INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P.

PANCHACALA, MBM 1
 Reading Resources and Instructional Activities
MODULE 3
Functions and Philosophical Perspectives on Art
_____________________________________________________________________
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. distinguish between directly functional and indirectly functional art;
2. explain and discuss the basic philosophical perspectives on the art;
3. realize the function of some art forms in daily life; and
4. apply concepts and theories on beauty and aesthetics in real life scenarios.
_____________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION

Greek philosopher Aristotle claimed that every particular substance in the world has an end, or
telos in Greek, which translates into "purpose." Every substance, defined as a formed matter, moves
according to a fixed path toward its aim. A seed is bound to become a full-grown plant. A cocoon can
look forward to flying high when it morphs into a butterfly. A baby
will eventually turn into a grown man or woman.

This telos, according to Aristotle, is intricately linked with

function. For a thing to reach its purpose, it also has to fulfill its
function. Man, in Aristotle's view of reality, is bound to achieve a
life of fulfillment and happiness, or in Greek, eudaimonia. All men
move toward this final end. However, happiness, the supposed end
of man, is linked with his function, which is being rational. One can
only be happy when he is rational. This means that to Aristotle,
plants can never be happy because they are not rational, as well as
tables and chairs. Man's natural end, telos, is connected with his
function, which is his rationality.

Figure 15. Aristotle

Moreover, the telos and function of a thing are both related to a thing's identity. What makes a
table a table is the fact that it does perform its function and thereby, reaching its telos. If a table does
not have a surface on which we can put on our books or our plates and glasses, then it ceases to be a
table.

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 2

 The same goes for the human being. What makes a human being a human being, according to
some schools of thought, is his capacity for thinking, his supposed function. Without this function, the
human being ceases to be a human being. The telos, the function, and the "whatness" of a thing are all
interconnected.

In contemporary life, the connection between the end, the function, and the "whatness" of a
thing has become closer and more interlaced, suggesting sometimes that the end is the function and
vice versa, and that they determine what kind of thing a thing is. When one sees a new kitchen
appliance in the department store, one tries to know first what functions the appliance has. After
knowing these functions, then one can claim to know the purpose of the appliance and then begins to
realize what appliance one is holding in his arms.

Does art necessarily have an end? When an artist creates a work of art, does he have an end in
mind? What function does an artwork perform? Does it have any purpose? Do all artworks have a
function? Does the function make an object a work of art? This lesson is an attempt to clarify these
questions.

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Let's Get Started
Visit your school or city/town museum. Using the table below, list down as many different
artworks that you have witnessed. On the second column, identify what it is for. You can either
research this or surmise intelligently. Write them down on the corresponding column.

Artwork What is it for?

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 3

__________________________________________________________________
Let's Get Down to Business

Functions of Art

When one speaks of function, one is practically talking about the use of the object whose
function is in question. An inquiry on the function of art is an inquiry on what art is for. Alternatively,
the answer to the question "what is it for" is the function of whatever "it" in the question refers to.
Suppose one asks, what is the Rizal monument for? Why was it erected in Rizal Park or what then was
called Luneta or Bagumbayan? Is it for pure sentimental value? Is it for its aesthetic value? Or does it
send a message to those who witness it? In this string of questions, the inquirer is hoping to get the
function of the piece of art in Rizal Park.

When it comes to function, different art forms come with distinctive functions. There is no one-
to-one correspondence between an art and its function. Some art forms are more functional than
others. Architecture, for example, as an art is highly functional just like most applied arts. A building
as a work of art is obviously made for a specific purpose. The Taj Mahal, a massive mausoleum of
white marble built in Agra was constructed in memory of the favorite wife of the then emperor, Shah
Jahan. On the other hand, jewelry-making as an art is known by its product. The name of the art in
these applied arts is basically denoted by its specified function. In this and other such functional arts,
"...function is so important that it has usurped the name of the art on the identification of individual
works" (Dudley et al., 1960). Other examples are paintings, poems, and statues. The name of the art
basically points toward the direction of the product or its function.

On the other end of the spectrum, one can only think of painting and literature as forms of art
that have the least to do with purely practical values. When one examines and thinks of a painting or
a work of literature such as a poem or a novel,
one looks at the value of the art in itself and
not because of what it can do and benefit US.
Unlike practical arts where the value of the
art (in pottery, jewelry-making, architecture,
among others) in question lies in the
practical benefits one gains from it (a pot, a
jewelry, or a house or building), with painting
and literature, one can only look at the value
of the product of art in and for itself. A poem
is beautiful regardless of its possible
ramifications in the society.

Figure 16. Jewelry-making in Malaysia

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 4

 Joyce Kilmer's "Trees" has maintained its popularity through the years regardless of its
application or practical benefit. This definitely is not to say that paintings and literary works can never
have any function. The two masterpieces of our national hero, Dr. Jose P. Rizal, the Noli Me Tangere
and El Filibusterismo served as a catechist for Filipino revolutionaries to gather strength in rejecting
the oppressive forces of the Spaniards in the Philippines in the nineteenth century. The novels
accrued value and as a consequence, function. This function as it turns out, may be over and beyond
its literary worth. They are functional "in so far as they are designed to accomplish some definite end"
(Dudley et al., 1960). In the case of Rizal's novels, they spelled out a country's independence. They
continue to be treasured even a hundred years after their supposed functions.

Roughly and broadly, the functions of art are classified into three: personal (public display or
expression), social (celebration or to affect collective behavior), and physical (utilitarian). Let us try
to understand each of these three.

