List of Mathematical Symbols

List of mathematical symbols 1
List of mathematical symbols

This is a listing of common symbols found within all branches of mathematics. Symbols are used in maths to express
a formula or to replace a constant. Each symbol is listed in both HTML, which depends on appropriate fonts being
installed, and in TeX, as an image.
This list is incomplete.
Symbols
SymbolSymbolName Explanation Examples

in in Read as
HTML TeX
Category
equality x = y means x and y represent the same thing 2 = 2

= is equal to; or value. 1 + 1 = 2
equals
everywhere
≠ inequality
is not equal to;
x ≠ y means that x and y do not represent the 2 + 2 ≠ 5
same thing or value.
does not equal (The forms !=, /= or <> are generally used in
programming languages where ease of
everywhere
typing and use of ASCII text is preferred.)
strict inequality x < y means x is less than y. 3 < 4

< is less than, x > y means x is greater than y. 5 > 4
> is greater than

order theory
proper subgroup H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G. 5Z < Z

is a proper subgroup of A3 < S3
group theory
≪ (very) strict inequality

is much less than,
x ≪ y means x is much less than y.
x ≫ y means x is much greater than y.
0.003 ≪ 1000000
≫ is much greater than

order theory
asymptotic comparison f ≪ g means the growth of f is x ≪ ex

is of smaller order than, asymptotically bounded by g.
is of greater order than (This is I. M. Vinogradov's notation. Another
notation is the Big O notation, which looks
analytic number theory
like f = O(g).)
≤ inequality
is less than or equal to,
x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.
x ≥ y means x is greater than or equal to y.
3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
≥ is greater than or equal to (The forms <= and >= are generally used in
programming languages where ease of
order theory
subgroup H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G. Z ≤ Z

is a subgroup of A3 ≤ S3
group theory
reduction A ≤ B means the problem A can be reduced If

is reducible to to the problem B. Subscripts can be added to
the ≤ to indicate what kind of reduction.
computational complexity then
theory
≺ Karp reduction
is Karp reducible to;
L1 ≺ L2 means that the problem L1 is Karp
reducible to L2.
[1]
If L1 ≺ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
is polynomial-time
many-one reducible to
computational complexity
theory
∝ proportionality
is proportional to;
y ∝ x means that y = kx for some constant k. if y = 2x, then y ∝ x.
varies as
everywhere
[2] A ∝ B means the problem A can be If L1 ∝ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
Karp reduction
polynomially reduced to the problem B.
is Karp reducible to;
is polynomial-time
many-one reducible to
computational complexity
theory
addition 4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9

+ plus;
add
arithmetic
disjoint union A1 + A2 means the disjoint union of sets A1 A1 = {3, 4, 5, 6} ∧ A2 = {7, 8, 9, 10} ⇒
the disjoint union of ... and and A2. A1 + A2 = {(3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (6,1), (7,2), (8,2), (9,2),
... (10,2)}
set theory
− subtraction
minus;
9 − 4 means the subtraction of 4 from 9. 8−3=5
take;
subtract
arithmetic
negative sign −3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5

negative;
minus;
the opposite of
arithmetic
set-theoretic complement A − B means the set that contains all the {1,2,4} − {1,3,4} = {2}
minus; elements of A that are not in B.
without (∖ can also be used for set-theoretic
complement as described below.)
set theory
plus-minus 6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 − 3. The equation x = 5 ± √4, has two solutions, x = 7 and x =
± plus or minus 3.
arithmetic
plus-minus 10 ± 2 or equivalently 10 ± 20% means the If a = 100 ± 1 mm, then a ≥ 99 mm and a ≤ 101 mm.
plus or minus range from 10 − 2 to 10 + 2.
measurement
∓ minus-plus
minus or plus
6 ± (3 ∓ 5) means both 6 + (3 − 5) and 6 −
(3 + 5).
cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(x) sin(y).
arithmetic
multiplication 3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 × 8 = 56

× times; (The symbol * is generally used in
multiplied by programming languages, where ease of
arithmetic
Cartesian product X×Y means the set of all ordered pairs with {1,2} × {3,4} = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}
the Cartesian product of ... the first element of each pair selected from X
and ...; and the second element selected from Y.
the direct product of ... and
...
set theory
cross product u × v means the cross product of vectors u (1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =

cross and v (−22, 16, − 2)
linear algebra
group of units R× consists of the set of units of the ring R,

the group of units of along with the operation of multiplication.
ring theory This may also be written R* as described
below, or U(R).
multiplication a * b means the product of a and b. 4 * 3 means the product of 4 and 3, or 12.
* times; (Multiplication can also be denoted with ×
multiplied by or ⋅, or even simple juxtaposition. * is
generally used where ease of typing and use
arithmetic
of ASCII text is preferred, such as
programming languages.)
convolution f * g means the convolution of f and g.

.
convolution;
convolved with
functional analysis
complex conjugate z* means the complex conjugate of z. .

conjugate ( can also be used for the conjugate of z,
as described below.)
complex numbers
group of units R* consists of the set of units of the ring R,

the group of units of along with the operation of multiplication.
×
ring theory This may also be written R as described
above, or U(R).
hyperreal numbers *R means the set of hyperreal numbers. *N is the hypernatural numbers.
the (set of) hyperreals Other sets can be used in place of R.
non-standard analysis
Hodge dual *v means the Hodge dual of a vector v. If v is If are the standard basis vectors of ,
Hodge dual; a k-vector within an n-dimensional oriented
Hodge star inner product space, then *v is an
(n−k)-vector.
linear algebra
multiplication 3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 · 8 = 56

· times;
multiplied by
arithmetic
dot product u · v means the dot product of vectors u and (1,2,5) · (3,4,−1) = 6
dot v
linear algebra
placeholder A · means a placeholder for an argument

(silent) of a function. Indicates the functional nature
of an expression without assigning a specific
functional analysis
symbol for an argument.
⊗ tensor product, tensor

product of modules
U.
[3]
means the tensor product of V and
means the tensor product of
{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊗ {1, 1, 2} =
tensor product of modules V and U over the ring R.

linear algebra
division (Obelus) 6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of 6 by 3. 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5

