Catena 100 (2012) 83–99

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Morpho-dynamic evolution patterns of Subcarpathian Prahova River (Romania)

Iuliana Armaş a,⁎, Daniela Elena Gogoaşe Nistoran b, 1, Gabriela Osaci-Costache a, Livioara Braşoveanu a
a
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, Nicolae Balcescu Bd, no 1, sector 1, Bucharest, PO 010041, Romania
b
University “Politechnica” of Bucharest, Department of Hydraulics, Hydraulic Machinery and Environmental Engineering, 313 Spl. Independentei, sector 6, Bucharest, 060032, Romania

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Prahova River (Romania) at the Southern Carpathian Mountains was affected by a number of
Received 22 September 2011 measureable changes in its planform pattern and longitudinal profile over the past 200 years. The mountain
Received in revised form 1 July 2012 river has been incising into bedrocks, narrowing its valley, abandoning its lateral channels and straightening
Accepted 12 July 2012
its path while crossing the Subcarpathian study section.
The purpose of this study is to analyze, using GIS, the relationship between short-term (less than 200 years)
Keywords:
Channel morphological changes
lateral and vertical morphological adjustments observed over the 18 km length Subcarpathian Prahova River
Human impact and specific long-term evolutionary patterns (more than 200 years). Human disturbances and hydrodynamic
Diachronic spatial analysis characteristics during high intensity flood periods are assessed in the context of existing neotectonics and li-
GIS thology controls on channel and valley morphology.
1D hydraulic model Surveyed cross-section profiles were used to construct the geometry of a 1D hydraulic model. Simulations
Subcarpathians were performed using the HEC-RAS software (USACE) under steady flow conditions for flow values between
bankfull and the peak discharge value of typical flood events with a return period of 20 and 50 years.
Three main areas with high values of computed shear stresses and velocities and corresponding low values of
width to depth ratio (W/D) were identified. These areas were found to match the observed erosion areas,
where the river has incised into bedrock and eroded its banks. Other potentially aggradation areas of low
shear stress values and high W/D were confirmed by field observations.
The evolutional patterns of Prahova River channel are tectonic-structurally determined, developed and
maintained during the Quaternary mainly by the principles of river morphodynamics. The evolution over
shorter timescale bears the mark of the man-induced impact (changes in sediment and hydrologic regimes).
In a long-term perspective, the overall channel evolution of this river is expected to be strongly influenced by
human activity.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Morphosedimentological patterns determined by river channels
provide information about their characteristics, spatial interactions
and landscapes evolutionary trends. The analysis of spatial and tempo-
ral dynamics of river channel patterns has always been a major topic for
scientists and many approaches have been developed worldwide since
the pioneering research conducted by Leopold and Maddock in 1953
(e.g. Gregory, 1977; Schumm, 1969, 1977a, 1977b; Strahler, 1956).
Besides the natural processes (Hooke and Redmond, 1992; Lewin,
1977; Schumm, 1969; Sweeney, 1993; Trimble, 1997), river channel
modifications need to be understood in a historical and evolutionary
context of human‐induced imbalances. In modern fluvial geomor-
phology there is a wealth of literature concerning channel responses
due to human impacts (Beven et al., 1989; Gregory, 2006; Habersack
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel: +40 21 3143508 int/2190.
E-mail addresses: iulia_armas@geo.unibuc.ro, iuliaarmas@yahoo.com (I. Armaş),
dnistoran@gmail.com, dnistoran@yahoo.com (D.E. Gogoaşe Nistoran),
gabrielaosaci68@yahoo.com (G. Osaci-Costache).
1
Tel.: +40 2 1 402 9705, +40 722 216840; fax: +40 2 1 402 9865.
and Piégay, 2008; Hooke, 2000; Richards, 1987, Rutherfurd, 2000;
Surian and Rinaldi, 2003; Warner, 1984; Wohl, 2006; Zawiejska and
Wyżga, 2010). An overview publication on human role in changing
river channels has been synthesized by Gregory, in 2006.
Focusing on the European area, most Italian rivers (such as Paglia,
Arno, Po and Piave) have experienced considerable incision and
narrowing during the last centuries, and in particular in the last de-
cades (Cencetti et al., 2004; Rinaldi, 2003; Rinaldi and Simon, 1998)
in response to various types of human impact (especially sediment
extraction, dams and channelization). Wyzga (2008) has also
reported that rivers draining the Polish Carpathians (Vistula, Visłoka,
Skawa, Raba) deeply incised into bedrocks (up to 3.8 m) in the 20th
century as a result of channelization, construction of dam reservoirs, re-
duction in sediment delivery, gravel mining and land use changes. A
similar history of changes has also been recorded for Scotland rivers
(Winterbottom, 2000) or mountain and piedmont rivers of France
(Bravard et al., 1997; Landon et al., 1998; Liébault and Piégay, 2001a,
2001b, 2002) such as Rhone (and its tributaries) and Loire.
Rapid fluctuations in discharge, large width/depth ratio, high stream
power, erodible banks (little riparian vegetation and/or non-cohesive

