TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE . COPYRIGHT PAGE PREFACE ........ TABLE OF CONTENTS .. CHAPTER 1 FOUNDATION OF LEARNING AND COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, Meaning and Nature of Learning * Emerging Behavioral Psychology and Cognitive Psychology * Origin, Nature, and Meaning of Cognitive Psychology * Principle of Associationism: Concept Evolution of Learning and Cognition* Psychological Antecedents of Learning and ‘Cognitive Psychology + Important personages and their contributions on various principles * Laws and/or ‘Theories in both Old and Modern Associationism. CHAPTER 2 wom 36-95 PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL BASIS OF LEARNING AND COGNITION 36 Psychobiological Basis of Learning and Cognition + Neurological Processes in Learning and Cognition + Connectors: Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System + Effectors: Muscular System and Glandular Systems « and Receptors: ‘Major Parts and Functions Chapter3 .. PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING +» 96-129 oo Psychomotor Learning Psychomotor Learning Development * Stages of Psychomotor Learning ivq Involine® * Leaning * i f Psych ment Concepts of sychomotor Dee Learning/Skills: ” Factor oe ratiiy Research Tool in Psychomoto, Psychomotor Learning Skills CHAPTER .... STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORIES ... i f Stimulus-Response Theory + Classic Contioing Theory * Behaviorism + Connectionism + Contiguity Theory * Operant Conditioning * Stimulus Sampling Theory * Sign Theory Latent Leaming + Drive Reduction Theory * Discrimination Learning 198-218 198 CHAPTER 5 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES Meaning and Origin of Cognitive Learning Theory + Theoretical Foundation * Various Theories in Cognitive Learning: Edward L. Thorndike’s Connectionism, Edward C. Tolman’s Latent Theory, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler’s Gestalt and Insight Learning, Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development and Schema Theories, David Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory, Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory, Jerome Bruner’s Theory, and Albert Bandura’s Cognitive Social Learning Theory CHAPTER 6 . 47 INSIGHT LEARNING, PROBLEM- a SOLVING, AND TRANSFER OF LEARNING 219 Insight Le Biography eae, Tery + Wolfgang Kohler: Brief Reaching " Study. yy antePt Problems on Detour and Experiment: Probleme fen _ Kohler’ ‘himpanz, Insight Learning, and a ng Study, Characteristice op Pefittions, Kinds, Procpeeictions: « Problem-Solving, Categories of Problem, vTypes of Problem-Solving, and Educationally Relevant Advances in Problem Solving: * Transfer of Learning: Theories of Transfer of Learning, Positive versus Negative, and Various Types of Learning CHAPTER? wessnsais 248-286 PIAGET THEORY AND SCHEMA THEORY ... . 248 Jean Piaget * Piaget Theory: Genetic, Epistemology, Stages of Cognitive Development, Developmental Process and Schemas * Salient Theorists in Schema Theory: Sir Frederick Bartlett, David Paul Ausubel, Marvin Lee Minsky, Ulric Richard Gustav Neisser, Richard Chase Anderson, David Everett Rumelhart, and Robert Schank CHAPTERS eseseceancmens COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY OF AUSUBEL AND BRUNER... 287-322 Introduction * David Paul Ausubé ssimilation Theory: Verbal Learning: Rote Learning: Meaningful Learning: Subsumption Learning * Jerome Seymour Bruner: Bruner’s Scaffolding Learning Theory: Categories: Learning Modes: Economy and Power: Instruction: Spiral Curriculum: Discovery Learning: Teacher's Role: Student's Role: School CHAPTER 9 a a vcore SSSI BANDURA‘S SOCIAL THEORY AND VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY . sit . 323 Introduction * Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory: Cognitive Social Learning Theory: Cognitive Factors in Social Learning: Modeling: Self-Efficacy: Self-Regulation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Reinforcement: Applications * Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory: Social Development: Zone of Proximal Development: More Knowledgeable: Applications vi10 .. FANANTIC AND TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING THEORIES ... istic Learning Theoties + py, Tatton eran) of Needs: « ARCS Me ; Nasatignl Design: Knowledge of Learning Motivation Tapa Intrinsic and somata eee it Classroom: Rethinking Mee a [Lationship Motivation and Emotion: Mot a ; ae ma Learning Theories of Motivation ¢ Carl R pa ‘ges Transformative Learning Theory Tear, Metin: Transformations: Transformative caening: | Making Meaning as a Learning Process: Elements of Learning Reflective Discourse 388-435, CHAPTER IL... INFORMATION PROCESSING: MEMORY, FORGETTING AND THINKING .. .- 388 Nature of Information Processing * Information Processing * Information Processing Theory + Information Processing Model * Atkinson-Shiffrin Dual and Multistore Model or Dual-Store Memory Model Tulving’s Multiple Memory * Parallel Distributed Processing * Information Processing: Memory, Forgetting and Thinking CHAPTER 12 z COGNITIVE MUL! TIMEDIA Introduction + Mayer's Multimedia Learning Theory * Sureller’s Cognitive Load Theory « Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory + Baddeley’s Working Memory Model * Engelkamp's Multimodal Theory . Glossary, Indes Bibliography . . 466 481 491 viiFoundation of Leaming and Cognitive Psychology Page It Chapter 1 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychologying and Cognitive Psychology p f Learning an Belg Foundation of LEARNING OBJECTIVES the student is expected to; of the chapter, Atthe endo derstand the meaning and nature of 1. un ‘e Learn {Behavioral Psychology) and Cognitive Psychology, tg BY 2, expound the foundation of the “Principle o ° Principle of Associating e gs evolution of learning and cognition; 43, discuss briefly, the emergence of field in both Behavio Psychology and Cognitive Psychology; al 4, survey the psychological antecedents of Learning ang Cognitive Psychology; and 5. entify the important personages and their contibutons on various principles laws, and/or theories in bath Oy and Modem Associationism as, bases for “Leming” (Behavioral Psychology) and “Cogration” (Cognit Psychology). Meaning and Nature of Learning Apruebo (2009) maintained the most accepted definition of learning, that is, “a relatively permanent change in belurior that ecu as the result of practie.” AS Apruebo (2009) pointed out thet the word cheng is important in behavior because it facilitates learing and development. He also maintained the maxim that states Nb che 1 perttanent except change,” is indeed considered the essatial jeenng of learning because it involves change. Change may 2 ought relatively good or bad in the individu Other india’ have high resistance to change. They can learn undesitable behaviors because they probably experienced mediocrity ° idiosyncrasy from other people. The needed behavior socio and/or conditioning therefore, is an intervention recesaty reshape from negative to Positive of one’s attitude and bela However, behavior change may be due to maturation oH a Piictice, oto temporary states of the organist such as fat tugsinduced conditions are excluded. sined thot Conversely, Feldman (cited in Apruebo, 2008) expe re hehe tL is critical in the cfiniton of 8 “ome behavior modifications are not