EARTH QUAKES

Submitted in partial fulfilment requirements of

BACHELORS OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Y.L.V.P.S. AISHWARYA (19JR5A0105)
S. SAI PRAVALLIKA (19JR5A0104)
K. KUSUMA NAGA LAKSHM (18JR1A0105)
K. MALATHI (18JR1A0107)

KKR & KSR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(Approve by A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUK,

KAKINADA,
Approved by NAAC with “A” Grade)
Vinjanampadu(v), Vatticherukuru(M), Guntur, A.P
2021-2022
EARTH QUAKES
 ABSTRACT
Earthquake constitute one of the worst natural hazards which often turn into disaster causing
widespread destruction and loss to human life. An earthquake is the result of a sudden
release of energy in earths crest that creates seismic waves. The seismic activity of an area
refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. The
effects of earthquakes vary upon the magnitude and intensity. Earthquake occurs everywhere
in all around the world except in some places where earthquakes occur rarely. The
devastation of cities and towns is one of the effects of earthquakes. An earthquake is caused
by tectonic plates getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground. The strain becomes so
grate those rocks give way by breaking and sliding along fault plates. Earthquakes may occur
naturally or as a result of human activities. Smaller earthquakes can also be caused by
volcanic activity, landslides, mind blasts and nuclear experiments. In its most generic sense,
the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event whether a natural phenomenon or
an event caused by humans that seismic waves.
INTRODUCTION
Earth quake constitute one of the worst natural hazards which often turn into disaster causing
wide spread destruction and loss to human life. An earthquake is the result of a sudden
release of energy in the earth crust that create seismic waves. Although the earth looks like a
pretty solid place from the surface, its actually extremely active just below the surface. The
earth is made of 4 basic layers a solid crust, a hot, nearly solid mantle, a liquid outer core and
a solid inner core.
 PARTS OF AN EARTHQUAKE

FAULT: A fracture in the rocks that make up the earths crest.

EPICENTRE: The point at the surface of the earth above the focus.
FOCUS: The point within the earth where an earthquake rupture.
SEISMIC WAVES: waves that transmits the energy released by an earthquake.
 TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
1.TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
The earth crest is made up of unevenly shaped slab of rocks called tectonic plates. The energy
stored here causes the tectonic to move towards away or push against each other. With time
the stored energy and the movement of the tectonic plates build up the enormous pressure
within the region between two plates.

2.VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake related to the volcanic activity are called a volcanic earthquake. The magnitude of
these quakes is usually weak.

I)VOLCANIO-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
The tremors happen due to injection or with drawl of magma between the stressed rocks is
called a volcano-tectonic earthquake. The movements of the molten magma cause mostly
volcanic earthquakes directly underneath a volcano. In these types of earthquakes magma
exerts the pressure on the tectonic plates until this magma breaks the rocks. During these
cracks tremors occur. These earthquakes are so weak that only can be measured by sensitive
instrument during filling the space tremors happen of very low magnitude.

II)LONG PERIOD EARTHQUAKE

Along period earthquake occurs while the injection of magma into the surrounding rocks.
These all happen due to the pressure changes among the layers of the earth. These types of
volcanic activity indicate the eruption of the volcano in the near future. Seismograph records
these reading, and before the actual eruption of the volcano, we easily take preventive
measures.