0341-8162/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.07.007
84 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99
sediments) and overall dominant bedload transport are general indica-
tors of an unstable morphology and, depending also on the bed slope,
for the maintenance of secondary channels (braided pattern) and me-
anders (Nistoran et al., 2007; Rodrigues et al., 2006). On the contrary,
a reduction of both flood events frequency and natural river sediment
supply as a consequence of check dams, bottom sills construction,
river control engineering works (dykes, groins, bank protection, chan-
nelization), sediment extraction and riparian vegetation growth, all
may alter channel morphology leading to the degradation of the river
mainstream and the abandonment by sedimentary accretion of its later-
al secondary channels (braided pattern). These adjusting mechanisms
were explained and quantified into empirical equations or tables by
many authors including Schumm (1969) and Rosgen (1994). Hence,
the analysis of the relationship between lithology, hydraulics, sediment
dynamics, vegetation and man-made influence becomes critical in
order to understand and minimize the impacts on channel morphology
(Rodrigues et al., 2006).
Fluvial processes for Romanian Carpathian rivers follow the tenden-
cies observed for European rivers under prolonged human impact
(Petts, 1989). At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the process
of aggradation was dominant, while in the twentieth century the com-
plexity of anthropogenic interferences resulted in a deepening and
narrowing of the riverbeds (Bălteanu et al., 2012). The drainage net-
work is characterized by an uneven channel incision rate (Bălteanu et
al., 2012). However, channel dynamics is more intense in the Curvature
Carpathians hills and tablelands, a tectonically active (uplift) area with
specific lithology, larger sediment discharge values and turbid sediment
yield (Zugrăvescu et al., 1998, 2000; Wenzel et al. 2002; Landes et al.
2004; Vasiliev et al. 2009; Zaharia et al., 2011).
Prahova River was also affected by major planform and vertical
changes during the last couple of centuries. The channel incised 3 to
5 m (depending on bedrock) along the Subcarpathians during the
past several decades. The reach-based adjustments occurred in the
context of catchment scale (dis)connectivity of sediment fluxes
(Fryirs et al., 2009, Hooke, 2003). This process was influenced by nat-
ural and human controlling factors (Ichim et al., 1989), the latter in-
duced sediment blockages due to massive deforestations, gravel and
sand mining, dam building, nearby road and railway embankment
works, channelization.
The current paper aims to holistically analyze the influence of
short‐term human impact on hydrodynamic process and geomorphic
response of the Subcarpathian Prahova River (Romania) taking into
consideration long‐term tectonic morphological changes (Andrew et
al., 2010; Gregory, 1995). The specific objectives are: (1) to analyze
and explain the morphological vertical (incision) and planform chan-
nel evolution (such as channel narrowing and a gradual transition
from braiding to sinuous); (2) to relate this pattern change to stream
power conditions computed from numerical simulations performed
with a 1D hydraulic model (with the help of HEC-RAS software);
(3) to identify the erosion/deposition prone areas and their links
with human activities and impacts.
2. Study area
2.1. Regional setting
The Prahova River (193 km length) is a second order tributary to
Danube River and a first order tributary to Ialomita River, having its
source in the Romanian Meridional Carpathians (Bucegi Mountains).
Its asymmetric catchment area has 3750 km 2 and it has a general
NNW–SSE flow direction (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Average discharge of
the Prahova River is 8.15 m 3/s, whereas the mean bed slope is
about 5 m/km. Its 18 tributaries form a dendritic network and drain
areas mostly along the left river bank.
Control variables such as geology, tectonics, lithology, relief, cli-
mate, vegetation and tributaries prove the inherent capacity of a
river to adjust to a specific environment (Fryirs et al., 2009). The
main attributes and controls of Prahova River are presented for each
of its three sections divided according to the main landscape units
in Table 2 and Fig. 2. The downstream landscape unit consists of two
distinct areas, the Piedmont Plain and the Lowland Romanian Plain,
with different attributes and controls (Table 1). However, since the an-
alyzed area is the Subcarpathian upstream section, for the sake of sim-
plicity they have been merged into one landscape unit in Table 2.
As Hooke (2003), Brierley and Fryirs (2005) and Fryirs et al.
(2009) mentioned, identification of coarse sediment linkages be-
tween river reaches is vital in order to understand the long-term dy-
namics of the whole system and the influence upon its morphology.
With this respect, focusing on the Subcarpathian reach (with a length
of about 10% of total river length), one may draw the following con-
clusions from the data presented in Tables 1, 2 and the longitudinal
profile in Fig. 2:
• Prahova River has only 2 tributaries draining an area of only 65 km 2
(less than 2% of total watershed area) over Subcarpathian reach,
compared to 7 tributaries draining 185 km 2 (5% of total watershed
area) on the upper reach and 9 tributaries draining 2982 km 2 (80%
of total watershed area) on the lower reach. This means that tribu-
taries carry less sediment into the river along the Subcarpathian reach.
• Just downstream the limit of Carpathian to Subcarpathian reach, when
the river comes out from the Carpathian defile, the longitudinal profile
has a “hump”. The larger bed slope at the upstream part of the study
reach increases the flow competence and sediment transport leading
to bed and bar erosion in the absence of other sediment sources
(downstream town of Comarnic at the confluence with Belia River).
• Mean stream power along this reach is higher than the value along the
upper reach. This means that for large floods, coarse sediments coming
from the upstream reach or tributaries, and – if lacking – from the river
bed or banks along the middle reach, are only transported down-
stream, without being deposited. This is why an accumulation zone
takes place at the exit of the river from the Subcarpathian area (at
the confluence with Doftana River, just downstream town of
Campina), where the floodplain enlarges and flow decreases.
2.2. Subcarpathian reach
2.2.1. Motivation for study reach selection
The Subcarpathian reach study area (Figs. 1 and 2) is situated be-
tween the upstream town of Comarnic and the downstream town of
Câmpina (which is just upstream the confluence with Doftana River,
its most important left-bank tributary). Prahova River's length from
its source to Doftana junction is about 55 km. Upper and middle sec-
tions of the river are characterized by high stream power due to the
high bed slope and differences in basin elevation.
The Subcarpathian reach of Prahova River is the oldest morphoge-
netic part of the actual river and represents a key area for understand-
ing the shaping and evolution of the present hydrographic network in
the curvature area of the Carpathian belt (Armaş 1999; Rădoane et al.,
2003). The paleo-hydrographic network, parallel to the syncline and
anticline folds direction, was modified by a series of successive river
catchments (from N and S) into the present dominant N–S orienta-
tion. The Prahova River incised the bedrocks along the present direc-
tion and produced a sequence of erosional stair step terraces starting
with its 3rd terrace level.
Other reasons why the Subcarpathian reach of Prahova River has
been chosen for investigation are the avalability of good historical
maps covering the area for a long period of time and the increased
man‐induced changes to the natural environment. The Subcarpathian
sector has always been densely populated and is the reason why the
area was well cartographed on historical large scale maps in the
18th and 19th centuries. On the other hand, the montain part of the
river, which was also the border between the Austro-Hungarian
 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99 85

Fig. 1. Study area: location of the Sub-Carpathian Prahova Valley within catchment and landscape units.

empire and “Muntenia” Romanian Province was underpopulated, in-
accessible and not represented on maps until the 19th century. The
increased man-induced transformation of the Subcarpathian land-
scape, process registered in the area during the last centuries, occured
together with a natural denudation process determined by local geol-
ogy and geomorphology. Moreover, this is the most inhabitted area of
the Romanian Subcarpathians and an important Trans-Carpathian thor-
oughfare. According to Bugă et al. (1992, p. 286), the Subcarpathian area
along Prahova River valley had the largest population density (of about
180 inhabitants/km2) of southern Romania, after Bucharest capital city.
The proximity to the capital city and the natural environment
formed of wide horizontal terrace and floodplain surfaces provide opti-
mal conditions for human settlement. Given the circumstances, the en-
vironmental changes coefficient shows considerable modification of the
Subcarpathian landscape natural parameters after 1984 (Armaş et al.,
2003). Also, many holiday houses were built after 1990 (Vartolomei
and Armaş, 2010). Under these considerations, more than 50% of the
natural environment was affected by man-induced changes (Etienne
et al., 1998; Meybeck, 2003). This percentage increases towards the
plain, whereas in the mountain area, natural elements are still domi-
nant within the landscape (Armaş and Manea, 2002). In 2007 the local
authorities started channelling the river along the study area. The re-
search undertaken by our team recorded valuable data about Prahova's
natural characteristics before the concrete reinforcement of the entire
length of the riverbed, providing valuable historical records. The conse-
quences of radical changes started in 2007, which reached a maximum
amplification after 2010 will be the focus of subsequent studies.
2.2.2. Site-specific environmental characteristics
The Subcarpathian geology consists of syncline and anticline tec-
tonic structures aligned almost East–West. In the North there are
deep inner faults with almost vertical flanks, while in the south, the
86 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99

Table 1
Prahova catchment regional setting and attributes for each of the three main landscape units.

Main Headwater Carpathian Midcatchment Subcarpathian Piedmont Romanian Plain Lowland Romanian Plain
landscape section (source zone) section (source/transfer zone) section (accumulation zone) section (accumulation zone)
unit
20% of total river length 9% of total river length 35% of total river length 36% of total river length