÷ divided by; 12 ⁄ 4 = 3
⁄ over
arithmetic
quotient group G / H means the quotient of group G modulo {0, a, 2a, b, b+a, b+2a} / {0, b} = {{0, b}, {a, b+a},
mod its subgroup H. {2a, b+2a}}
group theory
quotient set A/~ means the set of all ~ equivalence If we define ~ by x ~ y ⇔ x − y ∈ ℤ, then
mod classes in A. ℝ/~ = { {x + n : n ∈ ℤ } : x ∈ [0,1) }
set theory
√ square root
the (principal) square root
means the nonnegative number whose
square is .
of
real numbers
complex square root if is represented in polar

the (complex) square root coordinates with , then
of .
complex numbers
mean (often read as “x bar”) is the mean .

x overbar; (average value of ).
… bar
statistics
complex conjugate means the complex conjugate of z. .

conjugate (z* can also be used for the conjugate of z,
as described above.)
complex numbers
finite sequence, tuple means the finite sequence/tuple .

finite sequence, tuple .
model theory
algebraic closure is the algebraic closure of the field F. The field of algebraic numbers is sometimes denoted as
algebraic closure of because it is the algebraic closure of the rational
numbers .
field theory
topological closure is the topological closure of the set S. In the space of the real numbers, (the rational
(topological) closure of This may also be denoted as cl(S) or Cl(S). numbers are dense in the real numbers).
topology
absolute value; |x| means the distance along the real line (or |3| = 3
|…| modulus across the complex plane) between x and |–5| = |5| = 5
absolute value of; modulus zero. | i | = 1
of | 3 + 4i | = 5
numbers
Euclidean norm or |x| means the (Euclidean) length of vector x. For x = (3,-4)
Euclidean length or
magnitude
Euclidean norm of
geometry
determinant |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

determinant of
matrix theory
cardinality |X| means the cardinality of the set X. |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.

cardinality of; (# may be used instead as described below.)
size of;
order of
set theory
norm || x + y || ≤ || x || + || y ||

||…|| norm of;
|| x || means the norm of the element x of a
normed vector space.
[4]
length of
linear algebra
nearest integer function ||x|| means the nearest integer to x. ||1|| = 1, ||1.6|| = 2, ||−2.4|| = −2, ||3.49|| = 3
nearest integer to (This may also be written [x], ⌊x⌉, nint(x) or
Round(x).)
numbers
∣ divisor, divides
divides
a|b means a divides b.
a∤b means a does not divide b.
Since 15 = 3×5, it is true that 3|15 and 5|15.
∤ number theory
(This symbol can be difficult to type, and its
negation is rare, so a regular but slightly
shorter vertical bar | character can be used.)
conditional probability P(A|B) means the probability of the event a if X is a uniformly random day of the year P(X is May
given occurring given that b occurs. 25 | X is in May) = 1/31
probability
restriction f|A means the function f restricted to the set The function f : R → R defined by f(x) = x2 is not
restriction of … to …; A, that is, it is the function with domain injective, but f|R+ is injective.
restricted to A ∩ dom(f) that agrees with f.
set theory
such that | means “such that”, see ":" (described S = {(x,y) | 0 < y < f(x)}
such that; below). The set of (x,y) such that y is greater than 0 and less than
so that f(x).
everywhere
parallel x || y means x is parallel to y. If l || m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n.

|| is parallel to
geometry
incomparability x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.

is incomparable to
order theory
exact divisibility pa || n means pa exactly divides n (i.e. pa 23 || 360.

exactly divides divides n but pa+1 does not).
number theory
cardinality #X means the cardinality of the set X. #{4, 6, 8} = 3

# cardinality of; (|…| may be used instead as described
size of; above.)
order of
set theory
connected sum A#B is the connected sum of the manifolds A A#Sm is homeomorphic to A, for any manifold A, and the
connected sum of; and B. If A and B are knots, then this denotes sphere Sm.
knot sum of; the knot sum, which has a slightly stronger
knot composition of condition.
topology, knot theory
primorial n# is product of all prime numbers less than 12# = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 = 2310

primorial or equal to n.
number theory
ℵ aleph number
aleph
ℵα represents an infinite cardinality
(specifically, the α-th one, where α is an
|ℕ| = ℵ0, which is called aleph-null.
ordinal).
set theory
ℶ beth number
beth
ℶα represents an infinite cardinality (similar
to ℵ, but ℶ does not necessarily index all of
the numbers indexed by ℵ. ).
set theory
刀 cardinality of the
continuum
The cardinality of is denoted by
by the symbol (a lowercase Fraktur letter
or
cardinality of the C).

continuum;
c;
cardinality of the real
numbers
set theory
such that : means “such that”, and is used in proofs and ∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
: such that; the set-builder notation (described below).
so that
everywhere
field extension K : F means the field K extends the field F. ℝ:ℚ

extends; This may also be written as K ≥ F.
over
field theory
inner product of matrices A : B means the Frobenius inner product of

inner product of the matrices A and B.
The general inner product is denoted by
linear algebra
⟨u, v⟩, ⟨u | v⟩ or (u | v), as described below.
For spatial vectors, the dot product notation,
x·y is common. See also Bra-ket notation.
index of a subgroup The index of a subgroup H in a group G is

index of subgroup the "relative size" of H in G: equivalently,
the number of "copies" (cosets) of H that fill
group theory
up G
factorial n! means the product 1 × 2 × ... × n. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24

! factorial
combinatorics
logical negation The statement !A is true if and only if A is !(!A) ⇔ A

not false. x ≠ y ⇔ !(x = y)
A slash placed through another operator is
propositional logic
the same as "!" placed in front.
(The symbol ! is primarily from computer
science. It is avoided in mathematical texts,
where the notation ¬A is preferred.)
probability distribution X ~ D, means the random variable X has the X ~ N(0,1), the standard normal distribution
~ has distribution probability distribution D.
statistics
row equivalence A~B means that B can be generated by using

is row equivalent to a series of elementary row operations on A
matrix theory
same order of magnitude m ~ n means the quantities m and n have the 2 ~ 5
roughly similar; same order of magnitude, or general size. 8 × 9 ~ 100
(Note that ~ is used for an approximation
poorly approximates but π2 ≈ 10
that is poor, otherwise use ≈ .)
approximation theory
asymptotically equivalent x ~ x+1

f ~ g means .
is asymptotically
equivalent to
asymptotic analysis
equivalence relation a ~ b means (and equivalently 1 ~ 5 mod 4

are in the same ).
equivalence class
everywhere
≈ approximately equal
is approximately equal to
x ≈ y means x is approximately equal to y.
This may also be written ≃, ≅, ~, ♎ (Libra
π ≈ 3.14159
Symbol), or ≒.
everywhere
isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is isomorphic Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,

is isomorphic to (structurally identical) to group H. where Q is the quaternion group and V is the Klein
(≅ can also be used for isomorphic, as four-group.
group theory
described below.)
≀ wreath product A ≀ H means the wreath product of the group

wreath product of … by … A by the group H.
is isomorphic to the automorphism group of
the complete bipartite graph on (n,n) vertices.
This may also be written A wr H.
group theory
normal subgroup N ◅ G means that N is a normal subgroup of Z(G) ◅ G

