sustainability

Article
An Analysis of Rural Household Livelihood Change
and the Regional Effect in a Western Impoverished
Mountainous Area of China
Chuansheng Wang
Key Laboratory of Regional Sustainable Development Modeling,
Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; wangcs@igsnrr.ac.cn




Received: 13 April 2018; Accepted: 9 May 2018; Published: 25 May 2018


Abstract: Taking Longnan, in the western Qinling Mountains region of Gansu province, China,
as our study area, and using the Sixth National Population Census alongside household survey
data, we analyze changes in household livelihoods, and consequent regional effects, following the
instigation of the “Grain for Green” program in 1999. Our results show rural livelihood changes
with respect to natural assets (e.g., reduction of arable land, planting structure changes), human
assets (e.g., labor quality improvement, fluidity of population), financial assets (e.g., income channels
widening, income increasing), physical assets (e.g., optimized production tools), and social assets
(e.g., information network development, increased outreach opportunities). We suggest that increased
household livelihoods play an important role in improving land space utilization efficiency, resource
conservation and use, and the ecological environment. However, owing to the natural environment,
there are also some problems, such as “hollows” in rural production and living spaces, as well as
local environmental degradation. To address these issues, regions such as the western, mountainous,
impoverished area of our study should establish a policy of using ecosystems, as well as agriculture,
for development in order to improve household livelihoods, build an efficient spatial structure,
and providing support for the creation of a resource-saving societal system.

Keywords: assets; ecosystems; Grain for Green program; household; livelihood change; poverty area;
sustainable rural livelihood

1. Introduction
The concept of “livelihood”, as proposed by Chambers and Conway [1], refers to a means of
securing a living, and includes peoples’ livelihood capabilities and activities, as well as their tangible
assets (stores and resources) and intangible assets (claims and access). It may also be defined depending
on the research angle; for Scoones (1998), whose Institute of Development Studies paper focuses on
sustainable livelihoods, a livelihood comprises “the capabilities, assets (both material resources and
social resources), and activities required for a means of living” [2]. Ellis (2000) [3], from the perspective
of livelihood diversification, points out that “a livelihood comprises the assets (natural, physical,
human, financial, and social capital), the activities, and the access to these (mediated by institutions
and social relations) that together determine the living gained by the individual or household.”
Although scholars analyze the concept of “livelihood” in different ways, its definition consistently
features elements such as assets, rights, and actions.
Since the 1990s, rural poverty and rural development have received increasing international
attention, and the concept of “livelihood” has provided researchers with a new perspective through
which to study rural poverty alleviation, as well as the environmental protection of rural development
in developing countries [4–7]. Fundamentally, a household is observed to be poor in relation to

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738; doi:10.3390/su10061738 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 2 of 17

its vulnerability and location in a high-risk living environment. In China, areas of poverty and of
ecological fragility are highly consistent in spatial distribution [8]. A fragile ecological environment,
shortage of water resources, ecological problems, ineffective communication structures, and other
issues are all associated with a high vulnerability of household livelihood and lack of livelihood
strategies [9,10]. Therefore, household livelihood capacity improvement and sustainable ecosystem
construction can be seen as contributing factors toward rural poverty alleviation. At the end of
the last century, to address the problem of poverty in the country’s western provinces, the Chinese
Government implemented a series of poverty alleviation policies, including the “Grain for Green”
(or “Sloping Land Conversion”) program, in which farmers were paid to return cropland on steep
slopes to forest or grassland. The program, which began in 1999, has already effected 9.1 million
hectares of farmland afforestation, involving 25 provinces (cities), more than 32 million households,
and 124 million farmers [11]. Of the six key forestation projects implemented in China at the end of the
20th century, Grain for Green is considered to be the most significant in terms of area, scope, investment,
and policy—and is closely related to the individual interests (assets, rights, and actions) of thousands
of farmers [12]. The program has not only had a remarkable effect on controlling soil erosion and
improving China’s rural ecological environment, but has also played an active role in the adjustment
of the country’s agricultural economic structure, and in increasing the earning opportunities for many
farmers. In contrast to the European Union policy CAP [13], China’s Grain for Green program focuses
on reversing the situation of land deterioration in ecologically fragile areas, reducing the heavy food
demand and over-reclamation, and developing those areas stuck in long-term poverty caused by
these factors. Its aim is to restore the natural environment and to improve household livelihood.
Nevertheless, the two agree on the goals of the diversity of household livelihood and the sustainability
of rural areas.
Our paper takes Longnan city, located in the Qinba Mountains, as its study area for analysis of
changes in household livelihoods, as well as in regional resources and the environmental effects of
returning cropland to forestland or grassland. As one of the 14 poverty areas, the Qinba Mountains is
a key target of the Grain for Green program. Based on the theoretical framework of the sustainable
household livelihood analysis set up by the British Government’s Department for International
Development (DFID), we study and generalize the characteristics of sustainable household change
since the launch of the Grain for Green, in terms of natural, human, financial, physical and social assets.
Furthermore, we analyze the positive regional effects observed from the Grain for Green program
on the intensification of agricultural production space, urbanization, the resource utilization, and the
environmental protection, to provide a scientific basis for the further policy establishment.
In China, through a general deepening of research into the issues of poverty, studies of household
livelihoods have become more widespread, too [14]. The literature shows that different livelihood
strategies not only influence the type and intensity of land utilization, for example, but also the effective
allocation of livelihood assets and activities, and the improvement of income and living standards
(e.g., [15,16]). Traditional livelihoods increase land burden, ecological overload, and the probability of
degradation. Moreover, the frequency and scale of ecological disasters, such as flooding, are increasing
too, and the natural environment is deteriorating under burgeoning population pressure. More recently,
the ecological effect of the transition of agricultural households’ livelihoods has also been seen to
be significant [17,18], as since the 1980s, migration has become popular as farmers seek alternative
sources of employment; furthermore, ecological vulnerability deterioration has been alleviated for
migrant areas. However, while the ecosystem has been seen to have improved from a national and
even an international perspective, the local environment has deteriorated.

2. Study Area
Our study area is located in the southeast of Gansu province (Figure 1), between 32◦ 380 N–34◦ 310 N
and 104◦ 10 E–106◦ 350 E, and has a total area of 27,900 square kilometers. Longnan is the only region in
Gansu through which the Yangtze River flows. It is situated in the convergence of the Qinghai–Tibet
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

2. Study Area
Our study
Sustainability area
2018, 10, 1738is
located in the southeast of Gansu province (Figure 1), between 32°38′3 ofN– 17
34°31′ N and 104°1′ E–106°35′ E, and has a total area of 27,900 square kilometers. Longnan is the only
region in Gansu through which the Yangtze River flows. It is situated in the convergence of the
Plateau, Loess Plateau, and
Qinghai–Tibet western
Loess Qinling
Plateau, Mountains,
and western and has
Qinling a complex
Mountains, andhas
and varied terrain; and
a complex it is
higher in the northwest than in the southeast, and there are mountains, valleys, hills,
varied terrain; it is higher in the northwest than in the southeast, and there are mountains, valleys, and basins
interwoven
hills, throughout.
and basins interwoven throughout.
Longnan city isisininthe
Longnan city theEast
East Asian
Asian monsoon
monsoon climate
climate zone,
zone, withwith an average
an average annual
annual rainfall
rainfall of
of 450–
450–1000 mm concentrated in the summer (July–August). There are 3762 large
1000 mm concentrated in the summer (July–August). There are 3762 large and small rivers within and small rivers
within
the the territory,
territory, which which
belongbelong
to theto Jialing,
the Jialing, Bailong,
Bailong, Baishui,
Baishui, and and Xihanmajor
Xihan majorriver
river systems.
systems.
Administratively, the region comprises one urban district, Wudu district, eight counties,
Administratively, the region comprises one urban district, Wudu district, eight counties, (Cheng (Cheng county,
Hui county,
county, Hui Liangdang county, Wen
county, Liangdang county,
county, WenDangchang county, Licounty,
county, Dangchang county,LiXihe county,
county, Xiheand Kang
county,
county),
and Kang191 townships,
county), and 3200 villages.
191 townships, and 3200 villages.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Location
Location map
map of
of study
study area.
area.