Geology External Carpathians Subcarpathian nappes Middle Pleistocene–Holocene Middle Pleistocene–Holocene

nappes (Cretaceous flysch) (Cretaceous–Paleogene clastics sediments of the foreland sediments of the foreland
overlaid by Miocene molasse-type
sediments); Pliocene–Lower
Pleistocene sediments of the
foreland
Channel 38 18 68 69
length
(km)
Average 12.5 11.7 3.7 0.58
channel
slope
(m/km)
Relative 472 (1032 – 560) 210 (560–350 ) 250 (350 – 100) 40 (100 – 60)
thalweg
drop over
the reach
(above
Black Sea)
Δz (m)
Mean annual 4.9 (Busteni GS) 8.15 (Campina GS) 13 (Prahova GS) 26.6 (Adancata GS)
flow Q ,
(m3/s)
(Gauging
Station- GS)
Average 1000 750 625 580
annual
precipitation
(mm/y)
Vegetation Forest and pasture Mixed, deciduous forest Agriculture land Agriculture land
and land
use
River channel Mostly single-thread, occa- Mixed single-thread and braided, Upstream braided, downstream Meandering
planform sionally braided, slightly sin- sinuous, unstable channel wandering, unstable channel
uous, moderately stable
channel
Bed material Bedrock, cobbles, gravel, Cobbles, gravel, sand Gravel, sand Sand and mud
texture sand
River Bedrock channel with a The natural channel has been Upstream braided deposition Upstream deposition
behaviour heterogeneous assemblage incised and abandoned its lateral Meandering channel is in broad, Meandering channel is in broad,
of geomorphic units; secondary channels; the low slope valley where the river low slope valley where the river
alternating sequence of remaining bars are only reworked accumulates gravel and sand accumulates gravel and sand
bedrock steps and during large flood events. During sediments in wide, floodplains. sediments in wide, floodplains.
pool-riffle-cascade last decade extensive bank and Meanders are colonized by Meanders are taken over by
sequences bed stabilization works have been vegetation. vegetation.
performed in the channel; limited
capacity for adjustment;
floodplains remain suspended
due to river incision

synclines have axial faults. The tectonics are further complicated by
the intrusion of salt diapirs in the South.
The most important and largest is the Breaza Syncline which con-
sists of Miocene sedimentary rocks, has symmetric flanks and is axial-
ly faulted. South of Breaza Syncline, there are Miocene–Pliocene–Lower
Pleistocene molasse sedimentary rocks, which form the Mio–Pliocene
Zone of marl-clays, sandstone intercalations, sands and gravels. The
Breaza syncline's geological structure facilitated the development of a
fluvial relief represented by 2nd terrace level (30–60 m), 2 km in
width, which offer the best conditions for human habitation (Fig. 1).
This terrace level is also widely developed at the confluence with
Doftana River, at the contact with the plain.
The Holocene floodplain is asymmetric (width ~ 150–500 m) and
was cut 3 to 5 m in the past several decades. The riverbed coarse sed-
iments (medium rolled) have a flat shape and consist of fine grained
calcareous sandstone, grey marl-limestone with calcite veins, white
compact limestone and white quartzite.
The river planform is irregularly sinuous and braided. There are
areas where the river flows through a single channel, alternating
with areas where secondary channels (filled during over-bankfull dis-
charge events) are separated by ephemeral sediment deposits or occa-
sional mid-channel bars.
Rainfall averages exceed 750 mm/yr, creating the optimum condi-
tions for the existing mixed deciduous forest. The annual maximum
daily rainfall with a 10% exceeding probability is 76 mm, and with a
5% exceeding probability is 89 mm, leading to rapid concentration
and large discharge through the river channel.
The hydrologic characteristic regime of the river and its tributaries is
nivo-pluvial (Ioana-Toroimac, 2009). The period 1960–2007 is consid-
ered by hydrologists as moderately dry, characterized by an absence
 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99 87

Table 2
Control variables upon Prahova River character and behaviour.

Main landscape unit Headwater Carpathian section (source zone) Midcatchment Subcarpathian Piedmont and Lowland
section (source and transfer zone) Romanian Plain section
(accumulation zone)

20% of total river length 9% of total river length 71% of total river length

Valley setting Confined valley with occasional floodplain Laterally unconfined valley with Laterally unconfined valley, high
pockets, low sinuosity cobble bed with pools bedrock-controlled discontinuous sinuosity/meandering sand bed
and riffles floodplain
No. of tributaries over the unit; total tributaries drained 7 185 (5%) 2 65 (2%) 9 2982 (80%)
area in km2 (and percentage of total watershed area of
3750 km2);
Valley slope, Sv (degrees) 32 17 13
Average bankfull channel width, W (m) 30 50⁎ 40
Maximum/minimum basin elevation (m) 2500/800 2500/350 2500/60
Average width of river floodplain 270 500 1000 ÷ 1500
Vegetation Very little Low and medium sized plants Medium sized plants (crops) and
(bushes) in the floodplain trees in the floodplain
Bed material texture Cobble, gravel Gravel, cobble, sand Mostly sand, mud
River planform type Low sinuosity Mostly braided, alternating with Braided in the upstream section,
sinuous meandering in the downstream
section
Bankflow stream power (W/m); unit stream power 16,000 23,000 750
(W/m2) 533 460 17
Occurrence of annual Qmax May May May
Historic maximum flood peak discharge Qmax (m3/s) 123 (Busteni, 2001) 399 (Campina, 1975, 2005) 766 (Prahova, 2005) 1220
(GS, year) (Adancata, 1975)
Mean multiannual suspended load, Qs (kg/s) over the 5.1 (Busteni) 10.9 (Campina) 107.4 (Adancata)
last 50 years (GS)
Approximate mean bankfull flow, Qbf (m3/s) 130 200 250
Hydraulic regime Mixed (fluvial and torrential) Mostly fluvial, with torrential only fluvial
at step-pool sequences
⁎
Bankfull depth and width were determined from field measurements and based on sedimentary, morphological and/or vegetation changes; these bankfull characteristics were
subsequently verified by hydraulic computations with HEC-RAS model.

of extreme events, similar to the end of the XIXth century. The positive Over the same time interval, the maximum flow value of 399 m3/s
correlation between monthly average precipitation and discharge over (having a return period of 36 years) was registered at Câmpina Gauging
the period 1960–2009 indicates that the flow comes mostly from rain- Station in 2005. During 1961–1975 no extreme flows were registered,
fall (correlation is significant at the 0.001 level, two-tailed; r =0.68). so the houses built along the river corridor at the beginning of the

Fig. 2. Longitudinal profile and contributing area plots.