retained teeFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page 13 Qualify as example of learning. Behavior changes that ate due to natural growth process or maturation are the characteristics and development of behavior, Primarily, they are determined through biological processes. Responses are to be unlearned, such as instincts or reflexes, but any response or modification that is dependent on external stimulation and activity is viewed to be Feamed or acquired, such as habit formation or response association. In other words, as the individual learns, he/she alters the way he/she perceives his/her environment the way the person interacts or behaves towards incoming stimulus that produces a Tesponse or behavior. At this juncture, John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) was the first to investigate how the process of learning affects behavior. He cstablished the school of thought or psychology, otherwise known as Beliaoiorism or Watson's Psychology (Lundin, 1996). Research on learning has been greatly influenced by Behaviorism, the school that accounts for behavior in terms of observable events. Behaviorists have focused on a simplest form or basic kind of learning that involves association between environmental stimuli and the organism’s responses. Conditioning involves forming associations that is, earning that certain events go together. Habituation is also the simplest kind of learning because stimulus is discarded that has become familiar and has no serious consequences, for example, learning to ignore the noise of the motor vehicle at night time. Emerging Behavioral Psychology and Cognitive Psychology The emergence of Belinvioral Psychology evolving from Behaviorism is a pure branch of psychology that deals with theory of learning, that all behaviors are acquired via conditioning. The behavioral techniques of this school are employed for counseling, therapy, education and many other areas. (hitp:/ /psychology.about.com/od/branchesofpsychologl/tp/bra aches-of-psychology.htm) Behavioral Psychologists are basically interested in how response/reaction is produced from the stimuli in both environment and individual? How behavior results are connected with learning? How behaviors are displayed and controlled by. yrning and Cognitive Psychology, yj Foundation of Learning Paget + variables and are learned new bel haviors or remain in the behavior? Wh many othe motivates to change ; theoretical underpinning in One = major learn cognate anor Cognitoe Poyhology. Cogitosm jr f2® ae that emphasizes the active mental Processing "8 of jon. The movement was a response against bet, inforninant behavioristic paradigm. which Cognitvist tiganre emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and paved the awa. address the neglected explanation as regards specie et ° cognition in learning and/or behavior. Because the hehe viewed that organism learns only asa result of reaction uty te one’s. environment (input). Cognitivists posited that whit environment is important to learning, there is more involved ia simply inputs and outputs. They viewed that the mind is st" involved in synthesizing and analyzing information im formulating ideas. In so doing, formulating thoughts are nt related informations, because one has to consider the thought processes entering the mind is resulting in learning, that's cognitiovsi, hence the term of learning theory (Lilienfeld, et a 2010). Whereas, beluviorists impacted on observable behavior and the response of humans to environmental stimuli, cognitvsts were accounted for the human mind and complex processes of the mind that includes thinking, problem, solving, and memory. 'aviorig Origin, Nature and Meaning of Cognitive Psychology The word “Cognitive” from Cognitive Psychology comes from the Latin “cognoscere,” literally means knowing and information, thus, Cognitive Psychology is a modern approach to the study of Processes by which people come to understand the world such as processes as memory, learning, comprehending language, problem solving, and creativity. Cognitive psychology has been evolved from developments of philosophy, psychology, language, and computer science and/or information technology (Hayes, 1978). An information processing psychology is derived in potton from earlier traditions of the Investigation of thought/mental Process and problem-solving, Perhaps, the behaviorist conse! {ie existence of thinking, but recognized it only as a bet Cognitivists claimed that the way people think impacted on #2 behavior are therefore cannot be a behavior in its (Lilienfeld, et al, 2010).iti Pagel Foundation of Leaming and Cognitive Psychology Pg The emergence of Cognitive Psychology evolving from Cognitivism: is also a pure branch of psychology that foc oo mental or internal states with which the field refers to the study 7 the human mental processes and their role in thinking, SN behaving. More specifically to the areas that nes consciousness, perception, memory, thinking, arming, intelligence, acquisition of knowledge and erate comprehension and production of language, problem-sol Ning, decision-making, reasoning, and creativity. The experimental method is highly employed by which the Cognitive Psychologists conducted the investigation under laboratory conditions in order to arrive at conclusion about behaviors and mental processes, The discipline also included mathematical models and computer Skmulations, because cognitive psychologists portray the human mind as first processor of information by which the mind calculates solutions to problems in a manner analogous to the Software of a computer. This analogy between mental processes and calculation is the so-called Information Approach to Cognitioe Psychology (Kellogg, 2007) Recall earlier, cognitivism emphasizes the active mental or thought processing of information. It can be deduced for this reason that individuals are activel ly involved in the learning process. Leaming occurs when individuals relate new information to schemata, or structures of information already stored in the brain, A part of the learning process involves organizing the new information and is becoming capable of more profound thought as new information is built. Again, in cognitive psychology, the mind is likened to a computer into which data, or information, is relayed and then processed, and therefore produces outcomes, or new knowledge, Principle of Associationism: Concept Evolution of Learning and Cognition Aristotle (984322 B.C). Associationism is more than a school of thought or psychology, itis a principle that the mind is organized, at least in element, from simple idea to complex ideas, by Principle of association, This doctrine hes began as early of the Ancient Greeks with Aristotle was one of the first to address about association,Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology», a, Plato (427-347 B.C.) considering that Plato spoke of Sina contiguity, but in a limited aM Aristotle introduced the concep Associationism as simple ideg ASSOCIated 4.” simple idea plus another simple Pai Produce complet iden” Aggy il ideas/things will lead into learning. yet Aristolle was considered. the Fane Associationism.” of Likewise, thinking or reasoning is the highest human fonctio thus, Aristotle arrived at the three Inws of remembering. tia these so-called laws ofassciaton, such as (I) Similarity in (2) Contiguity