It
It is
ishome
hometoto21 21ethnic
ethnicgroups,
groups,including
including thethe
Han,
Han, Hui, Tibetan,
Hui, andand
Tibetan, Zhuang
Zhuang peoples.
peoples.At the
Atend
the
of
end of 2012, its total population was 2.58 million, including 1.98 million rural people (accounting for
2012, its total population was 2.58 million, including 1.98 million rural people (accounting for
76.6%
76.6% of of the
the total
totalpopulation).
population).TheTheregion’s
region’sGDP GDPwas was 22.6
22.6 billion
billion yuan
yuan (N.B.
(N.B. All All monetary
monetary units
units in
in this
this article are RMB; the exchange rate for the dollar is 1 USD = 6.2855
article are RMB; the exchange rate for the dollar is 1 USD = 6.2855 yuan at the time of publication), yuan at the time of
publication),
representing representing 3.98%GDP.
3.98% of Gansu’s of Gansu’s
Longnan’s GDP. Longnan’s
rural per capita rural
netper capitawas
income net3088
income was 3088
yuan—much
yuan—much
lower than Gansu’s lower 4506.7
than Gansu’s
yuan, as4506.7
it is one yuan,
of theasprovince’s
it is one of lessthe province’s
developed lessregions.
rural developed rural
regions.
3. Materials and Methods
3. Materials and Methods
Data Collection
Data Collection
The graphic data required for research was sourced from the international scientific data service
platform and thedata
The graphic man–land
requiredsystem database
for research wasofsourced
the ChinesefromAcademy of Sciences.
the international Household
scientific data
data service
was obtained
platform and thethrough Gansu’s
man–land 2010database
system population census
of the [19], Academy
Chinese and through the use ofHousehold
of Sciences. questionnaires.
data
We selected
was obtained 19through
typical villages
Gansu’ssituated in differentcensus
2010 population geomorphologies to obtain
[19], and through thefarmers’ livelihood data,
use of questionnaires.
including
We selected situation of population,
19 typical education,
villages situated cultivated
in different land area and type,
geomorphologies income
to obtain and expenditure,
farmers’ livelihood
housing,
data, water, energy,
including situationinfrastructure,
of population, andeducation,
so on. In total, 455 questionnaires
cultivated land area and were sent
type, out, 428
income andof
which were returned
expenditure, housing,(94%).
water,In addition,
energy, economic data
infrastructure, and were
so on.derived
In total,from the “Statistical were
455 questionnaires Yearbook
sent
for Gansu
out, Province”,
428 of which werethe National
returned Territory
(94%). Bureau,
In addition, the Forestry
economic data Bureau, and the
were derived fromOffice of Poverty
the “Statistical
Alleviation and Reduction, among other official sources.
The sample region is the Wudu district, which is the administrative seat of Longnan city. It is the
region with the most significant population distribution, the highest density, the most considerable
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 4 of 17

land pressure, and is the affected by the Grain for Green program. Further, the sample region located
on the mid-west of the study area includes almost all physiognomy types and modes of production in
the area. Regarding selecting sample areas, the study not only takes different types of landforms into
account, letting the research cover as many of the main livelihood characteristics of rural households in
different regions as possible, but also considers the differences in the income of households in different
areas. Table 1 shows the basic information of households in the sample region.

Table 1. Basic statistics of sample questionnaires.

Each Household
Overall
Average Max Min Mode
Population (person) 2342 5.1 12 1 4
Population aged 15 and under (person) 418 0.9 5 0 1
Population aged 60 and over (person) 462 1.0 4 0 2
Illiterate population (person) 233 0.5 2 0 1
Population college graduate and over (person) 212 0.5 3 0 0
Labor force (person) 1256 2.8 5 0 2
Arable land (hm2 ) 155 0.3 1.3 0.01 0.2
Annual income (yuan/person) 3250 / / / /
Annual income (yuan/household) / 16,728.6 40,000 400 20,000
“Grain for Green” area (hm2 ) 42.2 0.2 0 0.01 0.1

4. Research Design
The concept of sustainable development, or sustainability, can be traced to the 1987 report of
the UN World Commission on Environment and Development (or, the Brundtland Commission),
“Our common future” [20]. The term “sustainable livelihood,” commonly used by researchers and
development actors with a focus on poverty reduction and livelihoods in developing countries, is one of
several derivatives of “sustainable development.” An early attempt at defining sustainable livelihood
in the spirit of the Brundtland Commission’s report was made by Chambers and Conway [21],
whose definition was, in turn, modified by Carney) [22]: “A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope
with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both
now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base” (e.g., [23,24]).
The sustainable livelihood framework is a conceptual approach used to understand the linkages
between livelihood assets and activities, and to identify livelihood strategies and the ways in which
local people respond to shocks and stresses. It is a people-centered dynamic that bridges gaps between
micro- and macro-development approaches, which focus on people’s strengths rather than on their
needs [25,26]. The framework brings together all relevant aspects of sustainable livelihoods into
development theory, and provides a way to understand the complexity and diversity of livelihood
systems. The sustainable livelihoods approach focuses on the diverse ways in which people attain
their livelihoods, which is particularly relevant in poor and rural communities, such as those in our
study area, where people attain livelihoods through multiple activities rather than through a single,
formal job [27].
Organizations that have developed or adopted various versions of the sustainable livelihood
framework include the Sustainable Livelihoods research program of the Institute for Development
Studies (University of Sussex, UK), the British Government’s Department for International
Development (DFID), the United Nations Development Programme, the International Fund for
Agricultural Development, and CARE, a non-governmental relief agency [24]. DFID’s version
of the sustainable livelihood framework is perhaps the most cited in the literature, and the most
representative. A sustainable livelihoods approach to development generally focuses on the existing
capital of local people in five capital-based assets: (1) natural, (2) financial, (3) physical, (4) human,
and (5) social [2,28–30].
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

representative. A sustainable livelihoods approach to development generally focuses on the existing

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 5 of 17
capital of local people in five capital-based assets: (1) natural, (2) financial, (3) physical, (4) human,
and (5) social [2,28–30].
In
In our
our study,
study, a specific
specific conceptual framework
framework for
for sustainable
sustainable rural
rural livelihoods
livelihoods was
was designed
designed for
for
Longnan,
Longnan, as as illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 2.
2. We
We focus
focus on
on vulnerability
vulnerability analyses,
analyses, and
and on
on livelihood
livelihood (assets)
(assets)
changes,
changes, strategies,
strategies, and
and outcomes
outcomes for
for Longnan.
Longnan.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. The
Thespecific
specific conceptual
conceptual framework
framework for
for sustainable
sustainable rural
rural livelihoods
livelihoods on
on Longnan.
Longnan.