Personal Functions of Art

The personal functions of art are

varied and highly subjective. This means
that its functions depend on the person-the
artist who created the art. An artist may
create an art out of the need for self-
expression. This is the case for an artist who
needs to communicate an idea to his
audience. It can also be mere entertainment
for his intended audience. Often, the artist
may not even intend to mean anything with
his work.
Figure 17. An Adult Coloring Book

An art may also be therapeutic. In some orphanages and home for abandoned elders, art is
used to help residents process their emotions or while away their time. Recently, the use of adult
coloring books to de-stress has been apparent too, now with a lot of designs being sold in bookstores
nationwide. These all fall under personal functions of art.

Social Functions of Art

Art is considered to have a social function if and when it addresses a particular collective
interest as opposed to a personal interest. Political art is a very common example of an art with a
social function. Art may convey message of protest, contestation, or whatever message the artist
intends his work to carry. Often, art can also depict social conditions. Photography, as an art form,
delivers this kind of function by taking photos of subjects in conditions that people do not normally
take a look at or give attention to.

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 5

 Pictures of poverty may carry emotional overtones that may solicit action or awareness from
their audience. Moreover, performance art like plays or satires can also rouse emotions and rally
people toward a particular end. In these and more, the social function of art is apparent.

Physical Functions of Art

The physical functions of art are the

easiest to spot and understand. The physical
functions of art can be found in artworks that
are crafted in order to serve some physical
purpose. A Japanese raku bowl that serves a
physical function in a tea ceremony is an
example. Architecture, jewelry making, and
even interior design are all forms of arts that
have physical function.

Figure 18. A Japanese Raku Bowl

Other Functions of Art

Music as an art is also interesting to talk about in relation to function. Music in its original form
was principally functional, Music was used for dance and religion. Unlike today, when one can just
listen to music for the sake of music's sake, the ancient world saw music only as an instrument to
facilitate worship and invocation to gods. Music also was essential to dance because music assures
synchronicity among dancers. Moreover, music also guarantees that marches, in the case of warriors,
were simultaneous.

Today, music has expanded its function and coverage. Music is listened to and made by people
for reasons that were foreign to early civilizations. There is now a lot of music that has no connection
whatsoever to dance or religion. Serenade is one example. People compose hymns of love to express
feelings and emotions. Music is also used as a wonderful accompaniment to stage plays and motion
pictures. Interestingly, a piece of music can mean a multitude of meanings to different people, a proof
that as an art, music has gone a long way.

Sculpture, on the other hand, is another functional art form that has long existed for various
purposes. Just like music, from the early days of humanity, sculptures have been made by man most
particularly for religion. People erect status for the divine. In the Roman Catholic world, the
employment of sculptures for religious purposes has remained vital, relevant, and symbolic.

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 6

 Sculptures were also made in order to commemorate important figures in history. Jose Rizal's
monument in Rizal Park and Andres Bonifacio's Monumento in Caloocan are common examples. In
the University of the Philippines, the iconic
statue Oblation by Guillermo E. Tolentino has
remained a pillar of the university and constant
reminder of the need to offer oneself up selflessly
for the country. Coins are also manifestations of
sculpting's function. Every coin in the Philippines
features a relief of a famous hero or personality.
Recently, the Central Bank of the Philippines
produced special, commemorative coins for
certain personalities like Pope Francis and the
Jesuit, Horacio de la Costa.

Figure 19. Pope Francis Commemorative Coin

Another art form that readily lends itself to multiple functions is architecture. In fact,
architecture might be the most prominent functional art form. Buildings are huge, expensive, and are
not easily constructed and replaced. Unlike other forms of art like pots, furniture, poetry, or even
paintings, buildings take so much time to erect and destroy. A lot of investments is put into making
megastructures like the pyramids of Giza, the acropolis, or the great cathedrals of the Middle Ages.
One cannot simply dismiss taking into consideration the function of a building before construction.

It is also in architecture where one can find the intimate connection of function and form. In
planning out an architectural structure, one has to seriously consider the natural conditions like
topography and climate of the place of erection and the social conditions such as the purpose of the
building itself. In the Philippines, climate is a huge factor in building a house. Spanish colonial houses
were designed to allow for air to circulate inside the house. Large windows were staples then. Capiz
shells were also utilized to allow for
light to enter the house even if the
windows were closed. Moreover, social
conditions, such as purpose, play a
huge role in architecture. To Christians,
a church is primarily a place of worship
and assembly. Regular ceremonies,
where members of the church are
expected to come regularly, are held
inside the church. A huge, spacious
church therefore is necessitated by this
social condition. Indeed, whenever art
serves a particular function, the form
has to be determined by the function.
Figure 20. A Spanish House in the Philippines

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 7

__________________________________________________________________
Does Art Always Have to be Functional?

While it has been shown that most arts are functional, still there are some which are not. The
value of a work of art does not depend on function but on the work itself. The plays of Aeschylus and
the poetry of Robert Frost and Edgar Allan Poe are still counted as examples of great works of art
despite their not having a known function. In those whose functions are ascertained, however, it is a
different story. A functional object cannot be claimed to be beautiful unless it can perform its function
sufficiently. Consider a house that cannot even protect its resident from the nasty weather outside or
a spoon that spills the food on it. Adequate performance of function partly determines the beauty of
a design in these functional art forms.