or Togetherness; and (3) Opposites ey Con (Lundin, 1996 cited in Apruebo, 2009). ‘The Laws of Associations ate considered the utmost im contemporary learning, memory, and cog psychology. POrtance in nitive theories in Return to the background of “Associationism,” Platy and Aristotle both introduced the concept of "“Dualisit” which means Evo concepts. Plato's concept was mind and matter. Mind brn ideas which revealed by reasons, Matter brings things which revealed by senses, thus, mind constitutes the term rifletion and Matfer constitutes the five senses. On the other hand, Aristolk’s CTIREPE of dualism was watfer and form thus introducing the “Theory of Hylemorphism.” ‘This theory states that a Mateos, fhing (body) or a substance; and a Form, analyzes substance nfo form (soul). More precisely, substances are conceived of asfome inhering in matter. Associationism, like Functionalism, was less rigid school of Psychology than an influential way of thinking. Associationis™ Sxamines how events ot ideas can become associated with on another in the mind to result in a form of learning. Again, itis * theory that the mind is composed of elements - usually referred s sea ations andl ideas - which are organized by means of vaio associations, Cte:/ /webspace.ship.ed ‘cgboer/psychbeginnings html) imarily As philosophers, both Plato and Aristotle were ape interested in essences or truths that went beyond ing we? “PPearance of things, but their methods for discoverilgFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Pa ge |7 essences were distinctly different, For Plato, those essences were corresponded to the forms that existed independently of nature and that could only be arrived at by ignoring sensory experience and turning one’s thoughts inward (that is, by introspection). For Aristotle, essences existed but could become known only by studying nature, Aristotle's philosophy shows the difficulty that is often encountered when attempting to separate clearly the Philosophies of rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism and Empiricism are differentiated. The influence of Philosophy develops two major separate viewpoints as basic ground rules of “Ideas” and/or “Theory of Knowledge” (cited in Apruebo, 2009): 1. Empiricisin. The view that knowledge can be gathered via careful observation. The following empiricists are Thomas Hobbes, “Jolur Locke,” George Berkeley, David Hume, David Hartley, Thomas Reid, Thomas Brown, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, and Alexander Bain. 2. Rationalism. The view that knowledge can be gained via logic and careful reasoning. The following rationalists are Francis Bacon, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton, Baruch Spinoza, and “Rene Descartes.” Empirical knowledge/ psychology is the data of mind that resulted in observation. Rational knowledge and/or psychology denote the interpretation of the data of empirical psychology through the use of reason and logic. Both views are characterized as using knowledge acquired through experience (empirical psychology) or using knowledge that the mind possesses independent of experience (rational psychology) (Murray, cited in Fuchs and Miller, 2003). Illustration on how to think between rationalist and empiricist is shown in Figure 1 on page 8. In philosophy, “Rationalists” share the view that there is an innate knowledge; they differ in that they choose different objects of innate knowledge. Plato is a rationalist because he thinks that man has innate knowledge of the Forns [mathematical objects and concepts (triangles, equality, largeness), moral concepts (goodness, beauty, virtue, piety), and possibly color - he does not ever explicitly state that there are Forms of colors}; Descartes thinks that the idea of God, or perfection and infinity, and knowledge of one thinks that logical principles are innate; and Noam ChomskyFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology > agers Figure 1. a) Rationalist(b) Empivcist (Source: Sternberg, 299 thinks own existence is innate; Gottfried Wilhelm Leltnie gig 1716) thinks that the ability to use language (language rue) innate (Stenberg, 2006) In contrast, “Empiricists” share the view that thet ino such thing as innate knowledge, and that instead knowledge is drive, from experience (either sensed via the five senses or reasoned va the brain or mind). Locke, Berkeley, and Hume are empiric (though they have different views about metaphysics), The dispute between rationalism and empiricism concems the extent to which one is dependent upon sense experience in the effort to gain knowledge. Rationalists claim that there are significant ways in which concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience, Empiricists claim that sense experience is the ultimate source of all the concepts and knowledge Rationalists generally develop their view in two ways a described below (Sternberg, 2006): 1. They argue that there are cases where the content of concept or knowledge outstrips the information that sens? experience can provide; and 2. They make accounts of how reason in some form ane other Provides that additional information about the worl 8 Empiricists present complementary lines of thought described below (Sternberg, 2006): 1 ides th They develop accounts of how experience Pt’ vee tit information that rationalists cite, insofar as one the first place. (Empiricists will at times opt for 5p 9 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page | as alternative to rationalism: if experience cannot pee the concepts or knowledge the rationalists cite, then o: has, he/she does not have it); and They attack the rationalists’ accounts of how Teason is a Source of concept or knowledge, John Locke (1632-1704). Locke was both first as an Empiricist and as a British Associationist, Notion of the ass He introduced the ‘ociation of ideas. For John Locke, unlike Rene Descartes (Rationalist), there ar fe no innate ideas. He postulated that the mind is a blank slat te/sheet called tabula rasa. He believed th: at “Mental Content” (ideas) are derived either th Sensation), o inte hrough external (or Tal experiences (or reflection), on the operations of the mind itself, by direct sensory stimulation, or by i stimulation. Sensai Which mental ope distances, or ab relations, ete, (Hai That is, ideas result cither Teflection on the remnants nish, 2002), Additionally, sensation things associated w described below an produces i vith two iy 1 Secondary qualities. These are to the bearers, and are the powers of object (by configuration of Primary qualities) 10 auise experiences (euch 8 color, sound, taste, smell) in Perceiving minds, Not essential all knowle “Ige came from experience and uuld do only two larnish, 2002); the next page (cited in ty ings as enumerated inmpof Learning and Cognitive Psychology p Foundation Figure 2. Secondary Qualities and Primary Qualities igure 2.5 y dgrsecondary- (ie oe Je.com/imgres?q econdary qualities sens on) 1. The mind is basically passive. It could receive experience from the outsicle world. This involved the act of sensing Sensation is the primary source of all knowledge. 