◅ is a normal subgroup of group G.
▻ group theory
ideal I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring R. (2) ◅ Z

is an ideal of
ring theory
antijoin R ▻ S means the antijoin of the relations R R S=R-R S

the antijoin of and S, the tuples in R for which there is not a
tuple in S that is equal on their common
relational algebra
attribute names.
⋉ semidirect product
the semidirect product of
N ⋊φ H is the semidirect product of N (a
normal subgroup) and H (a subgroup), with
⋊ group theory
respect to φ. Also, if G = N ⋊φ H, then G is
said to split over N.
(⋊ may also be written the other way round,
as ⋉, or as ×.)
semijoin R ⋉ S is the semijoin of the relations R and S, R S= 1,..,an(R S)

a
the semijoin of the set of all tuples in R for which there is a
tuple in S that is equal on their common
relational algebra
attribute names.
⋈ natural join
the natural join of
R ⋈ S is the natural join of the relations R
and S, the set of all combinations of tuples in
R and S that are equal on their common
relational algebra
attribute names.
∴ therefore
therefore;
Sometimes used in proofs before logical
consequences.
All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. ∴ Socrates
is mortal.
so;
hence
everywhere
∵ because
because;
Sometimes used in proofs before reasoning. 3331 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer factors other
than itself and one.
since
everywhere
end of proof Used to mark the end of a proof.

■ QED; (May also be written Q.E.D.)
□ tombstone;
∎
Halmos symbol
everywhere
▮ D'Alembertian It is the generalisation of the Laplace
‣ non-Euclidean Laplacian operator in the sense that it is the differential

operator which is invariant under the
vector calculus
isometry group of the underlying space and
it reduces to the Laplace operator if
restricted to time independent functions.
⇒ material implication
implies;
A ⇒ B means if A is true then B is also true; x = 2 ⇒ x2 = 4 is true, but x2 = 4 ⇒ x = 2 is in general
false (since x could be −2).
→
if A is false then nothing is said about B.
if … then (→ may mean the same as ⇒, or it may have
⊃ propositional logic, the meaning for functions given below.)

[5]
Heyting algebra (⊃ may mean the same as ⇒, or it may
have the meaning for superset given below.)
⇔ material equivalence
if and only if;
A ⇔ B means A is true if B is true and A is
false if B is false.
x + 5 = y + 2 ⇔ x + 3 = y
↔ iff
propositional logic
logical negation The statement ¬A is true if and only if A is ¬(¬A) ⇔ A

¬ not false. x ≠ y ⇔ ¬(x = y)
˜ propositional logic
A slash placed through another operator is
the same as "¬" placed in front.
(The symbol ~ has many other uses, so ¬ or
the slash notation is preferred. Computer
scientists will often use ! but this is avoided
in mathematical texts.)
∧ logical conjunction or
meet in a lattice
The statement A ∧ B is true if A and B are
both true; else it is false.
n < 4 ∧ n >2 ⇔ n = 3 when n is a natural number.
and; For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∧ B(x) is

min; used to mean min(A(x), B(x)).
meet
propositional logic, lattice
theory
wedge product u ∧ v means the wedge product of any

wedge product; multivectors u and v. In three dimensional
exterior product Euclidean space the wedge product and the
cross product of two vectors are each other's
exterior algebra
Hodge dual.
exponentiation a ^ b means a raised to the power of b 2^3 = 23 = 8

… (raised) to the power of (a ^ b is more commonly written ab. The
… symbol ^ is generally used in programming
everywhere languages where ease of typing and use of
plain ASCII text is preferred.)
∨ logical disjunction or join

in a lattice
The statement A ∨ B is true if A or B (or
both) are true; if both are false, the statement
n ≥ 4 ∨ n ≤ 2 ⇔ n ≠ 3 when n is a natural number.
or; is false.
max; For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∨ B(x) is
join used to mean max(A(x), B(x)).
propositional logic, lattice

theory
⊕ exclusive or
xor
The statement A ⊕ B is true when either A or (¬A) ⊕ A is always true, A ⊕ A is always false.
B, but not both, are true. A ⊻ B means the
⊻ propositional logic,
same.
Boolean algebra
direct sum The direct sum is a special way of Most commonly, for vector spaces U, V, and W, the
direct sum of combining several objects into one general following consequence is used:
object. U = V ⊕ W ⇔ (U = V + W) ∧ (V ∩ W = {0})
abstract algebra
(The bun symbol ⊕, or the coproduct symbol
∐, is used; ⊻ is only for logic.)
∀ universal quantification
for all;
∀ x: P(x) means P(x) is true for all x. ∀ n ∈ ℕ: n2 ≥ n.
for any;
for each
predicate logic
∃ existential quantification
there exists;
∃ x: P(x) means there is at least one x such
that P(x) is true.
∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
there is;
there are
predicate logic
∃! uniqueness quantification
there exists exactly one
∃! x: P(x) means there is exactly one x such
that P(x) is true.
∃! n ∈ ℕ: n + 5 = 2n.
predicate logic
definition x := y, y =: x or x ≡ y means x is defined to

=: is defined as; be another name for y, under certain
:= is equal by definition to assumptions taken in context.