88 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99
XXth century were never flooded before 1975 (Ioana-Toroimac, 2009).
Major floods with return periods greater than 20 years occurred in
1975, 1988 and 2005.
3. Data sources and methods
3.1. Data
Although there is an accurate representation of the hydrographic
network on the old cartographic maps, a more precise analysis of
the river channel dynamics requires large scale topographic maps
(Di Matteo et al., 2008; Osaci-Costache, 2006). For the study area,
the first accurate maps date to the second half of the XIXth century.
The earliest Austro-Hungarian Map (1790–1791), known
as “Specht's map” (named after an Austrian Colonel), at a scale of
1:57,600 lacks important details and cannot be compared with subse-
quent topographic maps. The hydrographic representation on the map
is limited to only several morphological features, and the river course
is described as “a little too curled” (Mihăilescu, 1928), which most prob-
ably means in modern morphologic language having a braiding plan-
form character.
In order to get comparable morphological data and analyze the
Prahova River plan view dynamics, data acquisition was digitized
from modern topographic maps 1:25,000 (1864–1980), at 10 m and
5 m elevation intervals, resampled to 2.13 m pixel size. Unfortunate-
ly, they were too scarce to comprehend channel's response to individual
imbalance events. Planimetric uncertainties are indicated in Table 3.
The historic maps were superimposed on satellite images,
orthophotoplans and land surveys performed in 2006, correlated
with field evidence of channel incision or aggradation and detailed
on-site geologic and geomorphologic observations.
For the thematic analysis various scale geological maps were used:
1:25,000 (Ministry of Oil maps, printed in 1961), 1:50,000 (I.G.R. —
Romanian Geological Institute maps, the 1976, 1978 editions) and
field surveys (Table 4).
In August 2006, a global positioning system (GPS) was used for a
ground-based survey to capture topographic information (Brasington
et al., 2000) along the Prahova River channel and valley from Predeal
(upstream) to Câmpina (downstream). 192 topo-bathymetrical cross-
section profiles were surveyed over a 55 km distance comprising most
of the Carpathian and entire Subcarpathian reaches. For the latter study
reach, 57 of these cross-section profiles were used. They stretched be-
tween the town of Comarnic (upstream profile no. 57) and the con-
fluence with the Doftana River (downstream profile no. 1) along a
distance of 18 km.
GPS TRIMBLE R3 receivers operating on the L1 frequency were used
in the survey. The coordinates of the GPS network were established
through the static measurement method and the coordinates of the de-
tailed points of the sections were established through kinematic mea-
surements, through the stop and go method.
The following hydrologic data were used for hydraulic computa-
tions: extended rating curves at two gauging stations along the
reach (Buşteni GS, situated at 45 km, and Câmpina GS situated at
Table 3
Planimetric uncertainties and inherent methods.
Error type Szathmary map* Topographic map in Cassini projection*
Year of print 1864 1900
Scale 1:57.600 1:50.000
Average calculated 27.15 m (11.09 pixels) 7.81 (1.85 pixels)
residual error**
Digitization 2.45 m (1 pixel) 4.22 m (1 pixel)
error
*
Georeferenced with Quantum GIS software under the reference system Pulkovo 1942/Gauss-Krüger zone 5.
**
Errors calculated by the Quantum GIS software for the Helmert transformation.
2 km respectively from the downstream end of studied reach),
mean annual flow ( Q  ), bankfull flow (Qbf), peak flow values for the
20-year, 50-year and 100-year flood events. In the computations,
the lateral inflow (due to small tributaries and torrents along the
river) was taken into account at certain injection points; therefore, dis-
charge values increase along the flow.
3.2. Method
Changes of Prahova River channel were accounted through diachronic
spatial analysis (DIA), interpreting large scale historic maps, satellite im-
ages and aerial photographs in GIS.
Diachronic analysis of cartographic data has been used by many other
authors to show the dynamics of landscape (Baker and Billinge, 2010;
Morant et al., 1995; Osaci-Costache, 2004; Reina-Rodríguez and Soriano,
2008) or some of its components such as river channels (Cencetti and
Fredduzzi, 2008; Leys and Werritty, 1999; Osaci-Costache 2004, 2006), ei-
ther through classic cartography, or through use of GIS. Some researchers
have analyzed the dynamics of Prahova River itself, along different land-
scape units (Dobre, 2011; Dobre et al., 2011, Ioana-Toroimac, 2009,
2010).
Maps, plans and aerial photographs of rivers valley floors offer a
series of snap-shots of a feature over time and provide a historical
perspective for studying river channel planimetric evolution (Petts,
1989; Uribelarrea et al., 2003). The main problems arising with histor-
ical maps are the lack of coordinate systems, distortion and differences
in scale between maps (Hooke and Kain, 1982; Lewin, 1977). The trans-
formation to a common scale and projection system is facilitated under
a GIS environment (Alexander, 1991; Carrara and Guzzetti, 1995;
Collins et al., 1997; Mejia-Navarro and Wohl, 1994; Rigaux et al.,
2002; Zerger, 2002; Shekhar and Chawla, 2002; French, 2003;
Lillesand et al., 2004, etc.).
For the georeference and superposition of 1864–1980 maps we
used Quantum GIS open source software (versions 1.3.0 — Mimas
and 1.4.0. — Enceladus, available at http://www.qgis.org/). Raster
maps were obtained by scanning the images at a 400 dpi resolution
and then georeferenced directly with Quantum GIS. Helmert's spatial
transformation was applied with the nearest neighbor resampling
algorithm for the 1980 map and with the polynomial rectification
method for the historical maps. For the latter ones, common ground
control points were identified on the 1980 map. A large number of
evenly dispersed points were selected (between 48 and 86 points/
20 km 2) in order to reduce the errors which may appear when work-
ing with historical maps, as pointed out by other authors (Dunn et al.,
1990; Maffini et al., 1989). As terrestrial control points, cross roads, train
rails, bridges, and churches were used. Unfortunately, the georeferencing
plugin of Quantum GIS is unable to compute the root mean squared
(RMS) error. The maps were brought to a common geo-cartographic
referencing system (Pulkovo 1942/Gauss-Krüger zone 5), in order to
allow successive superposition of channel evolution stages.
Vector graphic layers (in ESRI Shapefile format) containing Prahova
River channel plan view at different years were obtained in Quantum
GIS through digitization. In order to quantify geometric properties
The Lambert's projection topographic plan* The Gauss–Krüger topographic map*
1940 1980
1:20.000 1:25.000
4.33 (2.59 pixels) 0.66 (0.38 pixels)
1.67 m (1 pixel) 1.74 m (1 pixel)
 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99 89

Table 4
Survey maps, aerial images and thematic data layers used in GIS.

Land surveys Printed Maps/aerial images Scale Contour interval

1856–1857 1864 Chart of Southern Romania (Szathmary Map) — copy at the scale of 1/57,600 of 1/57,600 Shading method
Marshal Fligely's map at the scale of 1/28,800
1897–1900 1900 Topographic map of Romania (Cassini cartographical projection) 1/50,000 10 m
1900 1940 The Lambert's projection topographic plan 1/20,000 10 m
1980 1980 The Gauss–Krüger cartographical projection, 1961 (by using ginger for the relief 1/25,000 5m
and black for the rest of the components) and 1980 editions (maps in colour)
1997, 1999 Landsat TM Resolution 30 m
and 2002
2002, 2005 Orthophotoplans of the studied area Resolution 10 m
2006 57 topo-bathymetrical cross-section profiles 300 m
1961, 1976, Geological maps represented on various scale topographical supports 1/25,000;1/50,000 5 and 10 m
1978
2003–2009 Field mapping: lithology, tectonic structures, land use, road network, stream network etc. various scales 1m

