1

Capacitance

𝐴
𝐶 = є0
𝑑

• If there is a material medium between the plates, then the capacitance, the
charge storage ability per unit voltage, increases by a factor of εr, where εr is
called the dielectric constant of the medium or its relative permittivity.
• The increase in the capacitance is due to the polarization of the medium in
which positive and negative charges are displaced with respect to their
equilibrium positions.
• The opposite surfaces of the dielectric medium acquire opposite surface
charge densities that are related to the amount of polarization in the material.

1
 Relative Permittivity

𝑄
𝑄0 𝐶=
𝐶0 = 𝑉
𝑉
𝑄 𝐶
𝐶 > 𝐶0 ϵ𝑟 = =
𝑄0 𝐶0
• Note that electric field remains same when dielectric medium is inserted.
3

Dipole Moment
• Dipole moment a measure of the electrostatic effects of a pair of opposite
charges +Q and −Q separated by a finite distance a
𝑝 = 𝑄𝑎
• Although the net charge is zero, this entity still gives rise to an electric field
in space and also interacts with an electric field from other sources.

• An atom is said to be polarized if it possesses an effective dipole moment.

• The induced dipole moment depends on the electric field causing it.

𝑝 = 𝛼𝐸
𝛼 : polarizability 4

2
 Polarization
• When a material is placed in an electric field, the atoms and the molecules of
the material become polarized, so we have a distribution of dipole moments in
the material.

Polarization
• Polarization P: If there are N atoms 

1
𝑃= 𝑝⃗ + 𝑝⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝑝⃗𝑁
𝑉 1
• If 𝑝⃗av is the average dipole moment 

𝑃 = 𝑁 𝑝⃗av
N : number of atoms per unit volume.

• Considering +𝑄𝑝and −𝑄𝑝 surface charges separated by a distance d

𝑝 total = 𝑄𝑝𝑑

𝑝 total 𝑄𝑝𝑑 𝑄𝑝
𝑃= = =
𝑉 𝐴𝑑 𝐴

3
 Polarization
𝑄𝑝
𝑃= = 𝜎𝑝
𝐴
• The direction of P is normal to the surface. For +σp (right face), it comes out
from the surface and for σp (left face), it is directed into the surface.

• Generally: 𝑃 normal = 𝜎𝑝

Susceptibility
• The dependence of the induced dipole moment on the electric field:

𝑝 = 𝛼𝐸

• The dependence of the polarization on the electric field:

𝑃 = χeϵ 0𝐸

χ e : Electric susceptibility

• χ e relates the effect (𝑃) to its cause (𝐸).

• χ e may depend on E  P may nonlinearly depend on E.

1
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑝 = 𝑁𝛼e 𝐸 3 e = 𝑁𝛼
ϵ0 e

4
 Susceptibility

𝑉 𝑄 𝑄 𝜎
𝐸= = 0 = 0 = 0
𝑑 𝐶0𝑑 ϵ0𝐴 ϵ0

Susceptibility

𝑄 = 𝑄0 + 𝑄𝑝

𝑄 𝑄0 𝑄𝑝
= +
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

𝜎 = ϵ 0 𝐸 + 𝜎𝑝

𝜎 = ϵ0 𝐸 + 𝑃

𝜎 = ϵ0 1 + χe 𝐸

𝜎 𝑁𝛼
ϵ𝑟 =  ϵ𝑟 = 1 + χe  ϵ𝑟 = 1 +
𝜎0 ϵ0

10

10

5
1

Local Field
• As soon as the dielectric becomes polarized, the field at some arbitrary point
depends not only on the charges on the plates (Q) but also on the orientations
of all the other dipoles around this point in the dielectric  E changes.