(Some writers use ≡ to mean congruence).
≡ everywhere
P :⇔ Q means P is defined to be logically
equivalent to Q.
:⇔
≜
≝
≐
≅ congruence
is congruent to
△ABC ≅ △DEF means triangle ABC is
congruent to (has the same measurements as)
triangle DEF.
geometry
isomorphic G ≅ H means that group G is isomorphic .

is isomorphic to (structurally identical) to group H.
(≈ can also be used for isomorphic, as
abstract algebra
described above.)
≡ congruence relation
... is congruent to ...
a ≡ b (mod n) means a − b is divisible by n 5 ≡ 2 (mod 3)
modulo ...
modular arithmetic
set brackets ℕ = { 1, 2, 3, …}

{ , } the set of …
{a,b,c} means the set consisting of a, b, and
c.
[6]
set theory
set builder notation

{ : } the set of … such that
{x : P(x)} means the set of all x for which
[6]
P(x) is true. {x | P(x)} is the same as {x :
{n ∈ ℕ : n2 < 20} = { 1, 2, 3, 4}
{ | } set theory P(x)}.
{ ; }
∅ empty set [6]
∅ means the set with no elements. { } {n ∈ ℕ : 1 < n2 < 4} = ∅
the empty set means the same.
{ } set theory
∈
[6]
(1/2)−1 ∈ ℕ
set membership a ∈ S means a is an element of the set S;
[6]
is an element of; 2−1 ∉ ℕ
∉
a ∉ S means a is not an element of S.
is not an element of
everywhere, set theory
⊆ subset
is a subset of
(subset) A ⊆ B means every element of A is
[7]
(A ∩ B) ⊆ A
ℕ ⊂ ℚ
⊂
also an element of B.
ℚ ⊂ ℝ
set theory (proper subset) A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B but
A ≠ B.
(Some writers use the symbol ⊂ as if it were
the same as ⊆.)
⊇ superset
is a superset of
A ⊇ B means every element of B is also an
element of A.
(A ∪ B) ⊇ B
ℝ ⊃ ℚ
⊃ set theory
A ⊃ B means A ⊇ B but A ≠ B.
(Some writers use the symbol ⊃ as if it were
the same as ⊇.)
∪ set-theoretic union
the union of … or …;
A ∪ B means the set of those elements which A ⊆ B ⇔ (A ∪ B) = B
are either in A, or in B, or in both.
[7]
union
set theory
∩ set-theoretic intersection
intersected with;
A ∩ B means the set that contains all those
elements that A and B have in common.
[7]
{x ∈ ℝ : x2 = 1} ∩ ℕ = {1}
intersect
set theory
∆ symmetric difference
symmetric difference
A ∆ B means the set of elements in exactly
one of A or B.
{1,5,6,8} ∆ {2,5,8} = {1,2,6}
(Not to be confused with delta, Δ, described

set theory
below.)
∖ set-theoretic complement
minus;
A ∖ B means the set that contains all those
elements of A that are not in B.
[7]
{1,2,3,4} ∖ {3,4,5,6} = {1,2}
without (− can also be used for set-theoretic

set theory complement as described above.)
→ function arrow
from … to
f: X → Y means the function f maps the set X Let f: ℤ → ℕ∪{0} be defined by f(x) := x2.
into the set Y.
set theory, type theory

↦ function arrow
maps to
f: a ↦ b means the function f maps the
element a to the element b.
Let f: x ↦ x+1 (the successor function).
set theory
∘ function composition
composed with
f∘g is the function, such that (f∘g)(x) =
f(g(x)).
[8]
if f(x) := 2x, and g(x) := x + 3, then (f∘g)(x) = 2(x + 3).
set theory
Hadamard product For two matrices (or vectors) of the same

o entrywise product dimensions the Hadamard
product is a matrix of the same dimensions
linear algebra
with elements given by
. This is
often used in matrix based programming
such as MATLAB where the operation is
done by A.*B
ℕ natural numbers
N;
N means either { 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or { 1, 2, 3,
...}.
ℕ = {|a| : a ∈ ℤ} or ℕ = {|a| > 0: a ∈ ℤ}
N the (set of) natural

numbers
The choice depends on the area of
mathematics being studied; e.g. number
theorists prefer the latter; analysts, set
numbers
theorists and computer scientists prefer the
former. To avoid confusion, always check an
author's definition of N.
Set theorists often use the notation ω (for
least infinite ordinal) to denote the set of
natural numbers (including zero), along with
the standard ordering relation ≤.
ℤ integers
Z;
ℤ means {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. ℤ+ or
ℤ> means {1, 2, 3, ...} . ℤ* or ℤ≥ means {0, 1,
ℤ = {p, −p : p ∈ ℕ ∪ {0} }
Z the (set of) integers 2, 3, ...} .

numbers
ℤn integers mod n
Zn;
ℤn means {[0], [1], [2], ...[n−1]} with
addition and multiplication modulo n.
ℤ3 = {[0], [1], [2]}
ℤp the (set of) integers

modulo n
Note that any letter may be used instead of n,
such as p. To avoid confusion with p-adic
Zn numbers
numbers, use ℤ/pℤ or ℤ/(p) instead.
Zp p-adic integers Note that any letter may be used instead of p,

the (set of) p-adic integers such as n or l.
numbers
ℙ projective space
P;
ℙ means a space with a point at infinity. ,
P the projective space;

the projective line;
the projective plane
topology
probability ℙ(X) means the probability of the event X If a fair coin is flipped, ℙ(Heads) = ℙ(Tails) = 0.5.
the probability of occurring.
This may also be written as P(X), Pr(X), P[X]
probability theory
or Pr[X].
ℚ rational numbers
Q;
ℚ means {p/q : p ∈ ℤ, q ∈ ℕ}. 3.14000... ∈ ℚ
π ∉ ℚ
Q the (set of) rational

numbers;
the rationals
numbers
ℝ real numbers
R;
ℝ means the set of real numbers. π ∈ ℝ
√(−1) ∉ ℝ
R the (set of) real numbers;

the reals
numbers
ℂ complex numbers
C;
ℂ means {a + b i : a,b ∈ ℝ}. i = √(−1) ∈ ℂ
C the (set of) complex

numbers
numbers
ℍ quaternions or
Hamiltonian quaternions
ℍ means {a + b i + c j + d k : a,b,c,d ∈ ℝ}.
H H;
the (set of) quaternions
numbers
Big O notation The Big O notation describes the limiting

O big-oh of behavior of a function, when the argument
If f(x) = 6x4 − 2x3 + 5 and g(x) = x4 , then
tends towards a particular value or infinity.