(braid index, main-channel sinuosity, etc.) we used the “Geometric 4. Results

properties of lines” module from “Sextante”, integrated under gvSIG
free software (version 1.9, developed by “Generalitat Valenciana.
Conselleria d'infraestructures i transport” from Spain, www.gvsig.org/
web). When measuring different parameters such as river length and
width we obtained data series on which certain channel geometries
were calculated: the river length along main channel (Lc), the river
length along a straight line (Lstr), the length of the anabranches (Labr),
main-channel sinuosity index (main channel length/valley length)
(Ks) and braiding index (Kb). River pattern statistics were obtained by
processing the data in ILWIS 3.6 (ITC, 2001) and SPSS software. The
one way ANOVA test, independent samples T test and Pearson correla-
tions were used to test the statistical significance of results.
Main channel incision rate was derived from the digital elevation
models (DEM) based on the topographic map 1:25,000 and the chan-
nel topo-bathymetric surveys carried out in 2006, using kriging as
point interpolation (Legleiter and Kyriakidis, 2007).
The topographic data of the floodplain, digitized from 1:25,000
maps were coupled (in ArcGis) with channel topo-bathymetric sur-
veys, resulting in an extended DTM (TIN) of the studied reach.
HEC-GeoRAS utility was then used to extract from this TIN the geo-
metrical network of a 1D hydraulic model. Corrections were made
in each cross-section profile so that DTM extracted data in the chan-
nel area were replaced with measured bathymetry.
Numerical simulation of flow in mountain rivers is hindered by
high gradients, high turbulence, non-uniform roughness and high
Froude numbers, with frequent transitions from subcritical to super-
critical regime (Jarett, 1984). Therefore, in order to get a first estimate
of the average hydrodynamic parameters in each cross-section,
1D-steady flow software that integrate Saint-Venant equations are
the most stable and straightforward to be applied.
Although models can play an important role in elucidating the link be-
tween observed morphological changes and the hydrodynamic processes,
latest research in the field of hydraulic modelling proved, through com-
parative studies, that flood realistic forecasts strongly depend on the accu-
racy of terrain data (Casas et al., 2006; Marks and Bates, 2000; Smith,
1997; Werner, 2001) and less on the complexity of the applied hydraulic
model (Horritt and Bates, 2001, 2002). Therefore, 1D hydro-dynamic
models (which are currently fully compatible with GIS software) are
still extensively used for flood and sediment analysis studies. These
1D hydraulic models (such as HEC-RAS, produced by the Hydraulic En-
gineering Center of US Army Corps of Engineers) are preferred because
they are easy to calibrate and do not need complex hydrological and
topo-bathymetric data as the 2D or 3D models. Many recent papers
prove the capability of 1D software packages to accurately model, ex-
plain and/or predict river hydrodynamic performance during floods
(Bledsoe and Watson, 2001; French, 2003, Knebl et al., 2005).
4.1. Fluvial dynamics before human intervention
Channel planform changes in the past 200 years were seen within
a broader perspective of the Quaternary evolution of Prahova Valley,
on the basis of geological and field geomorphologic interpretations
made in the 2002–2009 period.
Prahova formed as a valley and deepened in piedmont cones of
lower Pleistocene (N2-Q1) age, deposited at the edge of rising moun-
tains (Armaş et al., 2003). During Quaternary, Prahova River developed
four terraces, numbered from the bottom up. Among these the best pre-
served is the 2nd one, T2 (Fig. 1).
In the Lower Pleistocene, the flow direction became stabilized
along the N–S direction influenced by the uplift and/or subsidence
around the Carpathian Curvature active tectonic centers. From Breaza
town, down to the confluence of Prahova River with its tributary
Doftana, the actual course of Prahova River channel follows the T2
terrace scarp. At the T2 level, the river broadened its valley, eroding
almost completely the upper terraces (T3 and T4). At the 2nd terrace
level the Subcarpathian sector was a typical accumulation area deter-
mined by its closeness to the base level represented by the subsi-
dence area from the Romanian Plain. Tectonic uplifts shifted the
base level further towards south.
Climate variability during the Holocene led to disappearance of
the mountain glaciers, followed by an altitudinal rise in the tree-line
and a decrease in sediment supply. The river's response to a reduction
in both, stream discharge and sediment load was to narrow its valley
to the size of the modern Prahova River corridor (the lowest holocene
terrace T1 and floodplain), indicating a transformation from a sedi-
ment accumulative sector to a sediment transfer zone.
From the morphogenetic interpretation of the valley, four planform
evolution areas of the river channel were distinguished. These areas over-
lap the erosion and accretion areas identified by the hydraulic model (see
Section 4.3.2) and show the long-term dynamic trend of the river in ac-
cordance with neotectonics, structural and lithological site conditions.
4.2. Main stages of the man-made impact in relation with channel
changes
Various approaches have established the occurrence of channel inci-
sion and narrowing processes in recent years, interpreted as results of en-
vironmental imbalances (both on lateral and vertical river levels) caused
by bedload supply decrease (Liébault and Piégay, 2001a, 2001b) and
in-stream sediment mining on alluvial rivers (Kondolf, 1994; Perisoiu
and Rădoane, 2011; Rinaldi, 2003; Sear and Archer, 1998). Liébault and
Piégay document the trend of channel narrowing as a response to
90 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99

Fig. 3. a. Human‐induced changes over time and length of the Subcarpathian reach;. b. maximum annual flood discharge for Campina GS in the period 1961–2007.

land-use changes over the last two centuries not only on large rivers, Analysis of reach-scale geomorphic adjustment of river to human‐
but also on the small mountain streams of the southern Prealps induced imbalance depends upon magnitude, duration and intensity
(Liébault and Piégay, 2002). of these events. Along Prahova Subcarpathian Valley, four main stages

Fig. 4. Simple conceptual model summarizing natural and anthropic causes affecting morphological stability of Prahova River along the studied reach.
 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99 91

Fig. 5. Comparative morphological parameters evolution in time.