5. Background
5. Background
5.1.
5.1. Research
Research Context
Context
Longnan,
Longnan, located
located to
to the
the west
west of
of Qinling
QinlingMountains,
Mountains,isisaatraditionally
traditionallypoor
poorand
andecologically
ecologicallykey,
key,
yet fragile, area of China [31,32]. It is also ascribed to the Qinba Mountains region, one of 14
yet fragile, area of China [31,32]. It is also ascribed to the Qinba Mountains region, one of 14 povertypoverty
areas identifiedininChina’s
areas identified China’s “Twelfth
“Twelfth Five-Year
Five-Year Plan”Plan”
whichwhich
guidesguides
nationalnational
poverty poverty alleviation
alleviation planning.
planning. Its poverty and ecological fragility are delineated
Its poverty and ecological fragility are delineated as follows. as follows.

5.2.
5.2. Lack
Lack of
of Living
Living Space
Space and
and Production
Production Space
Space
As
As shown in Figure Figure3,3,ininLongnan,
Longnan,land landarea
area with
with a slope
a slope gradient
gradient greater
greater thanthan 25 degrees
25 degrees is
is 43%
43% of the total land area, and below 15 degrees is a quarter of the total land area;
of the total land area, and below 15 degrees is a quarter of the total land area; within the latter category, within the latter
category, below 8which
below 8 degrees, degrees, which for
is suitable is suitable
large-scaleforurbanization
large-scale urbanization and industrialization,
and industrialization, is 2350.4 square is
2350.4 square
kilometers, kilometers,
accounting foraccounting
just 8.4% offor justland
total 8.4%area.
of total
Based landonarea.
data Based
from theon Land
data from the Land
Department of
Department
Longnan, theofcity’s Longnan, the and
industrial city’s industrial
urban andisurban
land area land
only 34.6 area kilometers,
square is only 34.6accounting
square kilometers,
for 0.12%
accounting for 0.12%
of the land area of the land
(per capita, only area (per capita,
13.2 square onlythe
meters); 13.2 square
central meters);
city the construction
per capita central city per capita
land area
construction land area is only 51 square meters, which is only equivalent to half
is only 51 square meters, which is only equivalent to half that of the national per capita rate. Cultivated that of the national
per
landcapita
accountsrate.forCultivated
one-fifth ofland
totalaccounts
land area,for butone-fifth of total land
if slope farmland area, but
is removed, if slope
below farmland
15 degrees is
arable
removed,
land accountsbelow for15 degrees
only 5% of arable
the landland
areaaccounts for only
(see Figures 3 and5% 4).ofLarge
the land
areasarea (see Figures
of ecological space3 and 4).
feature
Large areas of ecological space feature alongside a lack of production and living
alongside a lack of production and living space in Longnan, so it is difficult to construct a scale benefit space in Longnan,
so it isstructure,
spatial difficult which
to construct a scale
has seriously benefitdevelopment.
restricted spatial structure, which has seriously restricted
development.
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Figure 3.3.Slope
Figure3.
Figure Slope in
Slopein Longnan.
inLongnan.
Longnan.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. LUCC in
in Longnan.
Figure 4.LUCC
LUCC inLongnan.
Longnan.

5.3. Fragile
5.3. Fragile Ecological System,
System, Heavy Ecological/Environmental-Protection
Ecological/Environmental-Protection Task
5.3. FragileEcological
Ecological System,Heavy
Heavy Ecological/Environmental-Protection Task Task
On
On the one
theoneone hand,
hand, with
with the area’s
thegeological geological
area’s structure,
geologicalbroken structure,
structure, broken geomorphology,
broken geomorphology,
On the hand, with the area’s geomorphology, over-reclamation,
over-reclamation, and
over-reclamation, and other
other factors,
factors, the
the phenomena
phenomena of of flood-waterlogging,
flood-waterlogging, landslides,
landslides, mud–rock
mud–rock
and other factors, the phenomena of flood-waterlogging, landslides, mud–rock flow, and soil erosion
flow,
flow, and
and soil
soil erosion
erosion are
are particularly
particularly problematic
problematic in
in Longnan.
Longnan. According
According to
to information
information provided
provided
are particularly problematic in Longnan. According to information provided by the region’s Land
by the
by the region’s
region’s Land
Land Resources
Resources Bureau,
Bureau, Longnan,
Longnan, as as one
one ofof the
the most
most frequent
frequent mud–rock
mud–rock flow areas,
areas,
Resources Bureau, Longnan, as one of the most frequent mud–rock flow areas, is a keyflowmud–rock
is aa key
is key mud–rock
mud–rock flowflow defense site.site. To date,
date, the mud–rock
mud–rock flow area area is
is about
about 11,658
11,658 square
flow defense site. To date,defense
the mud–rockTo flow areatheis about 11,658flow square kilometers, or 41.8%square
of the
kilometers,
kilometers, or 41.8% of
or 41.8% ofthe the total
thelandslidearea.
total area. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, the landslide
theis landslide distribution
distribution area is around 9076
area is around 9076
total area. Meanwhile, distribution area around 9076 square kilometers, accounting
square kilometers,
square kilometers, accounting
accounting forfor 32.5%
32.5% of of the total
total area.
area. In In addition,
addition, the
the deterioration
deterioration of the
the natural
natural
for 32.5% of the total area. In addition, thethe
deterioration of the natural environment inofsome places,
environment in
environment in some
some places,
places, due
due to
to long-term
long-term land
land cultivation
cultivation and and unauthorized
unauthorized mining
mining of
of mineral
mineral
due to long-term land cultivation and unauthorized mining of mineral resources, is so severe that to
resources, is
resources, is so severe
severe that
that to
to build
build effective
effective and
and sustainable
sustainable ecological
ecological areas willwill require
require
build effectiveso and sustainable ecological areas will require considerable time and areasextensive ecosystem
considerable time
considerable time and
and extensive
extensive ecosystem
ecosystem restoration
restoration and
and management.
management.
restoration and management.
On the other hand, Longnan has an important ecological
On the other hand, Longnan has an important ecological protection protection status,
status, in
in which
which the
the “two
“two
jiang and one river” (the Bailong Jiang and Baishui Jiang tributaries and
jiang and one river” (the Bailong Jiang and Baishui Jiang tributaries and the Xihan River) area the Xihan River) area
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 7 of 17

