrete and grinding energy requirements. Also, without a detailed assessment of the market and applications of cement, it is difficult to estimate the total potential contribution of this measure to potential energy savings in the cement industry.
5.9 Conclusion
The cost of energy as part of the total production costs in the cement industry is significant. Attention to improve energy efficiency is high thus. Historically, energy intensity has declined; mainly between 1970 and 1999, primary physical energy intensity for cement production dropped 1%/year, although more recently energy intensity seems to have stabilized with the gains. Coal and coke are currently the primary fuels for the sector; natural gas is an option to mitigate CO2 emissions, but expensive compared to coal as fuel. More recently, there is a slight increase in the use of waste fuels, addressing both the cost factor and CO2 mitigation by partly replacing fossil fuels with waste as fuel. E.g. The British Cement Association has formulated a target to reduce fossil fuels consumption until 2010 by up to 30% compared to the baseline of 1998. Despite the historic progress, there is ample room for energy efficiency improvement. The relatively high share of other than state of the art dry process preheater and precalciner plants suggests the existence of a considerable potential. Substantial potential for energy efficiency improvement exists in the cement industry and in individual plants. A portion of this potential will be achieved as part of (natural) modernization and expansion of existing facilities, as well as construction of new plants in particular regions. Still, a relatively large potential for improved energy management practices exists.
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The European Cement Association (CEMBUREAU) - http://www.cembureau.be/ Indian Cement Manufacturers Association - http://www.cmaindia.org/ Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia - http://www.concrete.net.au/ Japan Cement Association - http://www.jcassoc.or.jp/cement/2eng/ea.html German Cement Works' Association - http://www.vdz-online.de/314.html?&lang=en Austrian Cement Industry Association - http://www.zement.at/
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