of the man-induced impact may be identified during the last century:
(i) the construction of the Bucureşti-Braşov railway (the Câmpina-
Sinaia line), (ii) the oil exploitation, (iii) the development of the modern
road system and (iv) in-channel gravel mining (Figs. 3a and 4).
(i) The construction of the Câmpina-Sinaia railway (1910–1912)
required the execution of terraces, earthworks, slope consolidations,
associated with the cutting of some banks (mainly in the narrow
areas of the valley), building of culverts, bridge pier footings; securing
railway through associated works on the slopes, at least 100 m up-
stream along Prahova tributaries.
(ii) The oil exploitation in the Câmpina perimeter, in the slopes, in
the floodplain and sometimes in the main channel led to the execu-
tion of protective works for wells, oil reservoirs, electric equipment,
access roads and for laying the oil pipes.
The works in the channel involve mainly laying oil pipes and water
and gas pipes directly on the bedrock, under the gravel bed, about
92 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99
1–1.5 m depth. Bridge piers were scoured and the pipes were brought to
the surface (sediments above were eroded), some due to the 2005 flood.
(iii) The third stage of important modifications for the river course
bed was determined by the development of the national road net-
work. The Bucuresti-Ploiesti-Câmpina-Sinaia-Braşov national road
was built from 1964 to 1965 continuing to be modernized until the
construction of the present route located on the left bank of the
river and parallel to the Prahova Valley.
(iv) Gravel mining has started in the 1970s, whereas the execution
of extensive river regulation and engineering works in 1975. These
works consisted of bank and channel riprap protection and concrete
reinforcement and channelization, in different subsequent stages.
The mining companies extract the gravel by open quarries situat-
ed on leasehold land licensed from the state, but some do not have a
license to mine the river. Because of quarrying, a specific micromor-
phology was created in the floodplain sector (with embanking areas
and/or riffles and pools) which led to modifications of the thalweg
line, water depth and flow velocity in the main channel. These aspects
were also described by Rinaldi for the alluvial river system of Tuscany
(Rinaldi, 2003). He also mentioned that a very slow recovery phase of
channel morphology is expected to start after the sediment mining
ceases. However, in the Prahova River case no consistent evidence
of this recovery is visible.
In some areas of the main channel, local people completely extracted
the riverbed material without having a mining licence. Material was
Fig. 6. Comparison between the observed (points) and computed (line) flow rate
curves: water surface elevation (in m above Black Sea level) versus total discharge
(in m3/s) at the: a. Câmpina G.S. (downstream); b. Buşteni G.S. (upstream).
extracted also from the belts between active secondary channels. Thus,
the thalweg downcutting of Prahova River (which in the observation pe-
riod of 2002–2007 reached 2.20–2.80 m) led the water to flow in some
areas on the bedrock itself.
The construction of Sinaia dam (at about 37 km from Câmpina, in
1985), channelization and regulation works (check dams, bottom sills
and bank protections) along the Prahova River, the landslide control mea-
sures taken along its torrent tributaries, and gravel mining reduced natu-
ral sediment discharge, which caused important alteration of river
morphology (Boix-Fayos et al., 2007; Hooke and Kain, 1982; Pascu, 1999).
Today, Prahova River is crossed over by 3 road bridges: Câmpina–
Station (about 30 m upstream and parallel to the railway bridge), and
two bridges that connect Breaza to the national road system, built actu-
ally along the alignment of the demolished bridges of the old national
road. The pier footings of these bridges are cast down on bedrock and,
as a consequence of the high flow velocity values (up to 5–7 m/s) cor-
responding to flow rates over the bankfull limit, they need constant
monitoring.
Because of the intense erosion of the river bed or along the banks, im-
portant abutment and pillar scour appeared at the four pedestrian bridges
(Poiana Câmpinei, Breaza, Nistoreşti and Belia), therefore exposing the
concrete footings and bedrock.
Systematic data on precipitation has only been available from the Na-
tional Meteorological Authority starting in 1961. Fig. 3b shows the annual
maximum discharge at Campina Gauging Station for the aforementioned
period (Ioana-Toroimac, 2009) in comparison with bankflow discharge
(having a return period of 8 years). This figure shows that several floods
with maximum discharge greater than the bankfull flow (considered as
channel forming) occurred in the 1980s at a time of increasing human ac-
tivity developed in that period (Fig. 3a). This repeated flooding may ex-
plain the vertical and lateral river disturbance observed on site and
quantified through morphologic parameter time evolution in Fig. 5.
Summarizing human disturbances along the river corridor (with
dotted lines in Fig. 4) during the last 200 years, the following conclu-
sions may be drawn with respect to hidro-morphological responses:
a) The afforestation at the beginning of the XXth century and change in
land use caused a reduction of the runoff coefficient; at the same
time increased urbanization (associated with an increase in water
consumption) and dam construction decreased the river discharge.
b) Gravel mining and extensive engineering works, Sinaia dam and
check dams construction, structural measures built to entrap debris
and sediments transported by tributary torrents (such as drop
structures and sills), all decreased river coarse sediment budget
and delivery from valley slopes, floodplain, upstream or tributaries.
The absence of extreme hydrologic events between 1960 and 2005
allowed riparian vegetation to establish itself in the abandoned
floodplain of Prahova River, which led to an additional decrease of
lateral sediment material influx during floods.
c) The hydrodynamic parameters of the river channel were modified
by the presence of bridge piers or abutments or by the limited
flow section due to railroad and roadway embankments. Increased
velocity and bed shear stresses intensified local bed erosion.
d) Direct human intervention on the channel patterns by cutting the
meanders for the construction of the road, and river rectification
and regulation works increased the flow velocity with bank erosion
consequences.
4.3. Fluvial dynamics after human intervention
4.3.1. Morphological planform changes
Planimetric spatial variations are a main type of channel adjust-
ment during the XXth century. Changes in plan view (1864–2006)
could be noticed comparing the old topographical maps, the satellite
images, the orthophotoplans and the land topo-bathymetric survey
performed in the summer of 2006.
 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99
Fig. 7. Computed values of stream power along the Carpathian and Subcarpatian reaches, for simulations performed with the bankfull flow (Qbf). Values are fitted with a polynomial
function of 3rd order.
The analysis of the calculated morphometric indexes (Fig. 5)
shows specific trends regarding the general evolution of Prahova's
River course in the Subcarpathian reach for the last 200 years: a de-
crease of channel and anabranches length, as well as the total length,
in parallel with an increase of valley slope, indicating a tendency of
river course straightening and abandoning of lateral channels (from
a sinuosity index, Ks = 1.94 in 1980 to Ks = 1.1 in 2006). This tendency
was accelerated after 1900, due to channelization and land use.
Some of these aspects were also subject to other studies carried
out on different land units of Prahova River, so that this paper empha-
sizes new outcomes that are in agreement with previous literature
(Dobre, 2011; Dobre et al., 2011, Ioana-Toroimac, 2009, 2010). Pro-
gressive narrowing of river corridor was observed by many authors
between 1900 and 1980 along the Subcarpathian and Piedmont
Plain accompanied by lateral migration and local transistions in chan-
nel pattern from braided to sinuous, single thread channel.
Sinuosity and braiding indexes are commonly used indicators of
channel behaviour (Ferguson, 1975; Lewin, 1977), which are usually as-
sociated with changes in hydrological regime and flooding (Hooke,
1996). A reduction of these indexes may be associated with the sweep-
ing effect of a large flood (Hooke and Redmond, 1992), or may be indic-
ative of changes in the water and sediment supply (Schumm, 1977a,
1977b). Also, Thompson (1987), states that in the aftermath of a large
flood, the river planform displays a pattern of a decreasing sinuosity
and braiding indexes, followed by a gradual increase. In this case how-
ever, because of the long periods of analysis, a correlation between
channel response and flood history (maximum discharge intensity
Fig. 8. Shear stress values along the Subcarpathian reach of Prahova River for the peak
flow of the 20 year flood event; areas of potential erosion (A–D, with names) and de-
position (A′–D′) are emphasized; First cross-section point (from the D′ area ) is 1 km
upstream of confluence with Doftana River.
93
and time frequency) cannot be made. The constant decrease of braiding
index after 1900 may be explained according to Schumm (1977a,
1977b) by a decreased upstream and lateral sediment load and also of
stream flow.
Unfortunately, in the Prahova River case, the river response to
human disturbance could not be broken into phases of geomorphic
adjustment (Fryirs et al., 2009), due to the lack of complete, periodic
data on control and response variables.
4.3.2. Hydraulic model
The HEC-RAS hydralic model (HEC-RAS, Hydrologic Engineering
Center, River Analysis Center, 2010) was implemented for the entire
studied reach. The model was run for the mixed (subcritical and su-
percritical) steady flow regime, to account for the transitions specific
to such steep slope river. Model calibration was performed on the
basis of flow stage-discharge relationships measured at the two
gauging stations of Câmpina and Buşteni for low flows (annual and
bankfull discharge values) and for high flows (the peak values of
the, 20-year, 50-year, and 100-year floods). After calibration
(Fig. 6), Manning roughness coefficients values were nc = 0.045 for
the main channel and nf = 0.071 for the floodplain (including
secondary channels). Maximum errors were obtained for flows
under the bankfull limit (15 cm absolute, 12% relative to depth)
and for extreme flows with a 100-year flood peak value (29 cm abso-
lute, 16% relative to depth). For the flow range within bankfull limit
and the 50-year flood peak value, relative errors were less than 10%.
Considering the high bed slope along both Carpathian and
Subcarpathian reaches and the mixed flow regime, the model was
considered appropriate for predicting hydrodynamic parameters in
all other cross-sections, for flow events between the bankfull flow
(close to the 10-year flood peak) and the 50-year flood peak.
For these flow events, stream competence is high enough to over-
come the entrainment limit of the coarse fractions. Therefore, the ar-
mour layer (from the bars and pool-riffle sequences) is broken and
bed adjustments occur (Ashmore, 1991, Nistoran et al., 2007). If the
reach is disconnected from lateral and upstream sediment sources
through man-built barriers or it does not have enough input due to
the lack of large tributaries, as it is the case of the Subcarpathian
reach, the stream starts to erode its bank and bed deposits.
In Fig. 7 are shown the computed values of specific stream power
(fitted with a polynomial regression of 3rd order) along the Carpathian
and Subcarpatian reaches, for simulations performed with the bankfull
flow. From the plot it may be seen that the current has enough power to
transport sediments at the exit of the mountain area.
94 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99

Fig. 9. W/D (W — top width; D — hydraulic depth) along the studied reach for the peak flow of the 20‐year flood event; areas of potential erosion (A–D, with names) and deposition
(A′–D′) are emphasized; first cross-section point (from the D′ area ) is 1 km upstream of confluence with Doftana River.