Despite these, efficiency cannot be mistaken as beauty. While it certainly determines beauty
in some works of art, an efficient functional object is not necessarily beautiful. Art demands so much
more than mere efficiency. What then really comprises beauty and art? What makes something truly
beautiful? What really makes a work of art? What really is art? The next section attempts to provide
different perspectives on the nature of art.

Philosophical Perspectives on Art

Art as an Imitation

Plato (2000) in his masterpiece, The Republic, particularly paints a picture of artists as
imitators and art as mere imitation. In his description of the ideal republic, Plato advises against the
inclusion of art as a subject in the curriculum and the banning of
artists in the Republic. In Plato's metaphysics or view of reality, the
things in this world are only copies of the original, the eternal, and
the true entities that can only be found in the World of Forms.
Human beings endeavor to reach the Forms all throughout this life,
starting with formal education in school. From looking at
"shadows in the cave," men slowly crawl outside to behold the real
entities in the world. For example, the chair that one sits on is not
a real chair. It is an imperfect copy of the perfect "chair" in the
World of Forms. Much is true for "beauty" in this world. When one
ascribes beauty to another person, he refers to an imperfect beauty
that participates only in the form of beauty in the World of Forms.
Plato was convinced that artists merely reinforce the belief in
copies and discourage men to reach for the real entities in the
World of Forms.
Figure 21. Plato

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 8

 Plato was deeply suspicious of arts and artists for two reasons: they appeal to the emotion
rather than to the rational faculty of men and they imitate rather than lead one to reality. Poetry and
painting, the art forms that Plato was particularly concerned with, do not have any place in the ideal
state that Socrates (as the protagonist) in Plato's dialogue envisions. First, Plato is critical of the
effects of art, specifically, poetry to the people of the ideal state. Poetry rouses emotions and feelings
and thus, clouds the rationality of people. Poetry has a capacity to sway minds without taking into
consideration the use of proper reason. As such, it leads one further away from the cultivation of the
intellect that Plato campaigned for. Likewise, Socrates is worried that art objects represent only the
things in this world, copies themselves of reality. As such, in the dialogue, Socrates claimed that art is
just an imitation of imitation. A painting is just an imitation of nature, which is also just an imitation
of reality in the World of Forms.

The arts then are to be banished, alongside the practitioners, so that the attitudes and actions
of the members of the Republic will not be corrupted by the influence of the arts. For Plato, art is
dangerous because it provides a petty replacement for the real entities that can only be attained
through reason.

Art as a Representation

Aristotle, Plato's most important student in philosophy, agreed with his teacher that art is a
form of imitation. However, in contrast to the disgust that his master holds for art, Aristotle
considered art as an aid to philosophy in revealing truth. The kind of imitation that art does is not
antithetical to the reaching of fundamental truths in the world. Talking about tragedies, for example,
Aristotle (1902) in the Poetics claimed that poetry is a literary representation in general. Akin to other
art forms, poetry only admits of an attempt to represent what things might be. For Aristotle, all kinds
of art, including poetry, music, dance, painting, and sculpture, do not aim to represent reality as it is.
What art endeavors to do is to provide a vision of what might be or the myriad possibilities in reality.
Unlike Plato who thought that art is an imitation of another imitation, Aristotle conceived of art as
representing possible versions of reality.

In the Aristotelian worldview, art serves two particular purposes. First, art allows for the
experience of pleasure. Experiences that are otherwise repugnant can become entertaining in art. For
example, a horrible experience can be made an object of humor in a comedy. Secondly, art also has an
ability to be instructive and teach its audience. things about life; thus, it is cognitive as well. Greek
plays are usually of this nature.

Art as a Disinterested Judgment

In the third critique that Immanuel Kant wrote, the "Critique of Judgement," Kant considered the
judgment of beauty, the cornerstone of art, as something that can be universal despite its subjectivity.
Kant mentioned that judgment of beauty, and therefore, art, is innately autonomous from specific
interests.

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 It is the form of art that is adjudged by one who perceives art to be beautiful or more so,
sublime. Therefore, even aesthetic judgment for Kant is a cognitive activity.

Kant recognized that judgment of beauty is subjective. However, Kant advanced the
proposition that even subjective judgments are based on some universal criterion for the said
judgment. In the process, Kant responded to the age-old question of how and in what sense can a
judgment of beauty, which ordinarily is considered to be a
subjective feeling, be considered objective or universal. How is
this so? For Kant, when one judges a particular painting as
beautiful, one in effect is saying that the said painting has
induced a particular feeling of satisfaction from him and that
he expects the painting to rouse the same feeling from anyone.
There is something in the work of art that makes it capable of
inciting the same feeling of pleasure and satisfaction from any
perceiver, regardless of his condition. For Kant, every human
being, after perception and the free play of his faculties, should
recognize the beauty that is inherent in a work of art. This is
the kind of universality that a judgment of beauty is assumed
by Kant to have. So when the same person says that something
is beautiful, he does not just believe that the thing is beautiful
for him, but in a sense, expects that the same thing should put
everyone in awe.

Figure 22. Immanuel Kant

Art as a Communication of Emotion

The author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy, provided another perspective on what
art is. In his book, What is Art (2016), Tolstoy defended the production of the sometimes truly
extravagant art, like operas, despite extreme poverty in the world. For him, art plays a huge role in
communication to its audience's emotions that the artist previously experienced. Art then serves as a
language, a communication device that articulates feelings and emotions that are otherwise
unavailable to the audience. In the same way that language communicates information to other
people, art communicates emotions. In listening to music, in watching an opera, and in reading poems,
the audience is at the receiving end of the artist communicating his feelings and emotions.