3.COLLAPSE EARTHQUAKES
These earthquakes are of weak magnitude earthquake happen in the caverns and mines.
Sometimes, underground blasts in the mines become the cause of the collapsing of mines and
collapsing of mines produces seismic waves. The p and s waves produced during the
explosion of rocks on or under the surface of the earth cause this type of earthquakes.
Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes are small earthquakes in the underground and in
mines that are caused by seismic waves produced from the explosion of rocks on the surface.
The immediate cause of ground shaking is the collapse of the roof of the mine or cavern. An
often-observed variation of this extraordinary event is called mine-burst. This happens when
the induced stress around the mine working cause large masses of rock to fly off the mine
face explosively, producing seismic waves. Collapse earthquakes are also produced by
massive land sliding.
4.EXPLOSION EARTHQUAKES
Explosive earthquake mostly happens during the testing of nuclear weapons. We know that
during detonation of nuclear weapon big blast occurs and a vast amount of energy releases.
Sometimes these blasts become the cause of the earthquakes.
An Explosive Earthquake is an earthquake which results of nuclear and chemical devices.
This occurs when enormous energy nuclear energy is released during underground nuclear
explosions, when bottled within, increase a thousand times more than the atmospheric
pressure, in intensity. Explosions such as these generate a large pressure pulse in the
atmosphere that propagates as an acoustic wave in the air rather than as a seismic wave in the
ground. Seismic waves travel at speed from 5-6 Km/sec (p waves) to 2.5-3.5 km/sec (s
waves) and surface waves acoustic waves in the air travel at only 0.325 Km/sec, over ten
times slower and so it is very obvious when we see arrivals on seismograms that are
travelling so slowly.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This
sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake. When two
blocks of rock or two plates are rubbing against each other, they stick a little. They don't just
slide smoothly; the rocks catch on each other.

MAIN CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

1. Volcanic Eruptions. The main cause of the earthquake is volcanic eruptions.

2.Tectonic Movements. The surface of the earth consists of some plates, comprising of the
upper mantle.

3.Geological Faults. A geological fault is known as the displacement of plates of their

original plane.

4. Man-Made.

5.Minor Causes.

SOME MAJOR CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

1.SURFACE CAUSE

2.VOLCANIC CAUSE

3.TECHTONIC CAUSE
1.SURFACE CAUSE

Great Explosions, Landslides, slips on steep coasts, dashing of sea waves, Avalances, railway
trains, heavy trucks, large engineering projects cause minor tremors, some of them are
manmade other are natural.

2.volcanic cause

Volcanic Eruptions produce earthquakes. Earthquakes may precede accompany and

frequently follow volcanic Eruptions. They are caused by sudden displacement of lava within
or beneath the earth crust.

3.TECHTONIC CAUSE
Structural disturbances resulting in the parts of the lithosphere is the main cause of this type
of earthquake. Most of the disastrous earth quakes belong to this category and occurs in areas
of great faults and fractures. Sudden yielding to strain produced on rocks of accumulating
stress causes displacements especially along the old fault zones known as great transform
faults.

EFFECTS OF AN EARTHQUAKE
The effects of an earthquake range from mild to severe and include structural damage,
damaged gas lines, tidal waves, fires, avalanches and flooding.

1.Loss of life and property.

2.Damage to transport system.

3.Damage to infrastructure.

4.Chances of floods - Develop cracks in dams.

5.Chances of fire short circuit.

6.commuinications such as telephone wires are damaged.

7. Water pipes, sewers are disrupted. 8.Economic activities like agriculture, industry, trade
and transport are severely affected.

EARTHQUAKE SAFTEY RULES BEFORE AN EARTHQUAKE

1. Ensure that water heaters and gas appliances are firmly fixed and shut off when not in use,
as they can cause fire hazards during an earthquake.

2. Conduct occasional home earthquake drills so that your family has the knowledge to avoid
unnecessary injuries and panic in the event of an earthquake.

3.Evacuate old damaged buildings as they are sure to down first during the earthquake.

4. Be aware to tackle situations of earthquake while at home, driving a car or in a public

place.

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN WHILE EARTHQUAKE OCCUR

1.Do not panic.

2. Go to an open space away from the building. If not possible, then take shelter under a desk,
table, bench or corner of walls.
3.Stay away from glass.
4. Do not use candles, matches or open fires in the event of an earthquake.
5. Try to stop as soon as possible while driving a car, and stay inside only until the tremor
stops.

AFTER THE EARTHQUAKE

1.Expect after shock.
2.Turn off gas and electricity.
3. Do not use light matches, and avoid turning on switches as there may be leaked gas which
may catch fire.
4.Do not go near by damaged buildings.
5. Keep away from rivers and sea shores as huge waves may sweep in.