Computational complexity
theory
∞ infinity
infinity
∞ is an element of the extended number line
that is greater than all real numbers; it often
occurs in limits.
numbers
⌊…⌋ floor
floor;
⌊x⌋ means the floor of x, i.e. the largest
integer less than or equal to x.
⌊4⌋ = 4, ⌊2.1⌋ = 2, ⌊2.9⌋ = 2, ⌊−2.6⌋ = −3
greatest integer; (This may also be written [x], floor(x) or

entier int(x).)
numbers
⌈…⌉ ceiling
ceiling
⌈x⌉ means the ceiling of x, i.e. the smallest
integer greater than or equal to x.
⌈4⌉ = 4, ⌈2.1⌉ = 3, ⌈2.9⌉ = 3, ⌈−2.6⌉ = −2
(This may also be written ceil(x) or

numbers
ceiling(x).)
⌊…⌉ nearest integer function

nearest integer to
⌊x⌉ means the nearest integer to x.
(This may also be written [x], ||x||, nint(x) or
⌊2⌉ = 2, ⌊2.6⌉ = 3, ⌊-3.4⌉ = -3, ⌊4.49⌉ = 4
Round(x).)
numbers
degree of a field extension [K : F] means the degree of the extension K : [ℚ(√2) : ℚ] = 2

[ : ] the degree of F. [ℂ : ℝ] = 2
[ℝ : ℚ] = ∞
field theory
equivalence class [a] means the equivalence class of a, i.e. {x : Let a ~ b be true iff a ≡ b (mod 5). Then [2] = {…, −8,
[ ] the equivalence class of x ~ a}, where ~ is an equivalence relation. −3, 2, 7, …}.
[ , ] abstract algebra

[a]R means the same, but with R as the
equivalence relation.
[ , , ] floor [x] means the floor of x, i.e. the largest [3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.99] = 3, [−3.7] = −4
floor; integer less than or equal to x.
greatest integer; (This may also be written ⌊x⌋, floor(x) or
entier int(x). Not to be confused with the nearest
integer function, as described below.)
numbers
nearest integer function [x] means the nearest integer to x. [2] = 2, [2.6] = 3, [-3.4] = -3, [4.49] = 4
nearest integer to (This may also be written ⌊x⌉, ||x||, nint(x) or
Round(x). Not to be confused with the floor
numbers
function, as described above.)
Iverson bracket [S] maps a true statement S to 1 and a false [0=5]=0, [7>0]=1, [2 ∈ {2,3,4}]=1, [5 ∈ {2,3,4}]=0
1 if true, 0 otherwise statement S to 0.
propositional logic
image f[X] means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the

image of … under … function f under the set X ⊆ dom(f).
(This may also be written as f(X) if there is
everywhere
no risk of confusing the image of f under X
with the function application f of X. Another
notation is Im f, the image of f under its
domain.)
closed interval . 0 and 1/2 are in the interval [0,1].

closed interval
order theory
[g, h] = g−1h−1gh (or ghg−1h−1), if g, h ∈ G

commutator xy = x[x, y] (group theory).
the commutator of (a group). [AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B (ring theory).
group theory, ring theory [a, b] = ab − ba, if a, b ∈ R (a ring or
commutative algebra).
triple scalar product [a, b, c] = a × b · c, the scalar product of [a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b].
the triple scalar product of a × b with c.
vector calculus
function application f(x) means the value of the function f at the

( ) of element x.
If f(x) := x2, then f(3) = 32 = 9.
(,) set theory
image f(X) means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the

image of … under … function f under the set X ⊆ dom(f).
(This may also be written as f[X] if there is a
everywhere
risk of confusing the image of f under X with
the function application f of X. Another
notation is Im f, the image of f under its
domain.)
combinations
(from) n choose r means the number of combinations of
combinatorics r elements drawn from a set of n elements.

(This may also be written as nCr.)
precedence grouping Perform the operations inside the (8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1, but 8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.
parentheses parentheses first.
everywhere
tuple An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal (a, b) is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
tuple; n-tuple; vector, or row vector) of values. (Note that (a, b, c) is an ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
ordered pair/triple/etc; the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could be
( ) is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
row vector; sequence an ordered pair or an open interval. Set
theorists and computer scientists often use
everywhere
angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ instead of parentheses.)
highest common factor (a, b) means the highest common factor of a (3, 7) = 1 (they are coprime); (15, 25) = 5.
highest common factor; and b.
greatest common divisor; (This may also be written hcf(a, b) or gcd(a,
hcf; gcd b).)
number theory
open interval 4 is not in the interval (4, 18). (0, +∞) equals the set of
( , ) open interval
. (Note
that the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could positive real numbers.
] , [ order theory be an ordered pair or an open interval. The

notation ]a,b[ can be used instead.)
multichoose
(( )) multichoose
means n multichoose x.
combinatorics
left-open interval (−1, 7] and (−∞, −1]

( , ] half-open interval;
.
] , ] left-open interval

order theory
right-open interval [4, 18) and [1, +∞)

[ , ) half-open interval;
.
[ , [ right-open interval

order theory
⟨⟩ inner product
inner product of
⟨u,v⟩ means the inner product of u and v,
where u and v are members of an inner
The standard inner product between two vectors
x = (2, 3) and y = (−1, 5) is:
⟨,⟩ linear algebra

product space.
Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be
⟨x, y⟩ = 2 × −1 + 3 × 5 = 13
ambiguous: it could mean the inner product

or the linear span.
There are many variants of the notation,
such as ⟨u | v⟩ and (u | v), which are
described below. For spatial vectors, the dot
product notation, x·y is common. For
matrices, the colon notation A : B may be
used. As ⟨ and ⟩ can be hard to type, the
more “keyboard friendly” forms < and > are
sometimes seen. These are avoided in
mathematical texts.
average let S be a subset of N for example, for a time series :g(t) (t = 1, 2,...) we can define the
average of represents the average of all the element in structure functions Sq( ):
statistics S.
linear span ⟨S⟩ means the span of S ⊆ V. That is, it is the