Tolstoy is fighting for the social dimension of art. As a purveyor of man's innermost feelings
and thoughts, art is given a unique opportunity to serve as a mechanism for social unity. Art is central
to man's existence because it makes accessible feelings and emotions of people from the past and
present, from one continent to another.

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 10

 In making these possibly latent feelings and emotions accessible to anyone in varied time and
location, art serves as a mechanism of cohesion for everyone. Thus, even at present, one can commune
with early Cambodians and their struggles by visiting the Angkor Wat or can definitely feel for the
early royalties of different Korean dynasties by watching Korean dramas. Art is what allows for these
possibilities.

Figure 23. Cambodia's Angkor Wat

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Let's Wrap It Up

Art has remained relevant in our daily lives because most of it has played some form of
function for man. Since the dawn of the civilization, art has been at the forefront of giving color to
man's existence. The different functions of art may be classified as either personal, social, or physical.
An art's function is personal if it depends on the artist herself or sometimes still, the audience of the
art. There is a social function in art if and when it has a particular social function, when it addresses a
collective need of a group of people. Physical function, finally, has something to do with direct,
tangible uses of art. Not all products of art have function. This should not disqualify them as art
though. As mentioned, and elucidated by some of the most important thinkers in history, art may
serve either as imitation, representation, a disinterested judgment, or simply a communication of
emotion.

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 11

Let's Work On This

Answer the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible.

1. What art form/artwork has changed something in your life? Why? Account for the
experience.

2. Does art always have a function? Why? Support your response. Provide your own
example.

3. If an artwork, ceased to have a function, will it remain an art? Why?

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 12

__________________________________________________________________
Let's Make It Happen

Look around your house and identify a product of art. In the box below, paste a picture of that
product of art in your household. Trace the beginnings of this item and identify what functions it has
played in history (e.g., a painting of the Last Supper in your dining room or a spoon).

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References

Butcher, S.H. (Ed.) (1902). The Poetics of Aristotle. New York: The Macmillan Company.

Dudley, L., Faricy, A., and McGraw-Hill Book Company. (1960). The Humanities. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Plato. (2000). The Republic. Accessed November 2, 2017. Retrieved from http://catdir.
loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/00024471.pdf.

Tolstoy, Leo. (2016). What Is Art? Accessed November 2, 2017. Retrieved from http://
web.mnstate.edu/gracyk/courses/phil of art/printer-friendly/Tolstoy_on_ Art_TWO_COLUMNS.pdf.

Book

“ART APPRECIATION” By Bernardo Nicolas Caslib, Jr., Dorothea C. Garing, and

Jezreel Anne R. Casaul – in a Computerized Office, Published and distributed by REX
Book Store, Inc.

INSTRUCTOR: LOVELY P. PANCHACALA, MBM 13

 Reading Resources and Instructional Activities
MODULE 3
Subject and Content
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LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. differentiate representational art and non-representational art.
2. discuss the difference between an artwork's subject and its content:
3. identify the subject matter and content of specific examples of art: and
4. enumerate the sources of the subjects of some of the most recognizable works of art in
Philippine art history.
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INTRODUCTION

In the Philippines, which is predominantly a non-museum-going public, looking at art has

always been a tricky business. This is true not only for novices, but also at times, confronts the
long-time art aficionados. One of the major hurdles that spoils an individual's engagement with an
artwork is the notion that in order to appreciate it, one must be able to extract a specific image,
isolate the artist or maker's intention, and unearth a particular meaning. Failure to do so
automatically implies a failure of comprehension and therefore, failure of the experience. This,
however, relegates art engagement and therefore appreciation to the very few who had training
and instruction in producing and in reading art. This should not be the case.

The primary stage of engaging with art is its perception. Looking at art is much like any
instance of taking in information or stimulus that originates from the world around us. For most
art forms, the beginning of engagement is through looking at the artwork. The eyes play a big role
in mechanically making a vision possible. However, like any tool, it is but one component. What
makes the difference is the awareness in the process of looking where subjectivity is essential in
navigating through the artwork. Subjectivity is illustrated in the way that selective perception
renders one or two details more prominent than others, prompting the viewer to focus on some
details as essential or as standouts. Even the disposition or mood of the viewer, his education, his
background, and his exposure to varying contexts contribute to what information is taken in and
how they are interpreted. To herd all of these into coherence and intelligibility, the relationships
of visual details presented, the ideas and feelings that they cull, and other springs of information
may be consulted.

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 In most cases, there are clues that mediate between the artwork and the viewer, allowing
the viewer to more easily comprehend what he is seeing. These clues are the three basic
components of a work of art: subject, form, and content. These components are largely
inseparable from each other and usually related to each other.

In this chapter, subject and content will be discussed, while form will be better examined
in Chapter 6. To differentiate them briefly, subject refers to the visual focus or the image that
may be extracted from examining the artwork, while content is the meaning that is
communicated by the artist or the artwork. Finally, the development and configuration of the
artwork-how the elements and the medium or material are put together-is the form. In simpler
terms, the subject is seen as the "what"; the content is the "why"; and the form is the "how."
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Let's Get Started

Think-Pair-Share

1. Look at the painting below by artist David Bailly entitled "Selbstbildnismit

Vanitassymbolen" (Self-Portrait with Vanitas Symbols). List down everything that
you see within the four corners of the work. List as many items as you can in 3
minutes. Use the space on the next page for your answer.