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On the other hand, Longnan has an important ecological protection status, in which the “two jiang
represents an important
and one river” ecological
(the Bailong region
Jiang and of the
Baishui upper
Jiang Yangtzeand
tributaries River,
the and
XihanhasRiver)
an important water
area represents
conservation function. More than 60% of the area is listed as an ecological function
an important ecological region of the upper Yangtze River, and has an important water conservation zone (Figure 5),
with areas within it categorized, according the national territory development plan,
function. More than 60% of the area is listed as an ecological function zone (Figure 5), with areas as “prohibitive
development” or “limited
within it categorized, development”
according zones.
the national Among
territory these, limited
development plan, development
as “prohibitivezones include
development”
the Baishui Jiang Nature Reserve in Wen county, Jifengshan National Forest Park
or “limited development” zones. Among these, limited development zones include the Baishui Jiang in Cheng county,
Tianchi
Nature National
Reserve in Forest Park in Jifengshan
Wen county, Wen county, and Guanegou
National Forest Park National
in Cheng Forest ParkTianchi
county, in Dangchang
National
county; national prohibitive development zones, such as in Qinba;
Forest Park in Wen county, and Guanegou National Forest Park in Dangchang county; national and biodiversity and
conservation ecological regions, such as in Wudu district, Dangchang county, Liangdang
prohibitive development zones, such as in Qinba; and biodiversity and conservation ecological regions, county,
Wen
suchcounty, and Kang
as in Wudu county.
district, Dangchang county, Liangdang county, Wen county, and Kang county.

Figure
Figure5.5.Main
MainArea
AreaofofEcological
EcologicalConstruction
Constructionin
inLongnan.
Longnan.

5.4. Large Poverty Areas, Ecological Construction Policy Implementation Facing “Failure” Risk
5.4. Large Poverty Areas, Ecological Construction Policy Implementation Facing “Failure” Risk
The rural poverty area in Longnan is large. Before the latest “poverty area” categorizations
The rural poverty area in Longnan is large. Before the latest “poverty area” categorizations
published in China’s national poverty alleviation guidance, other than Cheng county and Hui
published in China’s national poverty alleviation guidance, other than Cheng county and Hui county,
county, seven of the region’s nine district/counties (182 townships, 2338 administrative villages,
seven of the region’s nine district/counties (182 townships, 2338 administrative villages, which,
which, respectively, account for 95% of the total townships and 73% of the total administrative
respectively, account for 95% of the total townships and 73% of the total administrative villages) were
villages) were identified as poverty areas. Moreover, in the recent national “Twelfth Five-Year Plan”
identified as poverty areas. Moreover, in the recent national “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” for poverty
for poverty alleviation, all of Longnan’s district/counties were all listed within Qinba key poverty
alleviation, all of Longnan’s district/counties were all listed within Qinba key poverty areas, owing to
areas, owing to the implementation of a new poverty alleviation standard. Comparing Longnan’s
the implementation of a new poverty alleviation standard. Comparing Longnan’s rural per capita net
rural per capita net income with the national and provincial averages shows that only Cheng
income with the national and provincial averages shows that only Cheng county’s and Hui county’s
county’s and Hui county’s rural per capita net income are more than 50% of the national average, or
rural per capita net income are more than 50% of the national average, or more than 95% of the
more than 95% of the province’s average (Table 2). The remaining seven district/counties’ rural per
province’s average (Table 2). The remaining seven district/counties’ rural per capita net income are all
capita net income are all less than 40% of the national average, or less than 70% of the provincial
less than 40% of the national average, or less than 70% of the provincial average.
average.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 8 of 17

Table 2. Comparison of per capita net income of rural households in Longnan with national and
provincial averages.

Accounting for the Proportion of Accounting for the Proportion of

District, Counties
National (%) Province (%)
Longnan 38.84 67.13
Wudou 37.42 64.68
Cheng 55.50 95.92
Dangchang 31.64 54.69
Xihe 35.50 61.35
Hui 56.07 96.92
Liangdang 30.66 53.00
Li 37.15 64.21
Kang 36.39 62.90
Wen 33.57 58.02

In late 1990s, the national Grain for Green program was launched as an important strategic
measure to curb the deterioration of the natural environment, and alleviate regional ecological
pressures, as well as to address rural poverty. However, owing to factors such as the very large
areas of mountainous agricultural land and poverty areas, relatively fragile household livelihoods, low
income available through local agricultural production, and issues of technical upgrading, product
quality improvement, as well as the combating market fluctuations of eco-composite agricultural
production, there have been problems with rehabilitation and with interplanting high-stalk crops.
In some places, such crops are even planted in the spring and destroyed in autumn in Longnan on
the returned farmland. According to a 2005 study from the Forestry Department of Wudou District,
the area of high-stalk crops is more than 40% of 180,000 new afforestation lands.
Furthermore, because of low levels of urbanization, limited capacities of the receiving surplus
population, the migrant workers proportion is high, but not the migrant population ratio; that is to say,
this particular population reduction and alleviation mechanism has not completely been integrated.
Given the current situation, if there is no other, more effective population policy or system to alleviate
poverty in these areas, population pressures will increase again, and once the “floating population,”
or migrants from the area, return home, the Grain for Green program will face the risk of failure.

5.5. Traditional Resource Utilization Mode Is General, Economizing Resources Utilization Mode Faces
Technical Bottleneck
From the perspective of agricultural land output benefit, because of the changes in agricultural
planting structures since the launch of Grain for Green, the proportion of economic crop with high
output has significantly increased, and forest-under-economy has also seen rapid development.
Since 2005, the gross agricultural production value of units of cropland (including gardens) is 2.3%
to 2.5% higher than that of the province, and the total production value of farming, forestry, herding,
and fishery units of agricultural land is 4% higher than that of the province. However, because
Longnan is located in a mountainous area, the establishment of an economizing type of intensive,
recycling resources utilization model would require high investment costs and technical requirements.
Therefore, the traditional, extensive resource utilization model is still relatively common.
At present, the extensive use of resources is mainly manifested in two ways. On the one hand,
affected by the land form, rural settlements are scattered in layout, the degree of intensive utilization
is low, and per capita rural residential land is 159 square meters (more than the national standard
of 150 square meters). On the other hand, while the benefits from mining mineral resources are low,
the exploitation of mineral resources, in some areas, is still in the state of low efficiency and effect
serious damage to the environment.
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6. Results and Analysis