• Lorentz field:

1
𝐸loC = 𝐸 + 𝑃
3ϵ0

𝑝i nduCed = 𝛼e𝐸loC

6
 Electronic Polarization
• Electron clouds within each atom become shifted by the field  quite small.
• Valence electrons in covalent bonds can easily tunnel from bond to bond 
significant shift under an electric field.
• Large dielectric constants in covalent crystals  εr = 11.9 for Si and εr = 16 for
Ge.

Ionic Polarization
• This type of polarization occurs in ionic
crystals such as NaCl, KCl, and LiBr.

𝐸=0
𝑝net = 𝑝+ − 𝑝− = 0

𝐸≠0
𝑝net = 𝑝+ − 𝑝− ≠ 0

𝑝av = 𝛼i𝐸loC
𝑃 = 𝑁i𝑝av = 𝑁i𝛼i𝐸loC

7
 Orientational Polarization
• Certain molecules possess permanent dipole moments  HCl molecule has a
permanent dipole moment po from the Cl ion to the H+ ion.
• When 𝐸 = 0, dipole moments are randomly oriented as a result of thermal
agitation.

Oriental Polarization
• When 𝐸 ≠ 0: Cl and H+ experience forces
in opposite direction.
• The molecule experiences a torque  about
its center of mass.
• For full alignment  𝑃 = 𝑁𝑝0
• The collisions due to thermal energy destroy
dipole alignments.
• Net average dipole moment depends on
temperature:
1 𝑝02 𝐸
𝑝av =
3 𝑘𝑇

1 𝑝02
𝛼𝑑 =
3 𝑘𝑇

8
 Interfacial Polarization
• Interfacial polarization occurs whenever there is an accumulation of charge
at an interface between two materials or between two regions within a material.

Interfacial Polarization
• Interfacial polarization occurs whenever there is an accumulation of charge
at an interface between two materials or between two regions within a material.

9
 Total Polarization
• In the presence of electronic, ionic, and dipolar polarization mechanisms, the
average induced dipole moment per molecule will be the sum of all the
contributions in terms of the local field

𝑝av = 𝛼e𝐸loC + 𝛼i𝐸loC + 𝛼𝑑𝐸loC

• Interfacial polarization cannot be simply added to the above equation as αif Eloc
because it occurs at interfaces and cannot be put into an average polarization
per molecule in the bulk.

1
0
1

Time-Varying Field
• When the applied field varies with time, the
polarization is generally different than the
static case.
• Let us consider orientational polarization
involving dipolar molecules.
• The time-varying field changes magnitude and
direction continuously, and it tries to line up
the dipoles one way and then the other way
and so on.

• If the instantaneous induced dipole moment p per molecule

can instantaneously follow the field variations, then at any
instant

𝑝 = 𝛼𝑑𝐸

1
1
 Alignment
• There are two factors opposing the
immediate alignment of the dipoles with the
field.
• First: Thermal agitation randomizes the
dipole orientations
• Second: Interactions with neighbors.
• As a result, dipoles cannot respond
instantaneously to the changes in the applied
field.

Polarizability vs. Frequency

• If the field changes too rapidly, then the

dipoles cannot follow the field.
• At high frequencies, therefore, αd will be zero
as the field cannot induce a dipole moment.
• At low frequencies, of course, the dipoles can
respond rapidly to follow the field and αd has
its maximum value.
• We need to find the behavior of αd as a
function of frequency ω.

1
2
 Change in Field

• Suppose that after a prolonged

application, corresponding to
dc conditions, the applied field
across the dipolar gaseous
medium is suddenly decreased
from Eo to E at a time we
define as zero,

Relaxation

• τ: Average time , called the

relaxation time, between
molecular collisions, then
this is the mean time it takes
per molecule to randomize
the induced dipole moment.

1
3
 Sinusoidal Electric Field

• αd(ω) is a complex number that

indicates that p and E are out of phase
• At low frequencies, ωτ ≪ 1, αd(ω) is
nearly αd(0), and p is in phase with E.