Figure 24. David Bailly, "Selbstbildnis mit Vanitassymbolen" (Self-Portrait with

Vanitas Symbols), (1651). Oil on panel. Stedelijk Museum De Lakenhal, Leiden.

2. Based on your answers, write an assumption about what the painting means in the
space below.

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____________________________________________________________________

Let's Get Down to Business

In the field of the sciences, experimentation is the key to proving a hypothesis or a larger
theory. Often, an experiment is done multiple times to further prove the reliability of an outcome.
Therein, empirical or observable data in the form of visible or tactile qualities, events or
occurrence, yielding an output or by-product must follow after a step or a series of processes. In
the arts, there are also observable qualities that the artwork holds that will point to its subject,
and sometimes even to its content. In order to flesh out what the subject of the artwork is, it is
important to first look at the constituent figures that are perceivable on the surface of the canvas
or the sculpture, and the manner in which the artist chose to depict those figures. From these, the
type of subject can then be inferred.

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Types of Subject

One of the most iconic and recognizable paintings all over the world is the "Mona Lisa" done by
Leonardo da Vinci. Some questions are often raised regarding this artwork, like "Who is Mona Lisa?"
"Why was Leonardo da Vinci compelled to paint her?" But as scholars attempt to solve the true
identity of the sitter, it is relevant to note that there is a consensus that the Mona Lisa-whoever she
is-is based on a real person.

Figure 25. Leonardo da Vinci. "Mona Lisa" (1503)

Musée du Louvre Collection

Portraits such as the "Mona Lisa" are good

examples of what is called representational art.
These types of art have subjects that refer to
objects or events occurring in the real world.
Often, it is also termed figurative art, because as
the name suggests, the figures depicted are easy to
make out and decipher. Despite not knowing who
Mona Lisa is, it is clear that the painting is of a
woman that is realistically-proportioned; only the
upper torso is shown; a beguiling and mysterious
smile is flashed; and that the background is a
landscape-probably a view from a window.
Pushing it even further, one can even imagine a
scene in which Leonardo da Vinci alternates
between applying dabs of paint on the canvas and
looking at the sitter in order to capture her
features for the portrait.

On the other hand, seeing a painting that has

nothing in it but continuous drips of paint or
splotches of colors either confounds the viewer or
is readily trivialized as something that anyone
with access to materials can easily make. The
works of Jackson Pollock, who is known for his
"action paintings," are often subjected to these remarks. Using large-scale canvasses that were usually
laid out on the floor or resting on a wall, Pollock tilted his paint can and allowed paint to drip. Assisting
it with movement, he used other implements such as hardened brushes, knives, sticks, and trowels to
add detail, texture, and dimension to his paintings. There were no clear figures that jot out from the
canvas; there were only drips and splashes. This kind of work can be subsumed under the category of
non-representational. As the opposite of the previously discussed type of subject, non-
representational art is also often termed non-figurative art.

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 Figure 26. Jackson Pollock, detail of "Number 1A" (1948). Oil and enamel paint on canvas.
Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) Collection. Photo courtesy of Sharon Mollerus.

Non-representational art does not make a reference to the real world, whether it is a person,
place, thing, or even a particular event. It is stripped down to visual elements such as shapes, lines,
and colors that are employed to translate a particular feeling, emotion, and even concept.

It is in this light that representational works are often favored because they are easier to
recognize. Viewers find a greater degree of comfort when what they see registers as something
familiar. They then continue to process this understanding. sometimes even becoming confident
enough to share their insights to others. It can be argued then that an artist is faced with a strong
persuasion of creating works that veers toward representational art. However, it is not simply an
issue of assumed preference; rather, it cuts across matters relating to prevailing themes, norms, and
practices of specific historical moments.

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____________________________________________________________________
Non-representational Art and Abstract Art

Figure 27. Pablo Picasso, "Head of a Woman,

Mougins" (1962). Metal cut-out, folded and painted.
Musée National Picasso-Paris.

One source of confusion is the notion that

non-representational art is the same as abstract art.
This is essential to discuss because it introduces the
fact that representational art and non-
representational art is not a clear-cut divide; rather,
they exist in a spectrum. An abstract work of Pablo
Picasso is a great example to illustrate this.
Although he is more known for his paintings, he
also dabbled into other works including sculptures.
Cut metal that is hinged on a metal base, there is a
palpable distortion of the image-whatever it is-
seems to be melting. Even without reading the title
from the caption, mere seconds of looking at the
combination of lines, shapes. and colors of the sculpture will point to a head of a woman. Even with
the abstraction of the image, this work is arguably representational. As a guide, an artwork, depending
on the degree of distortion or abstraction, may be judged as leaning more toward one over the other.
Abstract art is in itself a departure from reality, but the extent of that departure determines whether
it has reached the end of the spectrum, which is non-representationality a complete severance from
the world.

A proponent of non-representational art was Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky. Although his
chosen art form was paintings, he likened non-representational art to music, an art form that he was
also very keen to. He asserted that with sounds, musicians are able to evoke imagery in their listeners
or audiences. Object-free, he alludes to the sounds and spiritual experiences that music makes possible
in his paintings. It is therefore not surprising that a lot of his paintings are inspired by music and are
titled as impression, improvisation, and composition.

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____________________________________________________________________
Sources and Kinds of Subject

When hit with a wall or a block, the writer is often advised to look back and take from what
he knows. From there, a well and wealth of materials may be drawn. But for artists, where do
they source the subjects of their paintings? What do they paint?