6. Results and Analysis
Longnan, by the end of 2011, completed a total of 231,230 hm2 under the Grain for Green
program,
Longnan,of which
by thefarmland afforestation
end of 2011, completedwas 82,430
a total of 231,230 hm2 under
hm2, barren hill afforestation
the Grain forwas
Green140,533 hm2,
program,
and
of closing
which forest afforestation
farmland area was 8267 hm82,430
was 2 2
; furthermore,
hm , barren 9 counties/district, 0.27 140,533
hill afforestation was million hm 2
households, and
, and closing
1.1 million rural 2
populations benefitted. Our study has observed rural livelihood
forest area was 8267 hm ; furthermore, 9 counties/district, 0.27 million households, and 1.1 million change, due to
Grainpopulations
rural for Green, as follows. Our study has observed rural livelihood change, due to Grain for Green,
benefitted.
as follows.
6.1. Changes in Natural Assets: Reduction of Arable Land, Planting Structure Change
6.1. Changes in Natural Assets: Reduction of Arable Land, Planting Structure Change
Land is the main farmer-dependent natural capital, in which cultivated land area change could
Landland-capital
indicate is the main and farmer-dependent
land-use patterns natural capital,
change. in which
According tocultivated
statistics, land area
during thechange
periodcould
from
indicate land-capital and land-use patterns change. According to statistics,
1999–2010, the cultivated land area decreased 1.1 × 10 hm , the sown area of grain crop has reduced
4 2 during the period from
1999–2010,
more than the 7000cultivated
hm2, andland area decreased
the proportion × 104 hm
1.1 arable
of total
2 the sown area of grain crop has reduced
land, reduced by 12 percentage points (Figure
more than 7000 hm 2 , and the proportion of total arable land reduced by 12 percentage points payments,
(Figure 6).
6). Since the Grain for Green program’s implementation, with the help of Government
Since the have
farmers Grainincreased
for Green economic
program’s forest
implementation, with the help of Government
planting areas—including pepper, apple,payments,
walnut,farmers
and so
have
on—andincreased
so theeconomic
proportion forest planting
of sown areasareas—including
of cash crops haspepper, apple, walnut,
seen a significant and Taking
increase. so on—and so
pepper
the proportion of sown areas of cash crops has seen a significant increase. Taking
as an example, according to an agriculture department survey, during the period 2001–2011, pepper pepper as an example,
according to an have
planting areas agriculture department
increased by 38,666.7survey,
hm2,during
outputthe hasperiod 2001–2011,
increased by nearlypepper
2200planting
× 104 kg,areas
and
have increased by 38,666.7 2
hm , 13.5
output has yuan
increased 4
by nearly 2200 × 10 kg, and pepper output
pepper output value was worth billion in 2011.
value was worth 13.5 billion yuan in 2011.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Area
Area Changes
Changes of
of Longnan
Longnan Cultivated
Cultivated Land
Landand
andGrain
GrainCorp.
Corp.

6.2. Changes
6.2. Changes in
in Human
Human Assets:
Assets: Quantity
Quantity of
of Labor
Labor Force
Force Reduced,
Reduced, Burden
BurdenCoefficient
CoefficientIncreased
Increased
Thereduction
The reductionof ofthe the
laborlabor
force force prefigures
prefigures farmer–human-capital
farmer–human-capital reduction.
reduction. Population Population
statistics
statistics
show show
that the that the
registered registered
population population
increased increased
by 0.17 by 0.17themillion
million people, residentpeople, the reduced
population resident
by 0.02 million people, and the agricultural population decreased by 0.07 million people by
population reduced by 0.02 million people, and the agricultural population decreased 0.07
during
million people during the period 2000–2010 in Longnan. Based on “Sixth
the period 2000–2010 in Longnan. Based on “Sixth Census” data, the rural population in LongnanCensus” data, the rural
populationfor
accounted in 80.9%
Longnan accounted
of its for 80.9%16.8
total population, of its total population,
percentage 16.8 percentage
points higher points higher
than the average of the
than the average of the province, and the rural labor force (from 15 to 59) accounted
province, and the rural labor force (from 15 to 59) accounted for 66.4% of the rural population, for 66.4% of the
rural
0.4 population,
percentage points0.4lower
percentage
than the points loweraverage.
provincial than the In provincial
addition, the average. In addition,
agricultural populationthe
agricultural population change is a repeating phenomenon. Table 3 shows
change is a repeating phenomenon. Table 3 shows that the county’s agricultural population decreased that the county’s
agricultural
from population
2002 to 2008, decreased
but, after from 2002
2008, showed to 2008, trend,
an increasing but, after 2008, showed
especially an increasing
Xihe county trend,
and Dangchang
especially
county; theXihe county and
agricultural Dangchang
population county;
in 2010 the agricultural
is significantly morepopulation
than in 2002,in which
2010 issuggests
significantly
the
more than in 2002, which suggests the
repeatability of the policy implementation effect.repeatability of the policy implementation effect.
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Table 3. Rural population Changes of Longnan (104 people).

Table 3. Rural population Changes of Longnan (104 people).
Area 2002 Year 2004 Year 2006 Year 2008 Year 2010 Year
Wudou
Area 46.70Year 2004
2002 44.62Year 2006
40.69Year 39.36
2008 Year 44.50
2010 Year
Wen 22.08 21.44 20.53 20.38 20.90
Wudou 46.70 44.62 40.69 39.36 44.50
Kang
Wen 18.73
22.08 18.51
21.44 17.69
20.53 17.58
20.38 17.84
20.90
Li
Kang 48.77
18.73 48.88
18.51 46.58
17.69 46.00
17.58 47.70
17.84
Li
Liangdang 48.77
3.97 48.88
3.92 46.58
3.98 46.00
3.95 47.70
3.96
Liangdang
Cheng 3.97
22.39 3.92
16.98 3.98
16.08 3.95
15.55 3.96
16.19
Cheng 22.39 16.98 16.08 15.55 16.19
Dangchang
Dangchang 27.35
27.35 27.34
27.34 24.20
24.20 24.15
24.15 28.06
28.06
Xihe
Xihe 34.45
34.45 35.40
35.40 34.21
34.21 33.83
33.83 38.92
38.92
Hui
Hui 19.28
19.28 19.28
19.28 18.91
18.91 18.73
18.73 18.95
18.95

The
The reduction
reduction of of human
human capital
capital leads
leads toto aa heavy
heavy labor
labor dependency
dependency burden. burden. In In 2010,
2010, Longnan’s
Longnan’s
rural labor burden coefficient is 70.4%, 0.4 percentage points higher than
rural labor burden coefficient is 70.4%, 0.4 percentage points higher than in the province. Among in the province. Among
them,
them, the dependency ratio of individuals over 60 years old and over 65
the dependency ratio of individuals over 60 years old and over 65 years are, respectively, 50.6% and years are, respectively,
50.6%
40.7%—0.9and 40.7%—0.9 and 0.6 points
and 0.6 percentage percentage
higherpoints
than inhigher than in the
the province. province. the
In addition, In emigration
addition, the of
emigration
a high-quality labor force leads to a low culture level in the population that remains. that
of a high-quality labor force leads to a low culture level in the population remains.
According to
According to statistics, in 2010 the illiteracy rate was 26.3% in people from ages
statistics, in 2010 the illiteracy rate was 26.3% in people from ages 15 to 65 years old, 11.8 percentage 15 to 65 years old,
11.8 percentage
points higher than points higher thanaverage.
the provincial the provincial average.
As
As a result of the implementation of
a result of the implementation of Grain
Grain forfor Green
Green program,
program, much much of of the
the local
local labor
labor force
force
could detach from the land, and thus “go-outside”. In other words, migration
could detach from the land, and thus “go-outside”. In other words, migration became an important became an important
livelihood
livelihood activity
activity ofof mountain
mountain farmers.
farmers. TheThe reason
reason forfor the
the agricultural
agricultural laborlabor force
force reduction,
reduction, on on the
the
one hand, is peasants working away from home, and, on the other, that
one hand, is peasants working away from home, and, on the other, that they turned to other industries, they turned to other
industries,
especially aespecially a third(see
third industry industry
Figure(see7). Figure
According7). According
to employee to employee
statistics,statistics,
since 1999,since
the1999, the
number
number of employees has reduced by 330 thousand people, and those
of employees has reduced by 330 thousand people, and those in the primary industry has reduced in the primary industry has
reduced by 290 people.
by 290 thousand thousand people. Employment–industry
Employment–industry analysis shows analysis
that the shows
employee thatproportion
the employee
of the
proportion of the primary industry has decreased by 2 percentage
primary industry has decreased by 2 percentage points; that in the non-agricultural industries points; that in hasthe
non-agricultural industries has been increasing, mainly in the tertiary
been increasing, mainly in the tertiary industry; the employee proportion of the tertiary industry industry; the employee
proportion
has increased of bythe3.8tertiary industry
percentage points;hasandincreased
the employeeby 3.8proportion
percentage points;
of the and the
secondary employee
industry has
proportion of the secondary
reduced by 1.8 percentage points. industry has reduced by 1.8 percentage points.