2. The mind could reflect upon itself. It was basically through the process of reflection, or introspection (thinking). Locke notion of reflection is to explain higher mental processes, such as thinking and reasoning. More particularly to the inclusion of perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, willing, and knowing constituted reflection. He explained that experiences came together via association, to form complex ideas. Reflection is the mind’s ability to reflect on itself. Thus, the source of all ideas is sensation, but the ideas obtained by sensory process can be acted on, and rearranged by the operations of the mind, thereby giving tise to new ideas. Thus, Locke formulated the “Theory of Knowledge” that gives © planation of how human mind comes to know the world 8 thereby reflection is cognition, meaning knowing and reasoning basically higher mental processes which emerged today * Cognitive Psychology. Majority of tenets, laws, theories, concepts, and other provisions included in learning and cognition were ascription of Assitiou™Page [11 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Pa ge | Corollary to the principle, Associationism is a movement acted a direct outgrowth of Empiricism. Much of the ideas of the ea He considered ignored by the Associationists, because of multitude Jaws of association thus, it will make a deviation from the original Principles of association, Considering that David Hartley who was the first British Associationist (Father of British Associationism) had extended the law of association and had showed its functional application in underlying physiological explanation of the brain. As Associationism maintained its momentum, conversely, a group of scholars/empiricists in Scotland show revolt against old associationists’ view, that is, “association of ides” (Lundin, 1996). This deviation from the principles of association is an interesting sidelight in the evolution of psychology in general, and learning and cognition in particular. Associationism as a movement, it has two divisions as shown below: Antecedent Old ‘Modern Influences Associationism Associationism Aristotle David Hartley | Hermann Ebbinghaus (384-322 B.C) (1705-1757) (1850-1909) Thomas Hobbes | Thomas Brown | Ivan P. Pavlov (18i0- (1588-1679) (1778-1836) 1936) John Locke (1632 | James Mill Vladimir M. Bekhterev 1704) (1773-1836) (1857-1927) George Berkeley | John S. Mill Edward L. Thorndike (1685-1753) (1806-1873) (1874-1949) David Hume Alexander Bain | Edwin R. Guthrie [711-1776 (1818-1903) (1886-1959) Herbert Spencer | William K. Estes (1820-1903) (1919-) Source: (Singh, 1999) Old Associationism is concerned with the association of ideas, While modern associationism is dealt with the association of stimulus and response, or the association of responses and rewards and punishments as the fundamental principle of learning (Lundin, 1996). Associationism is the idea that mental processes operate by the association of one state with its successo. states. Bear in mindation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Foundatior Rely irst recorded in Plato and Aristotle, egy that thie A aeason of memories, Aside from Dayal) ig repay of the principally British “Associgyoms sa, mening John Locke, David Hume, James Mil jor Su including jer Bain, asserted that the principle applied Mi and Alexa processes, Later members of the SchOOL dye ot most ific principles expanding how associations operate very sper ical mechanism is bearing no ang ven a physiological resemblan, ever gm neurophysiology (Heergenhahn, 2001) Ke ty mi Principles of Associationism (Source: Harnish, 2002) Trace back its origin, the principles of “ASsociationisy have different laws or dimensions of associations, orm . tog.” 98 described as istorical periods of ascii presented in Figure 3 on page 13, lems can go together by having certain relations in time and pg (contiguity) or that are similar (similarity). They can go toate having more abstract relations such as cause and effce and etc. Some typical principles of associationism a below: t, similarity, re described 1. Law of Contiguity. This states that when a person think of something, he/she tends to think of things that were experienced along with it. Things or events that ccc close to each other in space or time tend to get linked together in the mind. Associating things that tend to occur together at about the same time as shown in Figure 4 below and bon page 13. Table Figure 4a, Tableitive Psycholo; Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Author rman Rieti Snes Page |13 roReTIy Neel irene rosasy om eee George Seog APC rents Poel Clee os James Mill John SeeaCl Veg bor eres’ See Chair Person thinks of something, 8s similar to it. If two things are similar, the th Il tend to trigger the thought of ought of one widation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page jy indat vy one recollects one birthday, he/she may if thinking about others as well. If one thinks if js hard not to think of lemon or orange coloy 7 5 below: Fou ie other. orange, he/ shown in Figure Orange Color Figure 5. Orange and Orange Color 3. Law of Contrast. This states that when a person thinks of something, he/she tends to think of things that are I opposite. On the other hand, seeing or recalling someth"s say also trigger the recollection of something compet opposite. If one thinks of the summer, he/she ea suddenly think also the rainy season. If one thinking eee \ “ ays, the one that was totally different from at is quite likely to come up. In short, items that co", Fe linked by association, Associating things that 5° ey POlarites, such as light/dark, oF day/night: ‘ot are shown in Figure 6 in the next page:Page [15 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology — / Cold Hot Figure 6. Cold and Hot A Lao of Cause and Effci/Law of Causality. This states that When a person thinks of an outcome (effect), he/she oa {2 fink of something that typically precedes outcomes. In short items that are linked by cause and effect are linked by association as shown in Figure 7 below, Cooking Food Figute 7. Cooked Food The principles have three MAT PFOCESSES Of association as ribed below: 1 Sequencing. process that involves items follows one another in time such ag calling something from memory or the temporal order of thoughts. PECMPOSHON. A process Shat involves taking com, lex items and breaking thens down into simpler ones,‘Foundation of Learning andl Cognitive Psychology p 0 Be lig Psychological Antecedents of Leaming and Cognitive Psychology The idea of “Learting” and “Cognitive Paycolegye (Cognitivism) was evolvedt from the significant writings of te pioneers of Associationism, like Thomas Hobbes, George Beka David Hume, David Hartley, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, Herbeyt Spencer, anu Alexander Bain. Pioneers of Associationism investigate how events or idea can become associated with one another in the mind to result ins form of learning. Recall earlier, associations may result finn contiguity (associating things that tend. to occur together at about the same time), sinslarity (associating things with similar feature or properties), or contrast (associating, things that seem to show polarities, such as hot or cold, light or dark, and day or sigh) Giernberg, 2006). Old Associationism Classical Associationists or Pioneers of Associationism had contributed many explanations in the principles/laws of associations as a source of learning and cognition as described below (Hergenhahn, 2001 and Lundin, 1996): Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Hobbes viewed that person's thoughts and emotions