For non-representational art, a higher level of perceptiveness and insight might be

required to fully grasp the feeling, emotion, or concept behind the work. It is perhaps easier to
infer where the subject matter comes from if the artwork is an example of representational art.
From the figure(s) depicted in the artwork, there is already a suggestion as to its inspiration.

However, in discussing the sources and kinds of subject in artworks, it is important to note
that these two are often inextricably related. Often, even a singular source of inspiration can
yield multiple translations. A good starting point is, of course, the nature.

There is nothing more rudimentary than human interaction with the physical world
around the artist. Early childhood often revolves around getting to know not just the body and
what it can do, but also in getting accustomed to a multitude of sensory prompts around the
artist especially those situated in his environment.

Artists throughout history have explored diverse ways of representing nature: from plants
to animals; the qualities of bodies of water and the terrain of landmasses; and even the
perceivable cycles and changing of seasons. Often, these depictions are seen as expressions of
the sacred or the profane, sired by reality or supplemented by the artist's imagination. One
artist who was attuned with nature was Vincent van Gogh. He saw art and nature as
inseparable, often finding solace and happiness in painting in it (working in the middle of
unspoiled fields) and painting from it (landscapes). In a letter to his brother Theo, he wrote "...if
felt no love for nature and my work, then I would be unhappy." (Van Gogh Museum, 1882)

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 Figure 28. Vincent van Gogh, "Die Ebene von Auvers" (Wheat Fields Near Auvers) (1890)
Oil on canvas Osterreichische Galerie Belvedere Collection.

Other artists with a considerable number of landscapes and seascapes are Claude Monet,
Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, and JMW Turner. In the Philippines, National Artists for Painting
Fernando Amorsolo and Fabian de la Rosa gained prominence from their painted rural scenes such
as women in the fields gathering harvest.

Breaking nature into smaller parts is Jan van Kessel the Elder who did numerous still lives and
small-scale, highly detailed studies, and scientific illustrations of flowers, insects, shells, fruits,
garlands, and bouquets.

Figure 29. Jan van Kessel, "A Cockchafer, Beetle, Woodlice and Other Insects, with a Sprig of Auricula"
(early 1650s). Oil on copper. Museum of Art and Archaeology. University of Oxford Collection.

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 Greek and Roman mythology were also ripe with references: from episodes that transport
the viewer to heroic encounters of Achilles and Aeneas; warnings about Iman's folly like the vanity
of Icarus; the wit and cunning of Odysseus; the beauty of Aphrodite and the athleticism of Myron.
From narrations in literature, artists, on the other hand, gave faces to Greek and Roman deities or
the gods and goddesses whose fates are seemingly as tragic as those of men. Some of the art forms
they took on were wall paintings or frescos and sculptural works such as busts, statuaries, and
ceramics and pottery, among others.

Figure 30. "Discobolus" (Roman, 2nd Century

AD), after a Greek original by the sculptor
Myron of 450-440 BC British Museum
Collection, London.

Another integral aspect of human

life is the distinct relationship with a higher
controlling power. If the belief system of
Greeks and Romans was polytheism with a
multitude of gods and goddesses, the Judeo-
Christian tradition stems from a belief in a
lone creator of the universe or what is called
monotheism. This tradition had an
immense influence in Western civilization
especially in art. Guided by a host of styles
and techniques, various media and art
forms were also experimented with:
paintings, frescos, church architecture
(over-all plan of the space, stained glass
windows, tabernacles, and altars),
sarcophagus, icons and other carvings,
vestments, tapestry, illuminated
manuscripts, and other sacred scriptures,
among others.

Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the intricate fresco that lines the Sistine Chapel was created
by Michelangelo. The immense detail and vast surface he had to cover had him working on it from
1508 to 1512.

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 Figure 31. Michelangelo, "Sistine Chapel" (1508-1512)

Unlike in Islam for example, practicing Jews and Christians were allowed to depict their God
and other important biblical figures: laying visual foundations in inculcating the faith. But perhaps
the influence of this tradition is most intriguingly manifested in the architectural marvels that are
spread out all over the world.

The formative years of church architecture can be traced in the fourth and fifth century but
different styles and plans were developed since then. Prevailing ideas and philosophies became
resources that were used by architects to reimagine what the church should look like. For
instance, Gothic churches were characterized by three things: soaring heights (ceilings), volume
(flying buttresses and ribbed vaults), and light (bright stained-glass windows, airy and pleasant
interiors). Gothic style architecture. is often attributed as the brainchild of Abbot Suger. There is
a definitive sense that pointed to the feeling of awe on the part of the believer and the perceived
majesty and power of God all of which happened during the time when religion was at the heart
of everyday life. This echoes her belief that "art was central to religious experience."

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 Figure 32. Interior of Westminster

Proceeding from a kind of a hybrid

between literature and sacred text is India's
miniature paintings. In Central India, the kind of
art that was produced was deeply rooted in Vedic
texts such as Upanishads, Puranas, and other
important texts like the Sanskrit epics
Mahabharata and Ramayana. Indian artists had a
wide array of materials to work with in
showcasing not just their artistry and skill. The
significance of these paintings rests on its ability
to foster devotion and the observance of a code of
ethics through the visualizations of heroic
narratives. These paintings were small but were
highly pictorial, stylized, and employed a good
contrast of colors. Some artists also included
verse from the epics as part of the cartouche
which added interest and meaning to the
paintings.