100 200
Employee proportion of thrree industries (%)

Quantity of emploee (104 people)

80 180

60 160

40 140

20 120

0 100
1999 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year
The porption of primary industry (%)
The porption of secondary industry (%)
The porption of tertiary industry (%)
The total employment
The quantity of primary employees

Figure7.
Figure StructureChanges
7.Structure Changesof
ofEmployment
Employment in
in Longnan
Longnan Primary
Primary Industry.
Industry.
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6.3. Changes in Financial Assets: Income Increase, More Capital Source Channels
6.3. Changes in Financial Assets: Income Increase, More Capital Source Channels
According to statistics, the per capita net income of farmers in Longnan has increased from 889
yuanAccording
in 1999 to to statistics,
2299 yuan inthe peracapita
2010, netincrease.
2.6-fold income At of the
farmers
sameintime,
Longnan
the perhas increased
capita from
disposable
889 yuanofinurban
income 1999 toresidents
2299 yuan in 2010, 3.1-fold
increased a 2.6-fold(Figure
increase.
8). At
Thetheincome
same time, the per
of urban capita disposable
residents increased
income of urbannet
from 3.8-times residents
income increased
per capita,3.1-fold
in 1999,(Figure 8). Theinincome
to 4.6-times of urban
2010; income residents
range increased
increased from from
2498
3.8-times net income
yuan to 8324 yuan, orperby
capita, in 1999,
3.3-times. to 4.6-times
This shows that, in 2010; income
although range increased
farmers’ income is from 2498 yuan
increasing, the
to 8324 yuan, or by 3.3-times. This shows that, although farmers’ income is increasing,
income gap between farmers and urban residents is widening, which undermines the value of the the income gap
between
increase. farmers and urban residents is widening, which undermines the value of the increase.

Yuan
Urban residents disposable income
12000 6
Net income per capita
The ratio of city and countryside average per person income
10000
5
8000

6000 4

4000
3
2000

0 2
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year

Figure 8. Income Changes of Longnan Urban and Rural Residents since 1999.

The results
The results ofof our
our questionnaire
questionnaire surveysurvey show
show that
that household
household income
income comes
comes from
from agricultural
agricultural
planting, migrant work, livestock-raising, business, various subsidies (such
planting, migrant work, livestock-raising, business, various subsidies (such as subsidy of the retirement as subsidy of the
retirement of cultivated land), and so on. Among these, for our sample households,
of cultivated land), and so on. Among these, for our sample households, migrant work and farming migrant workare
and farming are the main income sources, accounting for 79% of total
the main income sources, accounting for 79% of total revenue, while livestock-raising, doing business, revenue, while
livestock-raising,
and doing business,
other income account and other
for 21%. Loans usedincome account investment
in reproduction for 21%. Loansmainly used
come in from
reproduction
banks or
investment mainly come from banks or credit unions, or relatives and
credit unions, or relatives and friends, respectively accounting for 64% and 21% of the total surveyed friends, respectively
accounting for
households. 64% and
Moreover, 3%21% of the total
households surveyed households.
hold exorbitant usuries, and 12% Moreover,
have more3% thanhouseholds hold
two or three
exorbitant usuries, and 12% have more than two or three loans. In addition,
loans. In addition, 68% of surveyed households could raise funds when they need a loan or loans, 68% of surveyed
households
but could raise
32% of surveyed funds when
households findthey need a to
it difficult loan or loans,
obtain but 32%
cash loans. of surveyed
Examining the households find
use of the loans,
it difficult to obtain cash loans. Examining the use of the loans, only 23% are
only 23% are used for agricultural production, business, and other investments; 63% are for building used for agricultural
production,
or business,equipment,
buying household and other investments;
as well as 48% 63%forare for building
children or buying
in school, and 28% household equipment,
for the doctor.
as well as 48% for children in school, and 28% for the doctor.
6.4. Changes in Physical Assets: Production Tools Are Gradually Reduced, Domestic Luxury Goods
Are
6.4. Increasing
Changes in Physical Assets: Production Tools Are Gradually Reduced, Domestic Luxury Goods Are
Increasing
Influenced by terrain and cropland retirement, as well as more opportunity for migrant
work,Influenced
the number by of agricultural
terrain machinery
and cropland tools began
retirement, as welltoasdecline from the middle
more opportunity of the work,
for migrant 1990s.
Statistics
the number show that, in 2008,
of agricultural all farmers
machinery only
tools havetotwo
began largefrom
decline and the
medium-sized
middle of the tractors
1990s. in Wudu
Statistics
district in total,
show that, as well
in 2008, as 720 small
all farmers onlytractors.
have two Total
largetractor ownership wastractors
and medium-sized only 61% in in 1990,district
Wudu in which in
large- and medium-sized tractor ownership was only 1%.
total, as well as 720 small tractors. Total tractor ownership was only 61% in 1990, in which large- and
medium-sized
Findings fromtractor
ourownership
questionnairewas only 1%.show that production tools are gradually decreased,
survey
Findings
and that housingfromandour questionnaire
household surveyautomobiles,
appliances, show that production
motorcycles, tools
and areother
gradually
consumerdecreased,
goods
and that
have housing
become and household
the main fixed assets, appliances,
of which automobiles,
the change ofmotorcycles,
houses is theand other In
biggest. consumer goods
Wudu district,
have housing
rural become area
the main
in 2010fixed assets, ofthat
is 1.8-times which the and
of 1998, change of houses
housing is the
structure hasbiggest. In Wudu
thoroughly changed,district,
too,
rural housing area in 2010 is 1.8-times that of 1998, and housing structure has thoroughly changed,
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 12 of 17

with the proportion of adobe, civil structure-dominated to the reinforced concrete-structure housing
areas in all types of housing increasing from 2% in 1998 to 40%, followed by 21% of brick structures.