Phase Delay

1
4
 Complex Dielectric Constant
𝑁𝛼
ϵ𝑟 = 1 +
𝗌0

𝑁 𝛼𝑑(0)
ϵ𝑟 = 1 +
ϵ 0 1 + j𝜔𝑟

𝑁 𝛼𝑑(0) 1 − j𝜔𝑟
ϵ𝑟 = 1 + ×
ϵ 0 1 + j𝜔𝑟 1 − j𝜔𝑟

𝑁 𝛼𝑑(0) 𝑁 𝛼𝑑(0)𝜔𝑟
ϵ𝑟 = 1 + −j
ϵ 0 1 + 𝜔2𝑟2 ϵ 0 1 + 𝜔2𝑟
2

ϵ 𝑟 = ϵ ′𝑟 − j ϵ " 𝑟

Frequency Dependence
ϵ 𝑟 = ϵ ′𝑟 − j ϵ " 𝑟

𝑁 𝛼𝑑(0)
ϵ ′𝑟 = 1 +
ϵ 0 1 + 𝜔2𝑟2

𝑁 𝛼𝑑(0)𝜔𝑟
ϵ "𝑟 =
ϵ 0 1 + 𝜔2𝑟2

• ε′r decreases from its maximum

value ε′r(0) to 1 at high
frequencies.

• ε″r(ω) is zero at low and high

frequencies but peaks when ωτ = 1 or
when ω = 1∕τ.

10

10

1
5
 Lossless Capacitor & Parallel Conductance
• Admittance:

11

11

Dielectric Resonance

When ω = 1∕τ, energy is being transferred to heat most efficiently.

12

12

1
6
 Dielectric Loss

12

Dielectric Loss
The power dissipated per unit volume is

The heats at 60 Hz are small. The thermal conductivity of the insulation and its
connecting electrodes can remove the heat without substantially increasing the
temperature of the insulation. At 1 MHz, the heats generated are not trivial.
One has to remove 5.12 W of heat from 1 cm3 of XLPE and 47.3 W from 1
cm3 of alumina. The thermal conductivity κ of XLPE is about 0.005 W cm−1
K−1, whereas that of alumina is almost 100 times larger, 0.33 W cm−1 K−1.
The poor thermal conductivity of polyethylene means that 5.12 W of heat
cannot be conducted away easily and it will raise the temperature of the
insulation until dielectric breakdown ensues. In the case of alumina, 47.3 W of
heat will substantially increase the temperature. Dielectric loss is the
mechanism by which microwave ovens heat food.
1
12 7
 DEBYE EQUATIONS, COLE–COLE PLOTS,
AND EQUIVALENT SERIES CIRCUIT
Consider a dipolar dielectric in which there are both orientational and
electronic polarizations, αd and αe, respectively, contributing to the
overall polarizability. Electronic polarization αe will be independent of
frequency over the typical frequency range of operation of a dipolar
dielectric, well below optical frequencies. At high frequencies,
orientational polarization will be too sluggish too respond, αd = 0, and the
εr will be εr∞.
11

We can eliminate the complex denominator by multiplying

both the denominatorb and numerator of the right-hand side
by 1 − jωτ and equate real and imaginary parts to obtain what
are known as Debye equations:

1
8
 Piezoelectricity
• Mechanical stress creates polarization and hence potential across the surfaces.
• Examples: Quartz (crystalline SiO2), BaTiO3

• Electric field creates mechanical strain/deformation: A complementary effect.

• The direction of deformation depends on the direction of applied field.

1
9
 Why Piezoelectricity
• Consider a NaCl-type cubic unit cell that has center of symmetry.
• When unstressed, the center of mass of the negative charges at the corners of
the unit cell coincides with the positive charge at the center: P = 0.
• Under stress, the unit cell becomes strained, but the center of mass of the
negative charges still coincides with the positive charge: P = 0.

Why Piezoelectricity
• Piezoelectric crystals have no center of symmetry.