Figure 33. "Shah Jahan Receiving Dara Shikoh," Folio

from the Late Shah Jahan Album (circa 1650).
Watercolor, Opaque watercolor, gold, and ink on
paper. Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection,
Museum Associates Purchase.

Historically significant events particularly in

the affairs of humanity are abundant references for
art production. From early breakthroughs such as
the discovery of fire and the overthrow of
geocentric theory in favor of a sun-centered
universe, succeeding advancements brought about
by discovery, innovation, and man's incessant
search for glory plotted a dynamic course of history.

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 Figure 34. Francisco de Goya, "El Tres de Mayo" (1814) Oil on canvas. Museo del Prado Collection

An example is Goya's El Tres de Mayo which captures the death of Madrilenes, the local
insurgents during the Peninsular War. Former allies in the overrun of Portugal and France turned
against Spain. Napoleonic forces invaded Madrid without much difficulty and the painting
captures the dramatic demise of its people under a firing squad.

History, as a resource for artists in search of subjects, brings into consideration events that
are familiar and sometimes even common or shared in world context: the establishment of nations
and states (discovery, conquests, and colonization), and the resulting ideologies that they breed
(democracy, liberty, freedom, and rights). These works serve as documentary and
commemorative artworks that illustrate subjects such as important leaders and figures; events as
they were recorded to have happened: and representations of ideologies or values.

In the history of art, it is important to remember that the source and kind of subjects were
not merely a product of the artist's inclination and choice. A closer examination of the various art
movements and artworks created within those movements will indicate that notions of freedom
and independence, which are presumed to be enjoyed by artists, were not without limits or
restrictions. For instance, a particular kind of subject and the way it is visually translated may be
traced in relation to the art patrons (those who commission the artworks), the favored artistic
style and canons, and more importantly, the norms and trends prevailing in the artist's milieu.

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 During the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, art was predominantly
representational. During the first century of their dominance, art came as an aid for
communication a means of propagating religion to locals who spoke a different language. The
visual arts, from paintings to early sculptures such as santos and other votive figures and icons,
were created to assist Catholic ministry. Existing art and craft traditions persisted, with some
augmented and infused with foreign influences that were not limited to the Spanish culture
through contact.

The momentum that secular (or non-religious) art later gained in the nineteenth century can
also be attributed to this contact, with the opening of the Suez Canal and the growth of export
economy in agriculture. The consequence of these developments was the rise of the middle class.
With their new-found economic and social mobility, patrons of the art were no longer limited to
the clergy, but brought about a demand coming from these wealthy ilustrado families. Of interest
was the increase in demand for commissioned portraits (of an individual or an entire family),
finding it necessary to document themselves in light of their elevated status. Wearing the most
intricate and elaborate of garbs, significant adornments such as jewelry and embroidered
implements, among others, completed the intended narrative. This artistic trend cemented the
distinction of artists such as Simon Flores, Justiniano Ascuncion, and Antonio Malantic who
became the foremost portraitists of the time. Here, it is evident how during the Spanish colonial
period, the subjects of artworks, even the manner in which they are translated, were mostly
dictated by the patrons who commission them for religious and secular art.
____________________________________________________________________
Content in Art

As outlined in the beginning, in discussing works of art, the subject may simply be referred
to as the "what"-what is readily seen and relates to the artwork, its inspiration, and the many kinds
of translation. But apart from what is made explicit, to recognize and grasp the message of the
artwork, the viewer may sometimes need to go beyond what is visible. Why was the artwork
created in the first place? When this question is asked, we are after the meaning or message that
is expressed or communicated by the artwork. One of the foremost scholars that expounded on
content analysis or how meaning is arrived at is art historian Erwin Panofsky in his seminal work
Meaning in the Visual Arts (1983). His methodology will be later identified as Iconology through
the interpretation of iconography.

To take on the challenge of understanding the content of art, it must be reiterated that there
are various levels of meaning. Perhaps the most common is what we call factual meaning. This
pertains to the most rudimentary level of meaning for it may be extracted from the identifiable or
recognizable forms in the artwork and understanding how these elements relate to one another.
Conventional meaning, on the other hand, pertains to the acknowledged interpretation of the
artwork using motifs, signs, symbols and other cyphers as bases of its meaning. These conventions
are established through time, strengthened by recurrent use and wide acceptance by its viewers
or audience and scholars who study them.

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 Finally, when subjectivities are consulted, a variety of meaning may arise when a particular
work of art is read. These meanings stem from the viewer's or audience's circumstances that come
into play when engaging with art. When looking at a particular painting for example, perception
and meaning are always informed (and even colored) by a manifold of contexts: what we know,
what we learned; what we experienced; and the values we stand for. It is therefore expected that
meaning may not be singular, rather, a painting may communicate multiple meanings. to its many
viewers. This is what we call subjective meaning of art.

Figure 35. Michelangelo, "Creation of Adam" from the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

Michelangelo's "Creation of Adam" can be read using various levels of meaning previously
discussed. There, Adam is figured with an aged God, both of them with an arm stretched and their
respective index fingers appearing to be fixed at an impending contact. Apart from God who is
wearing a tunic, everyone else is in the nude. God is afloat, surrounded by drapery and figures
presumed to be angels and cherubs. Adam on the other hand is earth-bound, sitting and reclined,
positioned diagonally parallel to that of God. From a factual perspective, Michelangelo depicted a
scene from the Creation Story, in particular, the creation of man. Apart from being a key element
of Michelangelo's fresco at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the subject matter suggests that this is
an example of biblical art.