SEISMIC WAVES
When an earthquake happens deep underground a crack will start to open on a pre-existing
line of weakness in the Earth's brittle crust. This crack will then grow larger and larger,
relieving built-up stress as it goes.
The speed at which the crack propagates or grows is 2–3 km/sec. Eventually the rupture will
cease to grow and will slow down and stop. The size or magnitude of the earthquake depends
upon how much the fault has ruptured (the slip) and also the area over which the rupture has
occurred.
This rupturing process creates elastic waves in the Earth that propagate away from the rupture
front at a much faster speed than the rupture propagates, the exact speed depends upon the
nature of the wave (a longitudinal or P-wave is faster than a transverse or S-wave), and on the
elastic properties of the Earth. As you go deeper into the Earth, the density and pressure
increase and so do the velocities of seismic waves.

TYPES OF WAVES

Seismic waves are fundamentally of two types, compressional, longitudinal waves or shear,
transverse waves. Through the body of the Earth these are called P. (for primary because they
are fastest) and S-waves (for secondary since they are slower). However, where a free surface
is present (like the Earth-air interface) these two types of motion can combine to form
complex surface waves. Although often ignored in introductory texts, surface waves are very
important since propagate along the surface of the Earth (where all the buildings and people
are) and usually have much higher amplitudes than the P-waves and S-waves. usually,
surface waves which knock down buildings. Seismic waves, like all was transfer energy from
one place to another without moving material.

1.Body waves

a) primary waves (p waves)

b) Secondary waves(S-waves)

2. surface waves
a) Love waves (L-waves)

b) Rayleigh waves(R-waves)

COMPRESSIONAL PRIMARY LONGITUDINAL (P-WAVES)

P motion travels fastest in materials, so the P-wave is the first-arriving energy on a

seismogram. Generally smaller and higher frequency than the S and surface waves. P-waves
in a liquid or gas are pressure waves, including sound waves. The first kind of body wave is
the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the
first to 'arrive at a seismic station. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like
water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like
sound waves push and pull the air. Have you ever heard his plan of thunder heard a big clap
of thunder and heard the windows rattle at the same time? The windows rattle because we
were pushing and pulling on the window glass much like P waves push rock. Sometimes
animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake. Dog for instance, commonly begin barking
hysterically just before an earthquake hits(or more specifically, before the surface waves
arrive).

PARTICLE MOTION

Alternating compressions (pushes') and dilations ('pulls') in the same direction as the wave is
propagating

TYPICAL VELOCITY

VP-5-7 km/s in typical Earth's crust : >8 km/s in Earth's mantle and core, 1.5 km/s in water;
0.3 km/s in air.

SHEAR SECONDARY TRANSVERSE

S-waves do not travel through fluids, so do not exist in Earth's liquid outer core or in air or
water or molten rock (magma). S-waves travel slower than P-waves in a solid and, therefore,
arrive after the P-wave. The second type S of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave,
which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and
can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S
waves that led seismologists to conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move
rock particles up and down, or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave is
traveling in (the direction of wave propagation).

PARTICLE MOTION

Alternating transverse motions perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

TYPICAL VELOCITY

VS-3-4 km/s in typical Earth's crust :> 4.5 km/s in Earth's mantle, km/s in (solid) inner core.
 LOVE SURFACE WAVES (L-WAVES)

Love waves exist because of the Earth's surface. They are largest at the surface and decrease
in amplitude with depth. Love waves are dispersive, that is, the wave velocity is dependent on
frequency, with low frequencies normally propagating at higher velocity. Depth of
penetration of the Love waves is also dependent on frequency, with lower frequencies
penetrating to greater depth. The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named
after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this
kind of wave in 1911. It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

PARTICLE MOTION

Transverse horizontal motion, perpendicular to the direction of propagation and generally

parallel to the Earth's surface.

TYPICAL VELOCITY

VL - 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in the Earth depending on frequency of the propagating wave

RAYLIEGHS SURFACE WAVES

Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the amplitudes generally decrease with
depth in the Earth. Appearance and particle motion are similar to water waves.
110 other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind
of wave in 1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls
across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down,
and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the
shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be
much larger than the other waves.

PARTICLE MOTION

Motion is both in the direction of propagation and perpendicular (in a vertical plane).

TYPICAL VELOCITY

VR - 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in the Earth depending on frequency of the propagating wave.