.
(linear) span of; intersection of all subspaces of V which
linear hull of contain S.
⟨u1, u2, …⟩is shorthand for ⟨{u1, u2, …}⟩.
linear algebra
Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be
ambiguous: it could mean the inner product
or the linear span.
The span of S may also be written as Sp(S).
subgroup generated by a means the smallest subgroup of G In S3, and

set (where S ⊆ G, a group) containing every .
the subgroup generated by element of S.
group theory is shorthand for
.
tuple An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple). is an
tuple; n-tuple; vector, or row vector) of values. (The ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
ordered pair/triple/etc; notation (a,b) is often used as well.)
is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
row vector; sequence
everywhere
⟨|⟩ inner product

inner product of
⟨u | v⟩ means the inner product of u and v,
where u and v are members of an inner
(|) [9]
linear algebra product space. (u | v) means the same.
Another variant of the notation is ⟨u, v⟩
which is described above. For spatial
vectors, the dot product notation, x·y is
common. For matrices, the colon notation
A : B may be used. As ⟨ and ⟩ can be hard to
type, the more “keyboard friendly” forms <
and > are sometimes seen. These are
avoided in mathematical texts.
ket vector |φ⟩ means the vector with label φ, which is

|⟩ the ket …; in a Hilbert space.
A qubit's state can be represented as α|0⟩+ β|1⟩, where α
and β are complex numbers s.t. |α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
the vector …
Dirac notation
⟨| bra vector
the bra …;
⟨φ| means the dual of the vector |φ⟩, a linear
functional which maps a ket |ψ⟩ onto the
the dual of … inner product ⟨φ|ψ⟩.
Dirac notation
∑ summation
sum over … from … to …
means a1 + a2 + … + an.
= 12 + 22 + 32 + 42
of
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30
arithmetic
∏ product
product over … from … to
means a1a2···an. = (1+2)(2+2)(3+2)(4+2)
… of = 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 360

arithmetic
Cartesian product
means the set of all (n+1)-tuples
the Cartesian product of;
the direct product of (y0, …, yn).
set theory
∐ coproduct A general construction which subsumes the

coproduct over … from … disjoint union of sets and of topological
to … of spaces, the free product of groups, and the
direct sum of modules and vector spaces.
category theory
The coproduct of a family of objects is
essentially the "least specific" object to
which each object in the family admits a
morphism.
delta Δx means a (non-infinitesimal) change in x.

Δ delta; (If the change becomes infinitesimal, δ and
is the gradient of a straight line
change in even d are used instead. Not to be confused

with the symmetric difference, written ∆,
calculus
above.)
Laplacian The Laplace operator is a second order If ƒ is a twice-differentiable real-valued function, then
Laplace operator differential operator in n-dimensional the Laplacian of ƒ is defined by
Euclidean space
vector calculus
Dirac delta function δ(x)

δ Dirac delta of
hyperfunction
Kronecker delta δij

Kronecker delta of
hyperfunction
∂ partial derivative
partial;
∂f/∂xi means the partial derivative of f with
respect to xi, where f is a function on (x1, …,
If f(x,y) := x2y, then ∂f/∂x = 2xy
d xn).
calculus
boundary ∂M means the boundary of M ∂{x : ||x|| ≤ 2} = {x : ||x|| = 2}

boundary of
topology
degree of a polynomial ∂f means the degree of the polynomial f. ∂(x2 − 1) = 2

degree of (This may also be written deg f.)
algebra
∇ gradient
del;
∇f (x1, …, xn) is the vector of partial
derivatives (∂f / ∂x1, …, ∂f / ∂xn).
If f (x,y,z) := 3xy + z², then ∇f = (3y, 3x, 2z)
nabla;
gradient of
vector calculus
divergence If , then
del dot; .
divergence of
vector calculus
curl If , then
curl of .
vector calculus
′ derivative
… prime;
f ′(x) means the derivative of the function f at If f(x) := x2, then f ′(x) = 2x
the point x, i.e., the slope of the tangent to f
derivative of at x.
(The single-quote character ' is sometimes
calculus
used instead, especially in ASCII text.)
derivative means the derivative of x with respect to

• … dot; time. That is .
If x(t) := t2, then .
time derivative of
calculus
∫ indefinite integral or
antiderivative
∫ f(x) dx means a function whose derivative
is f.
∫x2 dx = x3/3 + C
indefinite integral of
the antiderivative of
calculus
definite integral ∫ab f(x) dx means the signed area between ∫ab x2 dx = b3/3 − a3/3;
integral from … to … of the x-axis and the graph of the function f
… with respect to between x = a and x = b.
calculus
line integral ∫C f ds means the integral of f along the

line/ path/ curve/ integral curve C, , where r is
of… along… a parametrization of C.
calculus (If the curve is closed, the symbol ∮ may be
used instead, as described below.)
∮ Contour integral;
closed line integral
Similar to the integral, but used to denote a
single integration over a closed curve or
If C is a Jordan curve about 0, then .
contour integral of loop. It is sometimes used in physics texts

involving equations regarding Gauss's Law,
calculus
and while these formulas involve a closed
surface integral, the representations describe
only the first integration of the volume over
the enclosing surface. Instances where the
latter requires simultaneous double
integration, the symbol ∯ would be more
appropriate. A third related symbol is the
closed volume integral, denoted by the
symbol ∰. The contour integral can also
frequently be found with a subscript capital
letter C, ∮C, denoting that a closed loop
integral is, in fact, around a contour C, or
sometimes dually appropriately, a circle C.
In representations of Gauss's Law, a
subscript capital S, ∮S, is used to denote that
the integration is over a closed surface.
projection
π Projection of
restricts to the
attribute set.
relational algebra
Pi Used in various formulas involving circles; A=πR2=314.16→R=10

pi; π is equivalent to the amount of area a circle
3.1415926; would take up in a square of equal width
≈22÷7 with an area of 4 square units, roughly
3.14/4. It is also the ratio of the
mathematical constant
circumference to the diameter of a circle.
selection
σ Selection of
The selection
tuples in
selects all those
for which holds between the
relational algebra and the attribute. The selection
selects all those tuples in for
which holds between the attribute and
the value .
cover x <• y means that x is covered by y. {1, 8} <• {1, 3, 8} among the subsets of {1, 2, …, 10}
<: is covered by ordered by containment.
<· order theory
subtype T1 <: T2 means that T1 is a subtype of T2. If S <: T and T <: U then S <: U (transitivity).
is a subtype of
type theory
A† means the transpose of the complex If A = (aij) then A† = (aji).

conjugate transpose
† conjugate transpose; conjugate of A.
[10]
adjoint; This may also be written A*T, AT*, A*, AT or