are caused by the motion due to extemal stimuli, As the variables of the external stimuli change, they impact on the human body which results in emotions and thoughts. He further proclaimed that motion in 2 th brain creates thoughts. Then on sugh's get accumulated and get connected. ‘This re i Thanh’ chains of thoughts or ideas leading to complex ~ iS what has been termed as the association of ideas ae ms8®, Bi¥en his explanation of association of ideas a Bo tte to sinlarity, contiguity, and contrast. Hobbes pres ce os ropounded this concept later eh eat te acquired bene’ Thomas Hobbes believed that know ee raecteat 2, b8eVation through the sense organs: TH coasted the idea of introspection and agreed with A" ‘mpiticism as a source of acquiring knowledge.Page |17 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page | George Berkeley (1685-1753). Berkeley is an Irish Bishop, applied associationist principles to visual dep Perception, arguing that the capacity to re things in three dimensions is the result o learning, not of innate ability. His Esse est percepi,” that is, “Being is perceiving.” What man perceived were his experiences. Man = knows only his experiences. The problem re the experiences came from. Since a person objects, or the real world, they had to come from somewhere, and GOD seemed to be the anener Berkeley's gtention to association was a real step forward in explaining the “perception of depth and distance,” ox the third dimension by means of association. was to find out wher could not know the David Hume (1711-1776), Hume claimed that all experiences have no substantial reality behind them, So whatever coherence the world (or the self) Seems to have is a matter of the simple application of these natural laws of association. He lists three associations, such $5: 1. The law of resemblance (.e, similarity), 2, The law of contiguity; and 3. The law of use And effect (basically contiguity in time), David Hartley (1705-1757), Hartley, a British With the biolo the biological Physician also dealt gical implications dealt with implications of associationism had formulated a neurophy siological theory about the transmission of ideas art also had described physical activity in terms of association (a concept that anticipated Subsequent principles of conditioning), Hartley also developed a ‘nna rctensive theory of associationinn that encompassed memory Imagination, dreams, and morality. ideas. Ide, fom sensations. They states of consciousness, What James Mill a Poe yey idea is referred es “image.” Perception was the ydation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Foundation o window was made up of ole, the idea of a win “i for example tnd whatever else made up a Window, yee of sae ated on Hume's associationism. The elder Mill savy the 8s oraely functioning by the law of contiguity, yn the an of ela 2 ase Ada law of tiotdness, “stamping int the os late ees on the law of frequency as the key to learning mat em places very similar to the behaviorists in the twentieth cen Teel like Hartley, there was only one law of ae conga. However, he was very careful to point oe in contiguity worked in two ways that associations could successively and simultaneously. C John Stuart_MBIL_ (1806-1873). A younger Mil continu WB amine associationism into ti century, The elder Mill “mechanistic theory” that together in "compounds," through the principle of conti | younger Mill, whose defi the association of ideas was chemistry" differed from his father in aiming thet played! an active rather than a passive rote in forming a He also suggested that a whole idea may amount to sum of its parts, a concept similar to that later advocated by Psychologists of the Gestalt school, He agreed with his father contiguity, but added siniterty and intensity, Instead of accetng an additive process in combining the elements of sensatioy, fe thought that sensory elements could fuse, is a kind of “motul chemistry,” where a new entity was not equivalent to the sum of parts. Thus, the separate elements in the new fusion could no longer be distinguished, d to especially _COntiguity, Thy NE Metaphor for "mental the ming sociation, ‘More than the Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Spencer proposed the “Evolutinary Associationism” which means that associations hich are made repeatedly are pass 9g through heredity (Repeated experience tins genetic material), for example. isi become an inherent part of ee Dassia racial heredity. He antedated ela a rs having started writing about ee 1850. Spencer's theory states that everything in the expan the universe was related to everything else in eto living totality. Any kind of development, whether it ae that is OP nonliving matter, involved a “process of differetny Page 119 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page | emergence of recognizable and distinct parts. As man evolved, - hetvous system became more complex and cortespondingly allowed for the possibility of his being able to comprehend more complex experiences on the mental side. i differentiation, there was also an integrating principle which brought things back together. This was the principle of association, with which more complex types of experiences could be integrated. Along with greater Alexander Bain (1818-1903). Bain was a major proponent of the British school of empiricism. He stated that a theory which based all knowledge on basic = sensory experiences and not ey An advocate of the British school of Empiricism, Bain proposed that all i 4 Knowledge and mental processes had to be based not only on spontaneous thought and ‘ideas, but on actual i i on introspection. y the solution to the mind body problem was a parallelism. Bain Strove to identify the link een the mind and the body, foc Gprzelations between mental and behavioral Phenomena. He added the “organic sense” which is ‘involved internal conditions, William James (1842-1910), James is the “Functionalism,” ¢ thought known ly the schools ofFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Pa “Be lay For the purposes of cognitive psychology, James's concer: mental life or thinking enumerated central features follow of It is conscious. Itis introspectable. Itis private. It “flows like a stream.” It is about something (“intentional”), Itis evolutionary, Spee Thus, applying the associative principles James had thought into two categories: (1) spontaneou voluntary thought as shown in Figure 8 below: divid ‘S thoughts ang a Spontaneous Thought Voluntary Thought a | 1. Total (impartial) 1. Recalling a thing forgoten Association Partial (mixed) 2. Means-end reasoning Association * Habit * Recency * Vividness | * Emotional | Congruity | 3. Similar Association 3, Generalization toall Problem Solving | Oi i aeaeete Figure 8. James Taxonomy of the Succession of Thovsh™ (Source: Martinez, 2010)Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page [21 Spontaneous Trains of Thoughts: There are three large categories of phenomena, such as total recall, partial recall, and focalized recall (association by similarity) described below. 