EARTH QUAKE ZONES

Seismic zones in Indian subcontinent is divided into four seismic zones, and V) based on
scientific inputs relating to seismicity, earthquakes occurred in the past and tectonic setup of
the region.
Previously, earthquake zones divided into five zones with respect to the severity of the
earthquakes, but Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 1893 (Part 1):2002], has grouped the country
into four seismic zones., the first and second seismic zones were unified.

SEISMIC ZONE II

with minor damage (i.e., causing damages to structures with fundamentally periods greater
than 1.0 Area second) earthquakes corresponding to intensities V to VI of MM scale (MM-
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale). It covers the areas which are not covered by other three
seismic zones discussed below. Also called as low damage risk zone factor as per IS code is
0.10. Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Tamil Nādu, Kerala etc.

SEISMIC ZONE III

Moderate damage corresponding to intensity VII of MM scale. It comprises Kerala, Goa,

Lakshadweep islands, remaining parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal, Parts of
Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa.
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nādu Also called moderate risk zone. Zone factor as SK zone. Zone
factor as per is code is 0.16

SEISMIC ZONE IV

Major damage corresponding to intensity VII and higher of MM scale. It covers remaining
parts of Jammu Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi,
Sikkim, Northern Parts of Uttar Pradesh Bengal, parts of Gujarat and small portions of
Maharashtra neat we Rajasthan. Also known as high damage risk zone. Zone factor as per IS
code is0.24.

SEISMIC ZONE V

Area determines by pro seismically of certain major fault systems. It is seismically e region,
and comprises entire north eastern India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Ran of Kutch in Gujarat, part of North Bihar and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Earthquake zone V is the most vulnerable to earthquakes, where historically some of the
country's most power shock have occurred. Earthquakes with magnitudes in excess of 7.0
have occurred in these areas, and have had intensities higher than IX. Also known as highest
risk zone. Zone factor as per IS code is 0.3

MAGNITUDE OF EARTH QUAKES

The magnitude is a number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is
based on measurement of the maximum motion recorded seismograph. Measures the energy
released at the source of earthquakes and amplitude of earthquake waves. Measured using
Richter scale. Magnitude ranges from 1.0 -8.0.

RITCHER SCALE

Seismic waves are the vibrations from earthquakes that travel through the Earth; they are
recorded on instruments called seismographs. Seismographs record zigzag trace that shows
the varying amplitude of ground oscillations beneath the instrument. Sensitive seismographs,
which greatly magnify these ground motions, can detect strong earthquakes from sources
anywhere in the world. The time, locations, and magnitude of an earthquake can be
determined from the data recorded by seismograph stations. The magnitude of an earth quake
is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs.
Adjustments are included for the variations in the distance between the various seismographs
and the epicentre of the earth quakes. On the Richter scale, magnitude is expressed in whole
numbers and decimal fractions.

For example, a magnitude 5.3 might be computed for a moderate earthquake and a strong
earthquake might be rated as magnitude 6.3. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale
each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured
amplitude as an estimate of energy each whole number step in magnitude scale corresponds
to release of about 31 times more energy than the amount associated with the proceeding
whole number value.

Earthquakes with magnitude of about 2.0 or less are usually call micro earthquakes. They are
more commonly felt by people and are generally recorded only on local seismographs, Events
with magnitude of about 4,5 or greater there are several thousand such shocks annually are
strong enough to be recorded by sensitive seismographs all over the world,

An earthquake in a densely populated area which results in many deaths and considerable
damage may have the same magnitude as a shock in a tempo than does nothing more than
frighten wild life. Large magnitude earthquakes that occur beneath the oceans may not even
be felt by humans.

Recently another scale called the moment magnitude scale has been devised from more
precise study of great earthquakes. The Richter scale is not used to express damage

INTENSITY OF EARTH QUAKES

Quaking or shaking of the earth is a common phenomenon undoubtedly known to humans

from earliest times. Prior to the development of strong-motion accelerometers that can
measure peak ground speed and acceleration directly, the intensity of the earth-shaking was
estimated on the basis of the observed effects, as categorized on various seismic intensity
scales. Only in the last century has the source of such shaking been identified as ruptures in
the Earth's crust, with the intensity of shaking at any locality dependent not only on the local
ground conditions but also on the strength or magnitude of the rupture, and on its distance.