6.5. Changes in Social Assets: Infrastructure Is Rapidly Increasing, Outreach Opportunity Is Increasing
The opportunity for farmers to obtain social capital depends on the degree of the social network.
A network of social relations is the main way for farmers to understand and grasp market sales,
experience, and technology information. In the face of difficulties, the overall resources that farmers
can obtain from a social relations network can be divided into three types: financial (capital) help,
such as cash loans or other loan; human (labor) help, such as friends and relatives to help with
agricultural production or technical guidance in busy farming seasons; material help, such as tools,
seeds, and other support from friends in the production process.
When transportation and communications infrastructures are relatively backward, the establishment
of a rural social relations network basically depends on blood relationships, the village committee,
and neighborhood relations. Statistics show that, in 2010, highway mileage, internet users, and mobile
phone subscription numbers increased by 435%, 313.7%, and 583.2% respectively. Compared with
2004, this is 2- to 2.6-times higher than the provincial average levels. With the improvement of
infrastructure, the ways that farmers access information have been extended. According to the
results of our household survey, in the acquisition of agricultural production/sales information
channels, 67% is obtained by neighbors and friends, 18% through the village, and 15% through
cooperatives/agricultural associations, the network, or other channels.

7. Substantial Livelihood Outcomes

Given the significant poverty pressures and the fact that economic and social development
remains relatively backward, and the implementation of Grain for Green has not been perfect, while
there is evidence of a continuous improvement of household livelihoods and other positive regional
effects, there have also been some problems in Longnan.

7.1. Agricultural Production Space Is Ecological and Intensive

In Longnan, pepper, walnuts, and so on are brought into the “forest species” category under
the Grain for Green program, and the implementation of the policy has reduced the agricultural
production space for food crops, but increased the agricultural production space for ecological use.
Ecology and diversity of cultivated land use patterns occur simultaneously, leading to the rising
proportion of particular crops. According to Department of Agriculture statistics, the total area of
suitable, characteristically agricultural, industry development zone has reached 756,666.7 hm2 in
Longnan. It reached 524,633.3 hm2 of characteristic agricultural planting base by the end of 2009,
an area equivalent to 90% of the total arable land and garden area, with the main characteristic
industries, including walnuts, pepper, olive, herbs, vegetables, and so on.
Intensification of agricultural production space, primarily due to rural migrant labor reduction,
provides an opportunity for the peasant household production factors agglomeration and land-scale
management to promote the development of characteristic agriculture industrialization. According to
the Land Department statistics, by the end of 2012, in Wudou, the cumulated area of land circulation
is 7200 hm2 . In 2013, there are new, 3200 hm2 transfers of land, including arable (2133.3 hm2 ) and
barren hills and slopes (1066.7 hm2 ). From a circulation point of view, there are rental (2533.3 hm2 )
and swap (666.7 hm2 ), involving 43,000 farmers. Evidence of intensive land management and high
agricultural production efficiency includes a grain yield per hectare increase from less than 750 kg,
in 2001, to 982.5 kg in 2010, or yields increased by 232.5 kg per hectare.

7.2. High Density of Living Space in Center City

Urbanization, as one of the main measures to ease population pressure in ecologically fragile areas,
has attracted a large number of the rural populations since the reform. In Longnan, the urbanization
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urbanization
rate in 2010 wasrate22.6%;
in 2010 was2005
from 22.6%; from the
to 2011, 2005urban
to 2011, the urban
population population
density domaindensity
reduced domain
from
reduced from 145.8
2 people/km 2 to 143.1 people/km2. While the national economic system is still
2
145.8 people/km to 143.1 people/km . While the national economic system is still predominantly
predominantly
based based
in agriculture, in in agriculture,
2010, in 2010,
the proportion the proportion
of employees in the of employees
three industriesinwere
the three industries
76.38:7.31:16.31,
the proportion of the second industrial output value is just over that of the first industrial the
were 76.38:7.31:16.31, the proportion of the second industrial output value is just over that of first
output,
industrial output, and three industries’ output value structure was 26.27:28.63:45.10.
and three industries’ output value structure was 26.27:28.63:45.10. Therefore, in the urbanization Therefore, in
the urbanization
process, process,
there is only there isconcentration,
population only population but concentration,
also a lack of but also a lack
supporting of supporting
economic entities,
economic entities, which leads to surges in urban population density.
which leads to surges in urban population density. Figure 9 shows an increase in the Figure 9 shows anpopulation
increase in
the population
density density
of Longnan fromof97.6
Longnan from 97.6
people/km 2 , in people/km
2, in 2005, to 3855 people/km2 in 2011.
2005, to 3855 people/km2 in 2011.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Urban
Urban Population
Population Density
Density Changes
Changes of
of Longnan
Longnan (2005–2011).
(2005–2011).

7.3. “Hollows”
7.3. “Hollows” in
in Rural
Rural Production
Production and
and Living
Living Space
Space
One “hollow”
One “hollow” is is the
the decline
decline in in quantity
quantity andand quality
quality ofof the
the labor
labor force
force engaged
engaged in in agricultural
agricultural
production, resulting
production, resulting in inwasted
wastedcultivation
cultivation andandproduction
productiondegradation.
degradation. A A second
second is is the
the emergence
emergence
of “hollow villages”, the phenomenon of a high “floating” rural residential
of “hollow villages”, the phenomenon of a high “floating” rural residential population, resulting population, resulting in a
waste of land resources. Commonly, “hollows” are associated with
in a waste of land resources. Commonly, “hollows” are associated with the diversification of the the diversification of the
production mode
production mode and
and economic
economic income
income of of farmers,
farmers, andand mean
mean thatthat in
in many
many situations
situations there
there are
are still
still
crops cultivated, but labor is perennial work outside of the area, leaving
crops cultivated, but labor is perennial work outside of the area, leaving the older people and children the older people and
children
in in the
the villages, andvillages,
the “emptyandnest”
the “empty
phenomenon nest”becomes
phenomenon becomes
widespread. Then, widespread.
the population Then, the
keeps
population
declining, keeps declining,
households households
reduce, and the houses reduce, and the houses
and infrastructure becomeandolder
infrastructure become
(Ma et al., 2008). older
A result
(Ma et al., 2008). A result of these “hollows” is the overall decline of the rural
of these “hollows” is the overall decline of the rural regional economy, infrastructure, social service regional economy,
infrastructure,
system, social service system, and so on.
and so on.
In Longnan, a hollow
In Longnan, a hollow appearsappears
mainlymainly
in terms in terms
of rural of space.
living rural Among
living space.
the nineAmong the nine
counties/districts
counties/districts (Figure 10), there are three counties in which the per capita
(Figure 10), there are three counties in which the per capita rural residential land is higher than rural residential landtheis
higher than
provincial the provincial
average level. And,average
in fivelevel. And,it in
counties, five counties,
is higher than theitnational
is higheraverage
than the national
level. average
According to
level. According to related research and the land use planning of every county
related research and the land use planning of every county [33], four counties will have more village [33], four counties
will have more
construction village
land use per construction
capital more land
thanusetheper capital
recent moreaverage
nation than the recent
level, whichnation
means average level,
the “rural
which means
hollow” the “rural
efficiency hollow”
will remain forefficiency
a long time.will remain for a long time.
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260
2006Year 2015Year 2020Year

220

180

140

100
Wudou Cheng Liangdang Hui Xihe Li Kang Wen Dangchang

Figure 10. Rural Residential Area Planning of Longnan Counties.

Figure 10. Rural Residential Area Planning of Longnan Counties.