1. Total Recall. This happens when there is unrestricted association between previous events and later recall as illustrated in Figure 8.1 below: merge: Fd eal] (4) « (ener 57 Tet ei Figure 8.1 James’ figure (a) and (b) Total Recall (Source: Harnish, 2002) If a, b, ¢, d, e, for instance, be the elementary nerve- tracts excited by the last act of the dinner party, call this act A; and |, yn, 0 p, be those of walking home through the frosty night, which may be call B, the thought of A must be awaken that of B, because a, b, c, de, will each and all discharge in all into through the paths by which their original charge took place. The lines in Figure 18.0 (a) symbolize the summation of discharge into each of the components of B, and the consequent strength of the combination of influences by which B in its totality awaken. 2. Partial Recall Partial Recall is the most common variety of association and in these cases only some of the past experiences have associational consequences as shown in Figure 8.2 on page 22.(6) Partial recall, Figure 8.2 James’ figure of Partial Recall Source: Harnish, Robert M. (2002) Only some of the past experiences have associational consequences. The partial things remember are those what appeal most to the interest. James surveys four Principles of “interest” for determining revival of thought as describe) below: 1. Habit, The most frequent in past experience where frequency is certainly potent determinants of revival (eg if by habit an ornithologist, will think of a bird and if by habit a veterinarian, will think of different animals, 2. Recency. The thoughts then to awaken the most recent as well as the most habitual associates (e. g. upon hearing of the word suicide, now remind it as death). 3. Vividness. ‘The original experience carries due to clarity o things related to it. Vividness in an original experience my also have the same effect as habit or Recency in bringing about likelihood of revival. If one sees a word of eo can (habe: he will awaken any image, it will bs 2 Speration of dentistry in which he has been suffere this very morning he brushed them and so on. ae Emotional congruity. Tracing event is one emotional tone between the reproduced idea and z The same objects do not recall the same associates one is cheerful as when one is sad. rte James summarized these four factors in revival of i othe then, all reasons why one representation rather We ti rola be awakened by interesting. portion of 2 $F: thought. He said that the majority of cases theiti Page |23 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology 8 ill be representation will have been either habit or recency or wi acongruity, Focalized Recall or As ‘sociation by Similarity as illustrated in Figure 83 below: (d) Focalized recall Figure 83 James’ Figure of Focalized Recall (Source: Hamnish, 2002) m5 of MOON, then a gas flame (by Similar color, then a football (by similarity of ie football share no relevant associ themselves, : Se of ideas is then Physiological level the crucial difference S and. voluntaY Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology. “ely offen. In recalling a ¢. Stage - Recalling a thing forg nit, sa torgoten things are fell a8 a gap in the middle gp "5 an things where one recollect the Zeneral subject in wag itpette as illustrated in Figure 9 below: meat (2) Recalling and means-ends reasoning) Figure 9. James Figure of Recallin, ig and Means-End Reasoning (Gource; Harnish, 2002) James explains: “Call the forgotten thing Z, the first facts with which ‘we felt it was related to a, b, ¢, anid the details finally operative in caling it up 1m, and n, each circle will stand for the brain processes principally concerted in the thought of the fact lettered within it, The activity of inl first be a mere tension; but as the activities in a, b, and ¢ litle by Utile irradiate into l,m, and n, and as all these processes are somelse connected with Z, their combined irradiations upon Z, represented by tit Seniripetal arrows, succeed in rousing Z also to full activity” (Harnish 2002: 32) Second Stage - Problem term of problems and it theoretic as well as in the Sort taking the form of desire to effect. The interest constitutes shall be attained, instantaneous Problem; art have no adisting e olving: Means-End Reasoning. It ne S means of solution. James sates: Bi Practical life there are interests of oe definite images of some achiewements a Hain of ideas arising under the infuence I usually the thought of the means by dows 1! If the end by its simple Pr eco Y suggest the means, the search for the latt 1 of ent he discovery of the means of fornis a new a ict imagination whatever” (Harnish, 2002: 31)- ads? Constiler the problem of balancing one’s enckook oe Columns of numbers, subtracts others, compares 15iti Page |25 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology ag i iding a these processes like James's means- end reasoning? When sais is column of numbers and carrying a “1.” Does one Seen bs attend to associate and wait for the requisite associat Pe Lid consciousness? For James, the solution in this care ie eat described as the end, not the means - the means being principles of arithmetic (Harnish, 2002). Modern Associationism The end of Old Associationism or Classical Associationism raised many explanations as presented in Figure 10 below: eo Creer ovate tobehaviorlsm and stimulus: eres eee error Cental cy io cubes ee Cong ora Cine! cette owt Rtg Classical ea) Figure 10. Factors led to the Downfall of Classical Associationism (Source: Sweeney, 2009) Wilhelm M. Wundt (1832-1920). In Figure 10, three factors led to the downfall of classical associationism in psychology in the late nineteenth and are early twentieth centuries. Each factor Was away from British empiricists' focus on the introspectable association of ideas. First, there was the bankruptcy of the instropective methodology itself. By the end of the nineteenth century it came toa Cognitive Psychology Pag sarning aM [25 Foundation of Le : impressionistic Titerary sty) the impressionis Y style thy ace in it FOF Te gpon unverifiable fact. It was time, iia oye” of introspection. Second, there wa, ih ed eventually t0 “Beliviorism” ya ated. facto ysychology. The initial development o¢ ee on the association of stimulus and response in Ebbinghaus Wor eT lables,” is indomitable. Third, there wore learning “nove william James had made systematic appeal, David Hartley 2 of explanation for psychological. phenomen, the neat Syne of the first laboratory. application. Considering Mprinciples as well as making flist move in the erttment lof a scence in experimental psychology are seettad on learning, memory, thinking, and perception had le te the principles of psychology and underpinning, theories on ig and cognitive psychology today. perceived Pl heaped unvet lose the “blooW set of rel “stinnals animal/human lear The beginning of Modern Associationism or Stimulus. Response Associationists had employed experimental researches and/or laboratory studies and contributed many explanations in the principles/laws/theories of memory, learning and cognition, Association also became a significant principle for later Leaning Theorists like Herman Ebbinghaus, Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward |. ‘Thorndike, John B. Watson, Vladimir M. Bekhterev, Edwin R Guthrie, and William Estes as described below (Hergenhahn, 2001 and Lundin, 1996): Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909). Ebbinghaus’ work on the association of stimulus and response ia learning nonsense syllables was considered one of the first laboratory applications of associationist principles, and at the sa time one of the first steps in the creation © of science of experimental psychology related to learning, memory and thougtt ivan P, Pavlov (1849-1936), Pavlov’s work on the neural ant a glandular bases of digestion in 408° at experiment won the Nobel Prize in! Like Ebbinghaus, Pavlov associationism = in his ah experiment on conditioned refleX. Tt he discovered the essential princi dev MEE! associative conditioning by Wop eveloped a device that he implanted in the cheek of BS ¢Page |27 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page | subject, which collected saliva as a measure of digestive Processes under investigation. The development of conditioning reflexology found that neutral stimulus (eg, metronome beat, a tone, or a light) after successively pairing it with a primary reward (eg, food/meat) to a motivated hungry dog would respond with salivation to the neutral stimulus Presented without the food. The conditioned reflex/response or conditioning was Pavlov’s “paradigm of learning” (Brennan, 1998 and Lundin, 1996). Peuuard L. Thorndike (1874-1949). Thomdike's (1911) work on = animal learning, which paved the way for Watson (1913) and the behaviorist movement of the 1930s and 1940s, and for the acceptance of the importance of Pavlov’s (1927) work on the conditioned reflex. Like Ebbinghaus and Pavlov, he took the concept of association in the theo crt in fact, Thomdike developed a highly systematic theory of associationism, one of the first organized theories of learning (Lundin, 1906). Thus, his famous work “connectionism” is a learning theory” with which it bonds between stimulre and Taree ae sake the form of neural connections. Thorndike’s forr laws emerged; namely: (1) rea liness, (2) exercise, (3) repetition or ‘Wal and error, and (4) effect (Apruebo, 2009) John Broadus Watson (1878-1958), Watson's work w Sy Pavlov and Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, more Particularly to the behavior of bitds and Tits" in his laboratory experiment y learning experiments, But later, he (és became interested in the study of human behavior. He studied man’s learning behavior in terms of stimulus and response (6-R) pattern, habit formation, and habit integration, Watson was the fi rican psychologist to apply Paviov’e Hence, he is generally accorded the being the “Father of Behaviorism” (Apruebo, 2009). as similar inFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Pa ge 127 subject, which collected saliva as a measure of digestive processes under investigation. The development of conditioning reflexology found that neutral stimulus (e.g., metronome beat, a tone, or a light) after successively pairing it with a primary reward (eg, food/meat) to a motivated hungry dog would respond with salivation to the neutral stimulus presented without the food. The conditioned reflex/response or conditioning was Pavlov’s paradigm of learning” (Brennan, 1998 and Lundin, 1996). Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949). Thorndike’s (1911) work on Ss animal learning, which paved the way for Watson (1913) and the behaviorist movement of the 1930s and 1940s, and for — the acceptance of the importance of Pavlov’s (1927) work on the conditioned reflex. Like Ebbinghaus and Pavlov, he took the concept of association in the experiment. In fact, Thorndike developed a highly systematic theory of associationism, one of the first organized theories of learning (Lundin, 1906). Thus, his famous work “connectionism” is a “learning theory” with which it bonds between stimulus and response take the form of neural connections. Thorndike’s four laws emerged; namely: (1) readiness, (2) exercise, (3) repetition or trial and error, and (4) effect (Apruebo, 2009). John Broadus Watson (1878-1958). Watson’s work was similar in Pavlov and Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, more particularly to the behavior of birds and rats in his laboratory experiment learning experiments. But later, he ue became interested in the study of human behavior. He studied man’s learning behavior in terms of stimulus and response (S-R) pattern, habit formation, and habit integration. Watson was the first American psychologist to apply Pavlov’s ideas on reflex conditioning. Hence, he is generally accorded the distinction of being the “Father of Belaviorism”(Apruebo, 2009).f Learning and Cognitive Psychology Foundation of ageiy jovich Bekhterev (1857-1927). Bekhterey on “associated reflex ang reflexology,” that is, both tep, amt s Vladimir Mikhail referred to conditioned refley 4% and animals. “Aside from ggg 'Ving salivations and digestive secretion focused on motor responses, eH became a complex symbolic reflex, rather simpler reflexes yey = developed in an organism's conditioning history. A process that involved a flow of energy in the nerve cells and tissues (Luni, 1996). Bekhterev’s maintained the notion of a psychology based on physiology, but rejected the subjective approach to psychology initiated by Wundt and the structuralists. His idea became a forerunner of behaviorism as he rejected subjective or mentalistc explanations. He believed that thinking, learning, and motivation could be reduced to mechanistic functions. Conversely, a contemporary but a rival of Pavlov, because Bekhterev assumed that psychological activity is different from human activities due to unity of reflexology. That psychological and physiological process involves the same neural energy; and the observable reflexes, whether inherited or acquired, are governed by lawful relations with internal and external stimulation. The underlying laws therefore are mediating the occurrence of reflexes (Brennan, 1998). Edwin Ray Guthrie (1886-1959). Guthrie's work on one simple pe Jaw of learning that is an associate contiguity in time, otherwise Inown “Guthrie Contiguity Theory.” associationistic theory Ties in the 8 principle that _ contiguity foundation of learning, Hs behavior in terms of movement than response that is, movements are the componemts of is response units, or behavioral acts. The fact that skilled bet are explained in terms of a gross response composed f oa ii units of movements that are largely muscular. Likewis*, Bs alle! are explained as a complex situation consisting Sy at clements. Thus, Guthrie's “Principle of Contiguity” 2 5 by When a combination of stimulus elements is accom? EeFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page 129 movement, the movement sequence will recur, given the presence of similar stimulus elements. Learning is a pattern or chain of discrete movements elicited by both environmental and internal stimulus cues (Brennan, 1998). In other words, it is “one-trial learning,” that is, when a particular -R’ Connection occurred, it would remain in the organism's FePertoire in full strength and indefinitely unless some succeeding event occurred to destroy or replace it. Many complex, forms of leaning like problem-solving could be allevisted. via basic principle of association by contiguity. Stimulus produced, fovements, and those in turn produced other stimuli, which in tum produced other movements that filled in the gaps (Lundin, 1996) William K. Estes (1919), Estes’ work on “Stimulus Sampling Theory,” that is learning is viewed as a Statistical process involving the selection of stimulus elements, a wide set of applications of probability functions to predict behavior has been proposed. In defining learning problem, a strategy of empirically