This work is indeed iconic, and this is asserted by the conventional meanings attached to it.
Here, the specific poses of God and Adam (convex and concave postures, respectively) allude to
the correspondence of the body and the commonly held belief that man was created in the image
and likeness of God. During this time, the ideals of humanism were underscored and the arts and
sciences were furthered.

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 It is therefore understandable that the classical canons of the form of the body (ideally
proportioned and muscular) are portrayed, especially by Michelangelo who was first and
foremost a sculptor. Here, the view is that the greatness of old civilizations such as that of the
Greeks and the Romans may not only be replicated, but even surpassed. Some art scholars noted
how Michelangelo exhibited just that-an elevated artistry in that the dynamism and energy of the
figures in the frescoes in the Sistine chapel are unlike the works of predecessors.

An interesting overlap between the conventional and subjective meanings is the proposal
from gynecologist Frank Lynn Meshberger, whose published essay appeared in the October 1990
issue of the Journal of American Medical Association. Written was his theory that an image and a
message were hidden in plain sight: how the silhouette of God, the shroud and the drapery that
trail behind, all seemingly align with the shape of the human brain. According to Meshberger, the
work can also be aptly called "The Endowment of Adam" for it brought to light that as God's
creation, the most important qualities imparted to man was intellect. Like most Renaissance
artists, Michelangelo unlocked the secrets and precision of human anatomy assisting in
dissections during his time. For Meshberger, it was with his medical background and perhaps
exposure to art and history that allow him to catch the symbol, hidden in Michelangelo's work.
____________________________________________________________________
Let's Wrap It Up

There is sense of panic when one is confounded with the question, "What am I seeing?" or
rather, "What am I supposed to see?" Perhaps, addressing this stigma is the first step in inviting
more Filipinos to engage with art and have a more enduring appreciation for it.

In gaining the basics of deciphering the subject and content of art, it is hoped that an
individual's sensitivity and perceptiveness to art will be developed. As was discussed in the
chapter, one may begin by looking at perceivable features of the artwork. Taking note of what is
apparent will provide clues as to what the intended meaning of the artist might be. Knowing more
about the context of its creation from the artist's inspiration, reference or source, will prove useful
in understanding the meaning of the artwork. However, one must forget that each viewer is armed
with his or her experience, background and education. These will assist in fleshing out different
levels of meaning that maybe derived from the artwork. These might not be as evident as say, the
figures depicted on the surface; however, these alternative readings contribute to the significance
of the artwork.

The majority of the public are consumers and not producers of art, and so ensuring the
readiness of the public to not only successfully engage with the art, but meaningfully do so, is the
primary function of art appreciation and education. Throughout this book, it is hoped that the
specialized language of art will unfold for the learning pleasure of the students, enabling the ease
and encouraging the predilection of engaging with art through its description, analysis,
interpretation, and even critique.

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____________________________________________________________________
Let's Work on This

1. What are the hurdles of accessing art in terms of its subject and content?

2. Where do artists source their subjects?

3. Name an example of an artwork and speculate on the content of the artwork based
on its factual, conventional, and subjective meanings.

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____________________________________________________________________
Let's Make it Happen

Watch the BBC documentary about Botticelli's Venus: The Making of an Icon.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b070sqb0). Write a reflection paper regarding the said
documentary.

____________________________________________________________________

References

Bambach, Carmen. (n.d.). "Anatomy in the Renaissance | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art
History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." In The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
Accessed October 27, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/
hd/anat/hd_anat.htm.

Becker, Rachel. (2016). "Does the Michelangelo Painting in the Westworld Finale Really Show
a Brainor Is It a Uterus?" In The Verge. December 6, 2016. Retrieved from
https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/6/13852240/westworld-finale-ford-dolores-
michelangelo-brain-creation-of-adam.

Google Cultural Institute. (n.d.). "Indian Miniature Paintings: The Rajasthan School - Google
Arts & Culture." Accessed October 18, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.
google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/exhibit/PgLSknKVvOF_JQ.

Guggenheim. (2010). "Vasily Kandinsky (1866-1944): Composition 8 (Composition 8).

Accessed December 6, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.guggenheim.org/arts-
curriculum/topic/vasily-kandinsky-composition-8.

Meshberger, Frank Lynn. (2011). "An Interpretation of Michelangelo's Creation of Adam Based
on Neuroanatomy." In Journal of American Medical Association 264, no. 14 (October 10, 1990):
1837-41. Accessed October 27, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.nsic.wustl.edu/
courses/bio3411/woolsey/2011/JAMA 1990-Meshberger-1837-41.pdf.

Museo Nacional Del Prado. (n.d.). "The 3rd of May 1808 in Madrid or 'The Executions' - The
Collection." Accessed October 19, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.
museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-3rd-of-may-1808-in-madrid-or the-
executions/5e177409-2993-4240-97fb-847a02c6496c.

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National Commission for Culture and the Arts. (n.d.). "The Spanish Colonial Tradition in
Philippine Visual Arts." Accessed October 26, 2017. Retrieved from http://ncca.
gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-arts/the-spanishcolonial-
tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/.

Panofsky, E. (1983). Meaning in the Visual Arts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Van Gogh Museum (1882). "Nature and the Artist." Accessed October 18, 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/stories/nature-and-the-artist.

Victoria and Albert Museum. (2012). "Gothic Architecture." December 10, 2012. Retrieved
from http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/g/gothic-architecture/.

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