7.4.
7.4. Resource
Resource Utilization
Utilization Diversification
Diversification
With
With the
the increase
increase in in urban
urban population,
population, resource
resource consumption
consumption intensity
intensity isis increasing,
increasing, and
and the
the
original approach to coexistence with the natural ecological resources is gradually
original approach to coexistence with the natural ecological resources is gradually disappearing, disappearing,
with
with industrialization
industrialization and and modernization
modernization greatly
greatly changing
changing thethe way
way resources
resources areare consumed,
consumed, suchsuch as
as
water and energy use in rural contexts. Our survey shows that, with the implementation
water and energy use in rural contexts. Our survey shows that, with the implementation of the rural of the rural
water
water projects,
projects,most
most peasant
peasant families
families use
use tap-water
tap-water (nearly
(nearly 72%
72% inin all
all samples),
samples), while
while 18%
18% use
use pump
pump
water, and 10% use it in traditional ways, such as carrying water
water, and 10% use it in traditional ways, such as carrying water from rivers. from rivers.
Regarding
Regardingthe theuseuseof of
land resources,
land suchsuch
resources, as orchard, woodland,
as orchard, and grassland
woodland, use, in 19
and grassland villages
use, in 19
in Wudu, more than one-third of land is used as grassland, 26.7% is farmland,
villages in Wudu, more than one-third of land is used as grassland, 26.7% is farmland, 19% is 19% is forestland,
and 18.3% is
forestland, gardens.
and 18.3% isAmonggardens.these
Among19 villages,
these 19 the highest
villages, therate of farmland
highest use is about
rate of farmland use is46.2%,
about
and
46.2%, and only 4 villages use more than 40%. The number of villages with more than 50%of
only 4 villages use more than 40%. The number of villages with more than 50% of garden,
garden,
woodland,
woodland, and and grassland
grassland are,are, respectively,
respectively, 3,3, 4,
4,and
and55villages.
villages. These
These figures
figures suggest
suggest that,
that, since
since the
the
start of the Grain for Green program, use of cultivated land as household’s main
start of the Grain for Green program, use of cultivated land as household’s main assets is weakening,assets is weakening,
and
and aa trend
trend of
of diversification
diversificationhas hasappeared.
appeared.

7.5. The Overall Environment Is Ecologically Benign, Local Environment Is Malignant

7.5. The Overall Environment Is Ecologically Benign, Local Environment Is Malignant
Through the implementation of the project of returning farmland to forestland, ecological
Through the implementation of the project of returning farmland to forestland, ecological
conditions have been improved in Longnan, and soil erosion has been effectively curbed. According
conditions have been improved in Longnan, and soil erosion has been effectively curbed. According
to the forestry statistics, since 1999, through the implementation of returning farmland to forest—as
to the forestry statistics, since 1999, through the implementation of returning farmland to forest—as
well as natural forest protection, and protected forest, ecological forest, nature reserve, and green
well as natural forest protection, and protected forest, ecological forest, nature reserve, and green
corridor demonstration zones, environmental protection, and ecological restoration engineering
corridor demonstration zones, environmental protection, and ecological restoration engineering
construction—the forest coverage rate has increased from 38.9%, at the end of the last century, to 42.5%.
construction—the forest coverage rate has increased from 38.9%, at the end of the last century, to
However, compared to ecological restoration overall [34,35], the local, regional, ecological
42.5%.
environment remains problematic. One issue is the mining areas causing ecological damage, with some
However, compared to ecological restoration overall [34,35], the local, regional, ecological
disorderly exploitation of mines leading to a large area of vegetation stripping, waste residue, and mine
environment remains problematic. One issue is the mining areas causing ecological damage, with
tailings discharge, which is, in turn, causing soil erosion, destruction of farmland, water sources drying
some disorderly exploitation of mines leading to a large area of vegetation stripping, waste residue,
up, or even a reduction in biodiversity. A second problem is the use of fertilizers, pesticides, mulch,
and mine tailings discharge, which is, in turn, causing soil erosion, destruction of farmland, water
and livestock and poultry breeding, leading to the contamination of surface water and groundwater;
sources drying up, or even a reduction in biodiversity. A second problem is the use of fertilizers,
pesticides, mulch, and livestock and poultry breeding, leading to the contamination of surface water
and groundwater; a third is the fact that, with the development of resources and economic
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 15 of 17

a third is the fact that, with the development of resources and economic development in rural areas,
the rural non-point source pollution problems gradually increased, and continue to spread.

8. Conclusions
The research shows that positive institutional constraints and policy guidance will improve the
livelihood capacity of rural households, as well as significantly promote living standards. Since the
implementation of the Grain for Green program from 1999, it has proven to be beneficial to the
ecological restoration and the poverty alleviation of local households from the present perspective.
From the results of empirical research in Longnan, an increase in household livelihood ability
plays an important role in improving land space utilization efficiency, resource conservation and
use, and the ecological environment. An effective system, with constraints and policy guidance,
and the increasement of farmers’ ability, provides an appropriate adjustment of the land use model,
improvement of human assets quality and more liquidity, more and suitable physical assets, broadened
financial capital source channels, and more abundant social assets. In particular, the enhancement of
household livelihood ability promotes optimal utilization of land space, the establishment of a saving
resource utilization system, and the benign cycle of the ecological environment, which, together,
lay a solid foundation for regional sustainable development.
From the results of Longnan, the implementation of the Grain for Green program changed the
average household’s livelihood capital significantly, which shows through the reduction of cultivated
land making the methods of land use more scientific, and then the planting of cash crops being
beneficial to improve the income of local households. The labor force detached from the land
can gradually participate in secondary and tertiary industries. The change of local population age
structures caused by the youth “go-outside” leads to an increase of the labor dependency coefficient.
Planting of economic crops and going out to work become the primary channels for the household to
increase income, which also changes the income structure based on cultivated activities. Household
livelihood becomes more diverse. The consumption of households’ physical assets tends to increase
more in the purchase of high-end consumer goods, and reduce for that of production tools. It also
makes a positive contribution to infrastructure improvement and has helped households accumulate
social assets.
For the whole region of Longnan, the adjustment of the suitable planting structure promotes the
ecologicalization of land utilization, which also diversifies the use of land resources. The reduction
of the rural labor force provides excellent opportunities for the agglomeration of production factors
and scale of land management, and has positive influences on the improvement of the land and
space utilization efficiency. However, with the rapid increase in numbers of migrant workers,
the partial region shows typical characteristics of “hollows”, which includes the decline in population,
the decrease in households, and the collapse of infrastructure. Also, the population of the central
city has increased dramatically in the short-term, far exceeding the expectations of urban planning
and urban construction, a phenomenon from which emerges high-density megacities. Regarding the
ecology and the environment, the forest area expands, and the forest coverage rate has significantly
increased, but new environmental problems begin to appear in some local areas. The utilization
of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, plastic film, as well as livestock and poultry breeding, cause the
pollution of surface water and groundwater, resulting in the problem of non-point source pollution in
rural areas to gradually intensify.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
41171109) and the Key Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KZZDEW0603). Thanks to the relevant
departments of the Longnan city for their help in the field investigation. Especially thanks to Shanshan Zhu,
Guiyan Sun, Hang Chen, and Qiuqiu Li, for their strong assistance in the investigation and collation of the
questionnaire. And more, anyway, we must thank the editor and reviewers for their constructive comments and
suggestions for improving this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1738 16 of 17

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