based assumpti the probability of respo ions in which mses forms the basis of Predictive learning curves is employed, SUMMARY word relatively is critical in the some behavior modifications are definition of learning, because qualify as exam Not retained thereby, a failure to - Behavior changes thatFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology ne ‘oun if learning such as conditioning that js des ore ae Teaming, that involves 850Ciations pon pas Fonmental stimuli and tite organisms ti Sibituation is also the simplest kind of learning becauss Pot is discarded that has become familiar and hays. a consequences. The emergence of Behavioral Psychology evolving jg, Behaviorism is a pure branch of psychology that deat, with theory of learning, that all behaviors are acquired yi, conditioning, The behavioral techniques of this school st employed for counseling, therapy, education and many gf. areas. Cognitivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active mental processing of information. The movement was a response against behaviorism, its dominant behavioristic Paradigm which cognitivist theorists emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and paved the way to address the neglected @xplanation as regards specific role of cognition in learning and/or behavior, Cognitive psychology is a modern approach to the study of Processes by which people come to understand the world suchas Processes as memory, learning, comprehending language, problem solving, and creativity, Cognitive psychology has been evolved “elepments of philosophy, psychology, language atd computer science and/or information technology. poyentitionism is more than a school of thought By, it is i a i: least ered ‘hon “7, Principle that the mind is organized, at imple idea to complex ideas, by principle of 'stotle (384-322 B.C), was one of the O lation, considering that Plato (427-347 8 t larity and contiguity, but in a limited one troduced the concept of Associationism as simple it a “ath simple idea plus another simple idea will yield association, A address about Spoke of simi Aristotle in associated= age [31 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page | complex ideas. Associating ideas/things will lead into learning. Hence, Aristotle was considered the Father of Associationism. Rationalism and Empiricism are differentiated, Rationalism is viewed that knowledge can be gained via logic and careful Cannins: The following rationalists are Francis Bacon, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton, Baruch Spinoza, and “Rene Descartes.” Empiricism is viewed that knowledge can be gathered via car lowing empiricists are reful observation, The fol George Berkeley, David Hume, Thomas Hobbes, “Jolin Locke,” David Hartley, Thomas Reid, Thomas Brown, James Mill, John Alexander Bain, Stuart Mill and ly regard to the succession of memories ‘Aside from David Hartley, members of the principally British ‘Associationist School, including John Locke, David Hume, James Mill, John Stuart Mill and Al asserted that the Principle applied to all or most: mental processes, (contiguity) ler by having similarity, and etc, The downfall of classical associationism Est due to bankruptey of the in Second, theredation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Foundatiot = iative condition; ), Ivan P. Pavlov (associa ioniy bles), L Hab 5 (nonsense 5) reflexology), and Edward co oo, theory), Vladimir Mikhailovich | flexology), Edwin ed reflex. and human reflexol se ae tan ke Bekhtey, theory). QUESTIONS 1 What is Learning? Cognition? Behavioral Psychology, Cognitive Psychology? How Aristotle started the Principle of Associationism? What is Principle of Associationism? What are the principles of association? Explain. Differentiate Rationalism from Empiricism? NO Rep learning and cognition, 8. Discuss the emergence of Behavioral Psychology and Cognitive Psychology, 9. Contrast “Old Associationism, 10. Identify the Principles/laws/ theories in learning and cognition. NB an i ‘ordi Other prominent S-R theorists are John j. on age ly id ey R. Guthrie S Sampling Who are the Associationists, Rationalists, and Empiricists? FxPound the origin and development of the concept Associationism — from Modern Personages and — describe __theit | |ge 133 Foundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page | CHAPTER 1 TEST Name Section. Date. 1, Fill in the Blanks \. The principle which states that the mind is composed of elements, usually referred to as Sensations and ideas, which are organized by means of various associations, 2. They hold that all knowledge is tandem derived from experience via senses, 5. They hold that the route to knowledge is through logical analysis, 4. The law of association states that >! elements that occur close to each in space or time tend to get linked together in th e mind 5. It produces ideas of qualities from external things, 6. He introduced the Associationsm.” “Doctrine of 7. A theory of learning means that all behaviors are acquired via conditioning. 8. A theory of learning that explains the active mental processing of information, ?. John Locke notion on mental function Such a thinking and reasoning 10. The simplest form of Conditioning. TL Modified True or False Associationism, like Y individuals think, ®. Introspection and Behaviorism led to the downfall of Classical Associationism, 3. Elements that go together in exper — ‘will subsequently go together ir thought, Sst experience Functionalism,ation of Leaming and Cognitive Psychology Founda Be ly 6, John Locke believed that ay « 0 Gens ave ultimately resolvable into simple ideas, of wig . e compounded and originally made up. they a 7, Sensation makes ideas of quai _— ies ternal things. a " 8, Habituation i the simplest jing —_—_ of learning. _ ‘The Law of Effect states that ‘items go wgether by having certain relations in space and tne E10. Sequencing is processing as recat jtems in memory and the temporal order of thoughts, 8 an ling IIL, Multiple Choice __1. An impression or an awareness of a body state or Condition that results from the stimulation of a senscry receptor site and transmission of the nerve impulse along an afferent fiber to the brain. ‘A. Sensation B. Perception C. Attention D. Reflection 2. Complex items can be broken down into their simpler constituents. ‘A. Sequencing, B. Compounding C. Decomposition D. Composition —3. He is an Associationist famous in Functionalism. A. David Hume B. William James C. Aristotle D. John Locke i —4. Complex items can be formed from simple items mental mechanics and mental chemistry. A. Compounding 8. Decompesits? C. Sequencing D. CompositionFoundation of Learning and Cognitive Psychology Page | 5. This happens when there is unrestricted association between previous events and later recall A. Focalized recall B. Total recall C. Partial recall D. Half recall 6. His view leads directly to empirical investigations of ychology. A. Plato B. John Locke C. William James D. Aristotle —. Spontaneous thought happens when only some of the Past experiences have associational consequences, A. Half recall B. Partial recall ©. Total recall D. Focalized recall B. Herbert Spencer C.V.M. Bekhterey D. William K. Estes —9. Who is not the S-R Theorist? A. Hermann Ebbinghaus B. Herbert Spencer C.V.M, Bekhterey of an impression that experience carries, e that the original A. Recency fi Ronin C.Habit