• When unstressed, the center of mass of the negative charges coincides with the
center of mass of the positive charges, both at O: P = 0.
• When stressed, the positive charge at A and the negative charge at B both
become displaced inwards to A′ and B′, respectively: P  0.

2
0
 Stress vs. Induced Polarization
• Generally, an applied stress in one direction can give rise to induced
polarization in other crystal directions.
• Suppose that Tj is the applied mechanical stress along j direction and Pi is the
induced polarization along some i direction; then the two are linearly related by
Pi = dijTj ; dij: piezoelectric coefficients.
• The converse piezoelectric effect is that between an induced strain Sj along j
and an applied electric field Ei along i, Sj = dijEi

Piezoelectric Transducers

2
1
 Electromechanical Coupling Factor
Electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
𝑘2 =
Input of electrical energy

Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy

𝑘2 =
Input of mechanical energy

Crystal d (m V1) k
Quartz (crystal SiO2) 2.31012 0.1
Rochelle salt (NaKC4H4O6  4H2O) 3501012 0.78
Barium titanate (BaTiO3) 1901012 0.49
PZT, lead zirconate titanate 4801012 0.72

Piezoelectric Spark Generator

• The piezoelectric spark generator, as used in various applications such as
lighters and car ignitions, operates by stressing a piezoelectric crystal to
generate a high voltage which is discharged through a spark gap in air.
• The energy can increase by using two piezoelectric crystals back to back.

2
2
 Force Needed for Spark
• Suppose that the piezoelectric coefficient d = 250 × 10−12 m V−1 and εr = 1000.
The piezoelectric cylinder has a length of 10 mm and a diameter of 3 mm. The
spark gap is in air and has a breakdown voltage of about 3.5 kV. What is the
force required to spark the gap?
𝐹
𝑃 = 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑
𝐴
𝐹
𝑄 𝐴𝑃 𝐿𝑃 𝐿 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐹
𝑉= = =
𝐶 𝗌 0 𝗌𝑟 𝐴 = 𝗌 0 𝗌 𝑟 𝗌 0𝗌𝑟
=
𝗌 0𝗌 𝑟 𝐴
𝐿

𝗌 0 𝗌 𝑟 𝐴𝑉
𝐹= = 87.6 N
𝑑𝐿

• This force can be applied by squeezing by hand an appropriate lever

arrangement; it is the weight of 9 kg.
9

Quartz Oscillators

10

2
3
 Ferroelectricity
• Certain crystals are permanently polarized even in the absence of an applied
field. The crystal already possesses a finite polarization vector due to the
separation of positive and negative charges in the crystal. These crystals are
called ferroelectric.

• BaTiO3 cubic crystal above 130 oC.

• P = 0 above 130 oC  Not ferroelectric.

12

2
4
 Ferroelectricity
• Below 130 °C, the structure of barium titanate is tetragonal.
• P  0  Ferroelectric.
• Curie temperature (Tc): Above which ferroelectricity is lost.
• The development of the permanent dipole moment below Tc involves long-
range interactions between the ions outside the simple unit cell. The energy of
the crystal is lower when the Ti4+ ion in each unit cell is slightly displaced along
the c direction, which generates a dipole moment in each unit cell.

13

Poling
• If we apply a temporary field E and let the crystal cool to below 130 °C, we can
induce the spontaneous polarization P to develop along the field direction.
• In other words, we would define the c axis by imposing a temporary external
field.

• At < Tc: 𝑃 = 𝗌0 𝗌 𝑟 − 1 𝐸 cannot be used

E  Already has permanent polarization

• Rather, ∆𝑃 = 𝗌0 𝗌 𝑟 − 1 ∆𝐸 should be
used.

14

2
5
 Ferroelectricity  Piezoelectricity
• All ferroelectric crystals are also piezoelectric, but the reverse is not true: not all
piezoelectric crystals are ferroelectric.

15

2
6