In the plots of Figs. 8 and 9, for the sake of simplicity, only the results
from simulations with the intermediate flow value of 20-year flood
peak (265 and 304 m 3/s for the upstream and downstream boundaries
of the study reach, respectively) are shown. When mean, cross-section
bed shear stress is plotted along this reach four main areas of potential
degradation of river bed may be identified (A to D) and four areas of po-
tential aggradation (A′–D′). A similar plot showing the aforementioned
areas has resulted when representing velocitiy values. Along the most
important erosion areas A, B and C severe bank collapse occurred and
bed incisions up to 3–4 m. The potentially accretion areas of lower
shear stress values are situated downstream of reaches with higher
shear stress values. The same areas may be identified on the W/D (top
width over hydraulic depth) plot (Fig. 9).
Richardson and Thorne (2001) showed that if the shear stress value
of a single-thread stream drops from high values to low ones along the
flow, then a threshold of specific energy level is reached, causing the ve-
locity field to break up into two or more separate flow threads of high
velocity. This leads to the formation of downstream areas in which sed-
iment deposition is favored and bifurcation may occur. However, the
development of mid-channel bars and braiding character also depends
on sediment supply (for bar formation to develop), river slope, energy
level (discharge or flood intensity) and high W/D ratios (cross‐sections
enlargement). Maximum values of this W/D ratio were found in
cross-sections 4, 17, 36 and 44 (Fig. 9), where the tendency of
braid-bar development in the main channel may be observed in the de-
tail cross-section plots.

Fig. 10. Changes of the course of Prahova River channel in the study reach between 1864 and 2005.
Table 5
The most important erosion reaches with depth increase channel adjustment.

Valley Structural Lithological control Boundaries Valley setting Bed material texture Linkages
reach controls
Longitudinal Lateral Vertical

A Highly Red ‘Gura Beliei’ Distinct (lithology) Partly-confined, riparian vegetation Gravel and boulder Bedrock - Tributaries Anthropic Vertical exchanges limited
faulted marls, calcareous sand anthropic disturbed through human intervention
Cretaceous marls, disconnected (road channel-slope
and conglomerates and railway) connectivity
Palaeogene
flysch
B Northern Calcareous marls, Distinct in North (lithology), Partly-confined, riparian vegetation, Boulder–gravel–sand Tributaries Irregular Vertical exchanges limited

I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99

flank of the sandstones (Cornu gradual (in South, towards specific landuse anthropic channel-slope through human intervention
Breaza Beds) syncline axis) disconnected on and channel–
syncline the lefthandside floodplain
and by floodplain connectivity
pockets on the
righthandside
C Southern Conglomerates, Distinct (Lithology, Campinita Entrenched with bedrock base and Bedrock–boulder–gravel Tributaries Irregular (natural Vertical exchanges limited
flank of the sandstones (Cornu confluence) floodplain pockets; forest connected or or anthropic through human intervention
Breaza Beds) anthropic disturbed)
syncline disconnected channel-slope
connectivity
Cross-section profile no. 52, the Cross-section profile no. 42, Cross-section profile no. 30,
A-erosion area, upstream Belia the B-erosion area; view to- the C-erosion area, near
confluence; view towards up- wards downstream; water Breaza town-Sărăcilă Valley —
stream; on the lefthandside riv- pipes laying under the gravel view towards upstream. In
erbank is an outcrop of red ‘Gura bed may currently be seen at August, 2006, the road was
Beliei’ marls. the water surface. damaged by lateral erosion.

95
96 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99

Engineering works performed in the channel increased the

cross-section area and bankfull discharge, so W/D ratio dropped.
This short‐term human influence, together with gravel mining, accel-
erates the natural long-term tendency of the stream over this study
reach to incise and lose its secondary branches due to vegetation
growth in the floodplain and insufficient supply of coarse sediments
(from upstream, tributaries and lateral floodplain), in the context of
presented geomorphologic trend and a moderately-dry hydrologic
regime.