Hermitian AT.
adjoint/conjugate/transpose
matrix operations
transpose AT means A, but with its rows swapped for If A = (aij) then AT = (aji).
T transpose columns.
' t tr
matrix operations This may also be written A , A or A .
⊤ top element
the top element
⊤ means the largest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∨ ⊤ = ⊤
lattice theory
top type ⊤ means the top or universal type; every ∀ types T, T <: ⊤
the top type; top type in the type system of interest is a
subtype of top.
type theory
⊥ perpendicular
is perpendicular to
x ⊥ y means x is perpendicular to y; or more
generally x is orthogonal to y.
If l ⊥ m and m ⊥ n in the plane, then l || n.
geometry
W⊥ means the orthogonal complement of W

orthogonal complement Within , .
orthogonal/ perpendicular (where W is a subspace of the inner product
complement of; space V), the set of all vectors in V
perp orthogonal to every vector in W.
linear algebra
coprime x ⊥ y means x has no factor greater than 1 in 34 ⊥ 55.

is coprime to common with y.
number theory
independent A ⊥ B means A is an event whose probability If A ⊥ B, then P(A|B) = P(A).
is independent of is independent of event B.
probability
bottom element ⊥ means the smallest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∧ ⊥ = ⊥

the bottom element
lattice theory
bottom type ⊥ means the bottom type (a.k.a. the zero type ∀ types T, ⊥ <: T
the bottom type; or empty type); bottom is the subtype of
bot every type in the type system.
type theory
comparability x ⊥ y means that x is comparable to y. {e, π} ⊥ {1, 2, e, 3, π} under set containment.

is comparable to
order theory
⊧ entailment
entails
A ⊧ B means the sentence A entails the
sentence B, that is in every model in which A
A ⊧ A ∨ ¬A
is true, B is also true.

model theory
⊢ inference
infers;
x ⊢ y means y is derivable from x. A → B ⊢ ¬B → ¬A.
is derived from
propositional logic,
predicate logic
partition p ⊢ n means that p is a partition of n.

(4,3,1,1) ⊢ 9, .
is a partition of
number theory
Variations
In mathematics written in Arabic, some symbols may be reversed to make right-to-left writing and reading easier.
[11]
References
[1] Rónyai, Lajos (1998), Algoritmusok(Algorithms), TYPOTEX, ISBN 963-9132-16-0
[2] Berman, Kenneth A; Paul, Jerome L. (2005), Algorithms: Sequential, Parallel, and Distributed, Boston: Course Technology, p. 822,
ISBN 0-534-42057-5
[3] Nielsen, Michael A; Chuang, Isaac L (2000), Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, New York: Cambridge University Press,
pp. 71–72, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
p. 66, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
[5] Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl (1990) [1953], "Chapter 8.3: Conditional Statements and Material Implication", Introduction to Logic (8th ed.),
New York: Macmillan, pp. 268–269, ISBN 0023250356, LCCN 8937742
[6] Goldrei, Derek (1996), Classic Set Theory, London: Chapman and Hall, p. 3, ISBN 0-412-60610-0
p. 62, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
pp. 69–70, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
[11] M. Benatia, A. Lazrik, and K. Sami, " Arabic mathematical symbols in Unicode (http:/ / www. ucam. ac. ma/ fssm/ rydarab/ doc/ expose/
unicodeme. pdf)", 27th Internationalization and Unicode Conference, 2005.
External links
• The complete set of mathematics Unicode characters (http://krestavilis.com/math.php)
• Jeff Miller: Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html)
• Numericana: Scientific Symbols and Icons (http://www.numericana.com/answer/symbol.htm)
• TCAEP - Institute of Physics (http://www.tcaep.co.uk/science/symbols/maths.htm)
• GIF and PNG Images for Math Symbols (http://us.metamath.org/symbols/symbols.html)
• Mathematical Symbols in Unicode (http://tlt.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/math.
html#browsers)
• Using Greek and special characters from Symbol font in HTML (http://www.alanwood.net/demos/symbol.
html)
• Unicode Math Symbols (http://www.vex.net/~trebla/symbols/select.html) - a quick form for using unicode
math symbols.
• DeTeXify handwritten symbol recognition (http://detexify.kirelabs.org/classify.html) — doodle a symbol in
the box, and the program will tell you what its name is
Some Unicode charts of mathematical operators:
• Index of Unicode symbols (http://www.unicode.org/charts/#symbols)
• Range 2100–214F: Unicode Letterlike Symbols (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf)
• Range 2190–21FF: Unicode Arrows (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2190.pdf)
• Range 2200–22FF: Unicode Mathematical Operators (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2200.pdf)
• Range 27C0–27EF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–A (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/
U27C0.pdf)
• Range 2980–29FF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–B (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/
U2980.pdf)
• Range 2A00–2AFF: Unicode Supplementary Mathematical Operators (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/
U2A00.pdf)
Some Unicode cross-references:

• Short list of commonly used LaTeX symbols (http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Wiki/index.php/
LaTeX:Symbols) and Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List (http://mirrors.med.harvard.edu/ctan/info/
symbols/comprehensive/)
• MathML Characters (http://www.robinlionheart.com/stds/html4/entities-mathml) - sorts out Unicode, HTML
and MathML/TeX names on one page
• Unicode values and MathML names (http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-MathML/chap6/bycodes.html)
• Unicode values and Postscript names (http://svn.ghostscript.com/ghostscript/branches/gs-db/Resource/
Decoding/Unicode) from the source code for Ghostscript
Article Sources and Contributors 24
Article Sources and Contributors