4.3.3. Changes in longitudinal profile

In this research, a lowering of up to 5 m of thalweg line with respect
to floodplain altitude was identified along the entire study reach in the
1980–2006 period. The value of skewness indicator (−0.5) displays a
slight negative asymmetry which shows a more reduced presence of ac-
cumulation areas, and especially of equilibrium areas. The decrease of
aggradation areas is also related to in-stream gravel mining activity.
The same three most important erosion areas A–C along the stud-
ied reach were also found through diachronic analysis of cartographic
data and field surveys. These have lengths between 1 and 6 km. The
downcutting of the thalweg with respect to river banks vary from 1
to 4 m in the channel cross-section area. From north to south, the
limits of these areas are: (A) from the railway bridge in Comarnic
Town to south of the Comarnic-Breaza bridge, (B) from the railway
bridge near the town of Breaza and the gorge-like valley dug in the
southern part of the Breaza synclinal, (C) between the railway bridge
and the road bridge over Prahova near Cornu village (Fig. 10A, B, C
and Table 5).
Area A (cross‐section profiles 49–57) is placed morphologically at
the exit of the Prahova River from the Carpathian gorge and the con-
fluence with Belia River, its right bank tributary (Fig. 10). The conflu-
ence moved 1 km south at the T1 level, as a result of a river capture at
Fig. 11. Cross-section profile no. 6.5 (Gauging Station Câmpina); a. evolution in time; b.
this morphological level. The capture proves the persistence of a water level at bankfull discharge (for the 2006 bathymetry), Qbf = 208 m3/s (from hy-
highly erosive potential starting with this terrace level. This section draulic model).
is characterized by the appearance of slightly permeable red marls
that are relatively undamaged by the water flow. The red marls pres-
ent many cracks and intersecting veins filled with neo-formation cal-
cite. At the bridge (with concrete piers) that links the railway station 110 m south during the 1980–2007 period (see photo 3 in Table 5).
to the main road, the pillar footing cast on these red marls is exposed The erosion process extends up to the pedestrian bridge with metal
on about 2–3 m in depth. For this reason the rocks became more per- pillars towards Breaza station along a distance of about 300 m.
meable and disaggregated. At about 250 m upstream of profile 4, is the Câmpina gauging sta-
Area B (cross‐section profiles 37–43) develops on the northern tion, located in a newly formed erosion area D. This area was observed
flank of the Breaza syncline. The synclinal structure presents a pro- on site, as well as emphasized by the mathematical model. The area
nounced plunge towards east (Fig. 10). The layers drop towards may also be identified from historic maps and overlapses a possible
south and east and are perpendicular on the water course. In this sec- fault at the limit between Romanian and Pleistocene (Armaş et al.
tor there is a tendency of the channel to move towards east. This 2003). In Fig. 11a is shown a comparison between two profiles sur-
trend is being supported structurally by the vicinity with the syncline veyed in this cross-section in July 2002 and June 2006. From this plot
axis, emphasized by the decreasing river's tendency to form second- one may see a 31 cm thalweg incision and a 5 m narrowing of main
ary channels, after 1960. This structural tendency can be found in channel. The water level corresponding to bankfull discharge (Qbf =
the morphological characteristic of the Breaza bassinette, with a 208 m3/s) is shown in Fig. 11b as a result of hydraulic modeling with
vast development of the fluvial terrace system on the right side of the 2006 bathymetry.
the river. Between the reaches characterized by deep accelerated erosion,
In Area C (cross‐section profiles 19–31), the valley shows a others with stable or with slight deposition/accretion (of about
gorge-like incision, downstream the slightly suspended Breaza syn- 1 m) of the channel can be noticed. Their length is between 500 m
cline depression; in the southern flank (Fig. 10). The incision is carved and 1 km. The ratio between the total length of the incised areas
in Brebu conglomerates and Cornu Beds (schistic pseudo-disodilic and the vertical drop of the thalweg is 3.32 (Pascu, 1999).
sandstone with centimetric insertions of menilite and gyps). The Main aggradations areas are situated upstream the Breaza railway
river creates a system of small rapids, even for low discharge values. bridge (A′), along the axis of Breaza synclinal (B′), at the confluence
After 1977, the channel incision processes in this C sector began to with Campinita (or Campea) River (C′) and at the confluence with
have mainly human causes: aggregate extraction in the quarry, the Doftana tributary and transition to the Piedmont Plain (D′).
construction of a concrete road bridge (that ensures the access from The aggradation area A′ (cross-section profiles 44–48) develops in
the national road — DN1 to Breaza town) and curve-straightening Eocene layers, with a tendency to create an erosion depression. The
project of the national road near Săracilă's Valley (that needed exca- aggradation area B′ (cross-section profiles 32–36) develops along
vations in gypsum). the syncline axis and immediately south of Breaza syncline axis,
The works for riverbank stabilization were inefficient; the road forming an ‘emptying’ area through amphitheatre landslides of ter-
was constantly damaged in this section, by moving the meander race valley slopes. The terraces along the left bank of Prahova valley
 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99
were transformed into a huge glacis. On the right side of the valley,
the shape of the terrace T2 is still preserved. The slide-away terrain
is deposited in the floodplain. Field surveys of cross-section profile
36 prove the maximum accumulation potential along the Breaza syn-
cline found by the model.
The aggradation area C′ (cross-section profiles 12–17) crops out at
the confluence with Campinita River along a fault line. Cross-section
profile 17, which shows the maximum accumulation potential in
the hydraulic model, corresponds to the Campinita tributary cone,
where Prahova River has cut a sharp 6 m tall bank. In the confluence
area, there is an opening over 30 m in height in terrace gravels, which
shows the aggradational character of the T2 terrace. The river re-
sponse to Quaternary uplift is reflected up to the Campinita junction
by the degradation type of T2 terrace.
The observed channel widening and braiding response down-
stream tributary junctions can be explained by the additional water
and sediment input.
Another important accumulation area is situated at the exit of the
Prahova River from the Subcarpathian area into the Piedmont plain,
downstream the town of Câmpina (aggradation area D′). Only two
cross-section profiles (4 and 5) of this area are included in the model,
since this is the downstream limit of the DEM used in present study.
The independent samples T test reaches statistical significance be-
tween the erosion and accumulation areas with respect to the differ-
ence in depth at the scale of the active channel cross-section and the
thalweg incision (t = 5.13; df = 34; sig. = 0.001). The test is also sta-
tistically significant for the difference in width between floodplain
(Wf) and bankflow (Wb) (t = 3.6; df = 34; sig. = 0.001). At the same
time, the overall cross-section is, in all the cases, subject to a slight
widening; this happened as a consequence of active landslides on ter-
race scarps, which imposed the progressive retreat of slopes (Armaş
and Damian, 2002, 2006; Armaş et al., 2003; Armaş, 2011a, 2011b).
The ANOVA test is statistically significant between the errosion and
accumulation areas with respect to the floodplain width (F = 11.93,
df = 6, sig. = 0.001) and to the thalweg incision (F = 2.62, df = 6,
sig. = 0.037).
As Rinaldi wrote in 2003, narrowing represents the type of width
adjustment affecting the active channel during the XXth century, as a
major reaction to human disturbances mainly through sediment min-
ing activity. To check if this type of adjustment is true for the study
area, the difference in depth (in m) at the scale of the cross-section
was reported as a function of the difference in width (in m) between
the whole floodplain and the bankfull channel. Pearson correlation
shows a reduced negative correlation which reaches statistical signif-
icance (r = − 0.3; sig. = 0.01; two-tailed). If the floodplain width in-
creases, the main channel depth has a slight decreasing tendency.
5. Summary and conclusions
Subcarpathian Prahova River reach (representing 9% of total river
length) has a mean steep bed slope of about 11.6 m/km, a low sinuos-
ity index of about 1.1, and a mean width/depth ratio of 30. According
to Parker's (1976) and Leopold and Wolman (1957)' classification of
planform patterns in terms of bankfull discharge of the natural chan-
nel and slope, verified by field observations and map records, this
stream section has a braiding planform pattern. Riverbed material
consists of cobbles, gravel and sand whereas flow regime is mixed flu-
vial and torrential, having a higher mean stream power than the one
along the upstream reach. Two tributaries deliver water and sedi-
ments from only 2% of total Prahova watershed area.
During the last century railway, roads, bridges and channel regula-
tion and bank protection works were built along the Prahova Valley,
together with oil and in-channel gravel exploitation. Afforestation, ri-
parian vegetation growth, sediment mining, upstream dams, and
structural measures to entrap debris transported by small tributary
torrents added their contribution to the already reduced natural
97
sediment and liquid fluxes (due to increased urbanization), in the
context of a moderately dry hydrological regime over the last century.
During important floods the coarse bed material (from upstream, bed
and bars) overcomes its competence limit and is flushed away
through this reach downstream to the most important sedimentation
zone of the confluence with Doftana (D′).
Prahova River's channel has been narrowing, incising, straighten-
ing, and abandoning its lateral secondary channels, over the last
100 years, similarly with adjustment trends recorded for many
mountain rivers in Europe. Field and cartographic investigations indi-
cated a rate of about 0.2 mm/year vertical incision of Prahova active
channels. An incision of about 3 to 5 m in the last 10 years may clear-
ly be observed in some areas of the main channel, and also an aban-
donment of its lateral branches compared to last century maps.
Human negative impact amplified the natural, long-term tendency
of the river for incision, narrowing and transition from a braided
into a sinuous, single-thread planform pattern.
The field studies carried out during a period of seven years along the
Prahova Valley, allowed the authors to understand fluvial morphology
and evolution in relation to local lithological, structural setting and
man-induced changes. Field evidence of geomorphic changes was
assessed through geological, geomorphologic and pedo-geographic
qualitative mapping, shallow excavations, trenches and boreholes.
The main outcome is that the long‐term morphological character-
istic of Prahova River channel is imposed by neotectonic uplifts and
influenced by the structural setting and local-scale lithologic factors,
developed and maintained by the principles of river geomorphology
laws. When the Romanian Plain base level changed, the Prahova
River Subcarpathian sector was transformed from an accumulation
zone (T2 level) into a transfer zone.
Three main areas (A–C) along the study reach of Prahova River
were observed on site presenting intense bed degradation, expo-
sure of bridge piers, abutments footing or buried pipes, riverbed
material washout down to the bedrock, erosion of road and railway
embankments, abandonment of lateral secondary channels, and
gorges-like sectors by thalweg incision of main channel or river-
bank collapse. They matched the areas identified by numerical simula-
tions performed under steady flow conditions with a 1D hydraulic
model (in HEC-RAS), for the peak discharge of a typical, 20-year flood
event. The riverbed geometry was obtained from recent topo-
bathymetric surveys and detailed recent floodplain maps. The ero-
sion prone areas were identified by the higher values of velocity
(3 ÷ 4 m/s), shear stress (150 ÷ 280 N/m 2) and corresponding low
values of width to depth ratio (up to 30).
In addition to the downcutting and observations on decreasing
sinuosity and braiding, there is also a tendency of floodplain disap-
pearance and transformation into a terrace (being less influenced by
the floods). On the steep banks, two deepening steps may be distin-
guished. These can be correlated with a bedrock riverbed cut, in the
convex areas of the meanders, where the mild slope banks are cov-
ered by water only during high flow periods.
Future human intervention along the studied reach (and particularly
in areas A, B and C) should not be planned without a complex under-
standing of the river channel evolutional tendencies, imposed by the
tectonic-structural and specific erosive conditions. These factors are
even more important for the local evolution of the river channel, as
they correlate with specific dynamics of the slope, in an area with a
high susceptibility to landslides and a high environmental vulnerability.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to thank unknown referees for their detailed
comments and very useful advice. The study was accomplished based
on the CNCSIS 2916/31 GR project grant, financed from the Romanian
state budget and having as Principal Investigator Prof. I. Armaş.
98 I. Armaş et al. / Catena 100 (2012) 83–99
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