List of mathematical symbols Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491009091 Contributors: 12jbooher, 90 Auto, ABCD, Abshirdheere, Acroterion, Agent Foxtrot, Alan
Liefting, Alex43223, Alison22, Alksentrs, Allens, Alpharigel, Alvesgaspar, Ancheta Wis, AndrewHowse, Anomalocaris, Anonymous Dissident, Aqwis, ArnoldReinhold, Ashleycocks, AugPi,
Avraham, AxelBoldt, BAxelrod, BOMBINI, Bamyers99, Bart133, Belovedfreak, BenFrantzDale, BenGliterate, BenKovitz, Benwing, Berteun, BiT, Bkell, Bkkbrad, Blokkendoos, Bob K31416,
Bonus Onus, Boud, Bryan Derksen, Btipling, Bwholm, CBM, CRGreathouse, Calréfa Wéná, Camembert, CanisRufus, Capitalist, Charles Matthews, Chewings72, Church of emacs,
ColinHelvensteijn, Computer97, Corti, Courcelles, DA3N, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DRLB, Daniel Brockman, Darkwind, Dave R Barton, David Shay, David spector, DavidHouse, Deagle AP,
Decltype, Der Spion, Dicklyon, Dirac1933, Dominus, DonkeyKong64, Dysprosia, EagleFan, Eclecticology, Edokter, Efnar, Elano, Emmse12345, Epbr123, Erik Postma, Estel, Fixblor, Flinx,
Fredrik, FrozenMan, Furrykef, G716, Giftlite, Gowdasathish, Gregbard, Gremagor, Greswik, Gurch, H2g2bob, Hbent, Hekerui, Hoot, Hu12, Hult041956, HumbleGod, IMacWin95, ISTB351,
Iceera88, IdLoveOne, Ideyal, Imaginationac, Innotata, InverseHypercube, Itub, J991, Jadony, Jan1nad, JanGB, Jaranda, Jbalint, Jbergquist, Jezmck, Jim.belk, Jim1138, Jkmaloo, Joc, JohnyDog,
Jokes Free4Me, Josh Parris, Joshdick, Jowa fan, Jrw@pobox.com, Jshadias, Julian Mendez, Justin W Smith, KGasso, Karol Langner, Kauffner, Kevinb, KlaudiuMihaila, Knowandgive, Kraftlos,
Kuru, Lagelspeil, LakeHMM, Lambiam, Leszek Jańczuk, Letdinosaursdie, Lexw, Lfiguero, Linas, LittleDan, Lohray, LokiClock, Loren.wilton, Lukozade guy, LutzL, MFNickster, MZMcBride,
MagicalPhats, Makeemlighter, Makuabob, Markus Kuhn, MathMartin, Mathaxiom, Mattlegend6, Maurice Carbonaro, Maxcyber10, Mckee, Melchoir, Mets501, Mfhall, MiNombreDeGuerra,
Michael Hardy, Michael miceli, Michiel Helvensteijn, Mikael Häggström, Mikay, Mikez, Mindmatrix, Mmortal03, Momojeng, Monedula, MovGP0, Mygerardromance, Myncknm, Mysdaao,
N01b33tr, N3rd4i, NJA, Navigatr85, Nerd42, Niceguyedc, Nikola Smolenski, Nilkanthvns, Nima Baghaei, Nobletripe, NocNokNeo, Noisy, Nosferatütr, NuclearWarfare, Nutiketaiel, OlEnglish,
Oleg Alexandrov, OliverTwist, Orz, P0mbal, Pak21, Paolo.dL, Pasixxxx, Patrick, Paul August, PaulTanenbaum, Pfoifry, Phil Boswell, Pooryorick, PrimeHunter, Pschemp, Psiphiorg, Psource,
Psy guy, Puellanivis, Qmark42, QoppaGamma, Quief, Quondum, Qwertyus, R.e.b., RDBury, RNLion, Rade Kutil, Raghith, Random user 8384993, Redacteur, Renata3, Rich Farmbrough,
Rjwilmsi, RobHar, Robinh, Ronhjones, Rumping, Ryulong, SMP, Salix alba, Sam Derbyshire, Sam Korn, Sango123, Scientific29, Scott776, Secretlondon, ShelfSkewed, Simonleyton, Skal, Sl,
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List of Mathematical Symbols

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List of Mathematical Symbols

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List of mathematical symbols 1

List of mathematical symbols

SymbolSymbolName Explanation Examples

equality x = y means x and y represent the same thing 2 = 2

strict inequality x < y means x is less than y. 3 < 4

> is greater than

proper subgroup H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G. 5Z < Z

≪ (very) strict inequality

≫ is much greater than

asymptotic comparison f ≪ g means the growth of f is x ≪ ex

subgroup H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G. Z ≤ Z

reduction A ≤ B means the problem A can be reduced If

addition 4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9

negative sign −3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5

multiplication 3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 × 8 = 56

cross product u × v means the cross product of vectors u (1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =

group of units R× consists of the set of units of the ring R,

convolution f * g means the convolution of f and g.

complex conjugate z* means the complex conjugate of z. .

group of units R* consists of the set of units of the ring R,

multiplication 3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 · 8 = 56

placeholder A · means a placeholder for an argument

⊗ tensor product, tensor

tensor product of modules V and U over the ring R.

division (Obelus) 6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of 6 by 3. 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5

complex square root if is represented in polar

mean (often read as “x bar”) is the mean .

complex conjugate means the complex conjugate of z. .

finite sequence, tuple means the finite sequence/tuple .

determinant |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

cardinality |X| means the cardinality of the set X. |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.

norm || x + y || ≤ || x || + || y ||

parallel x || y means x is parallel to y. If l || m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n.

incomparability x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.

exact divisibility pa || n means pa exactly divides n (i.e. pa 23 || 360.

cardinality #X means the cardinality of the set X. #{4, 6, 8} = 3

topology, knot theory

primorial n# is product of all prime numbers less than 12# = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 = 2310

cardinality of the C).

field extension K : F means the field K extends the field F. ℝ:ℚ

inner product of matrices A : B means the Frobenius inner product of

index of a subgroup The index of a subgroup H in a group G is

factorial n! means the product 1 × 2 × ... × n. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24

logical negation The statement !A is true if and only if A is !(!A) ⇔ A

row equivalence A~B means that B can be generated by using

asymptotically equivalent x ~ x+1

equivalence relation a ~ b means (and equivalently 1 ~ 5 mod 4

isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is isomorphic Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,

≀ wreath product A ≀ H means the wreath product of the group

normal subgroup N ◅ G means that N is a normal subgroup of Z(G) ◅ G

ideal I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring R. (2) ◅ Z

antijoin R ▻ S means the antijoin of the relations R R S=R-R S

semijoin R ⋉ S is the semijoin of the relations R and S, R S= 1,..,an(R S)

end of proof Used to mark the end of a proof.

‣ non-Euclidean Laplacian operator in the sense that it is the differential

⊃ propositional logic, the meaning for functions given below.)

logical negation The statement ¬A is true if and only if A is ¬(¬A) ⇔ A

and; For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∧ B(x) is

wedge product u ∧ v means the wedge product of any

exponentiation a ^ b means a raised to the power of b 2^3 = 23 = 8

∨ logical disjunction or join

propositional logic, lattice

adjoint; This may also be written AT, AT, A*, AT or