___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

Chapter 3: Solid-State Diodes and ___________________________________

Diode Circuits
___________________________________
Prof. Nguyen van Hieu
___________________________________
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
___________________________________

___________________________________
Content
III.1. Chapter Goals ___________________________________
III.2. The pn Junction Diode
III.3. Internal Diode Currents ___________________________________
III.4. Diode Equation
III.5. Diode Current for Reverse, Zero, and Forward Bias
III.6. Diode Temperature Coefficient
___________________________________
III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias
III.8. pn Junction Capacitance ___________________________________
III.9. Schottky Barrier Diode
III.10. Diode layout ___________________________________
III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics
III.12. Analysis of Diodes Operating in the Breakdown Region ___________________________________
III.13. Photo Diodes and Photodetectors
III.14. Solar Cells and Light-Emitting Diodes

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___________________________________
III.1. Chapter goals

• Understand diode structure and principle operation ___________________________________

• Explore various diode models including the ___________________________________

mathematical model, the ideal diode model, and the
constant voltage drop model ___________________________________
• Define regions of operation of the diode (forward
___________________________________
bias, reverse bias, and reverse breakdown)
• Apply the various types of models in circuit analysis ___________________________________

• Explore different types of diodes ___________________________________

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 III.2. The pn Junction diode ___________________________________
1. pn Junction electrostatics
• A diode is formed by joining an ___________________________________
n-type semiconductor with a p-
___________________________________
type semiconductor.
___________________________________
• A pn junction is the interface
between n and p regions. ___________________________________

___________________________________

Diode symbol ___________________________________

p-type side: pp = 1017 holes/cm3 n p = 103 electrons/cm3
n-type side: pn = 104 holes/cm3 nn = 1016 electrons/cm3
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III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.) ___________________________________

1. pn Junction electrostatics
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
• Donor and acceptor
concentrations on either side
of the junction. ___________________________________
• Concentration gradients give
rise to diffusion currents.

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III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.) ___________________________________

2. Space-charge region formation at the pn junction
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

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 III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.) ___________________________________
3. Potential across the junction
___________________________________
Charge Density Electric Field Potential

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
The electric field is determined from Poisson’s equation:
𝑑 Ф(𝑥) 𝜌 𝑥 𝑑𝐸(𝑥) ___________________________________
=− =−
𝑑𝑥 𝜀 𝑑𝑥
___________________________________
Ф(x) is electric potential
E(x) is electric field
Ρ (x) is the volume charge density
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III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.) ___________________________________

3. Potential across the junction
Ф = Ф + Ф ___________________________________
𝑞Ф = 𝐸 − 𝐸
𝑞Ф = 𝐸 − 𝐸
𝒒Ф𝒋
___________________________________
𝐸 −𝐸
𝑛 = 𝑁 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝒒Ф𝒑
___________________________________
𝐾𝑇
𝐸 −𝐸
𝑝 = 𝑁 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝒒Ф𝒏
𝐾𝑇 ___________________________________
𝐸 −𝐸 𝑒Ф
𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝐷 = 𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇 ___________________________________
𝐸 −𝐸 𝑒Ф
𝑝 ≈ 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇
___________________________________
𝐾𝑇 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
Ф = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑉 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛 𝑛
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III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.) ___________________________________

4. Width of depletion region ( )
Charge Density
𝐸 𝑥 =∫ 𝑑𝑥 (2) ___________________________________
𝑞
−𝑥 < 𝑥 < 0 & 𝜌 𝑥 = −𝑞𝑁 ⇒ 𝐸 = x+𝐶 (3)
𝜀
𝑞
___________________________________
0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥 & 𝜌 𝑥 = 𝑞𝑁 ⇒ 𝐸 = x+𝐶 (4)
𝜀
___________________________________
Ф 𝑥 =− 𝐸 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 5
Electric Field
Ф𝑗 = 𝑁 𝑥 +𝑁 𝑥 (6)
___________________________________
𝑥 𝑁 =𝑥 𝑁 (7)
___________________________________
Potential
___________________________________
2e s æ 1 1 ö
wd 0 = ( xn + x p ) = ç + ÷f
q è N A ND ø j
 ___________________________________
III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.)
4. Width of depletion region (cont.)
___________________________________
EXAMPLE: Width of Depletion Region
Problem: Find built-in potential and depletion-region width for a given ___________________________________
diode
Given data: On p-type side: NA = 1017/cm3; ___________________________________
On n-type side: ND = 1020/cm3
___________________________________
Assumptions: Room-temperature operation with VT = 0.025 V
Analysis: æN N ö
f j = VT lnç A 2 D ÷ = (0.025 V)ln ê
( )(
é 1017 /cm3 1020 /cm3
) ùú = 0.979V ___________________________________
è ni ø ê
ë (
1020 /cm6 ) ú
û
___________________________________

2e s æ 1 1 ö
wd 0 = ç + ÷ f = 0.113 mm
q è NA ND ø j

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III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.) ___________________________________

4. Width of depletion region (cont.)
___________________________________
EXAMPLE: Diode Electric Field
• Problem: Find the electric field and size of the individual depletion
layers on either side of a pn junction for a given diode ___________________________________
• Given data: On the p-type side: NA = 1017/cm3
On the n-type side: ND = 1020/cm3 from earlier example, ___________________________________
wd0 = 0.113 mm
• Assumptions: Room-temperature operation
• Analysis: f j = 0.979 V ___________________________________
æ
N ö æ
N ö
wd0 = xn + x p = x 1+ D ÷÷ = x p çç1+ A ÷÷
ç
nç NA ø N
w d0
è è Dø
w d0
___________________________________
xn = =1.13´10-4 mm x p = 0.113 mm
æ N ö æ N ö
çç1+ D ÷÷ çç1+ A ÷÷ ___________________________________
è NA ø è ND ø
2f
E MAX = w j = 2(0.979V ) =173 kV/cm
d0 0.113mm
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III.2. The pn Junction diode (cont.) ___________________________________

6. Internal diode currents
___________________________________
Drift current Diffusion current
___________________________________
¶n
j nT = qm n nE + qDn = 0 Electron current
¶x
___________________________________
¶p
j Tp = qm p pE - qD p = 0 Hole current
¶x
___________________________________

___________________________________
Hole diffusion is precisely ¶n
balanced by hole drift. j nT = qm n nE + qDn =0
¶x ___________________________________
Electron diffusion is exactly ¶p
j Tp = qm p pE - qD p =0
balanced by electron drift. ¶x
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 ___________________________________
III.3. The i-v Characteristics of the Diode
1. Diode junction potential for different applied voltages
___________________________________
ʋd = 0
Фj
___________________________________
- +
- +
- + ___________________________________
- +

___________________________________

___________________________________

Applied voltage vD appears across the space-charge region ___________________________________

There is negligible voltage drop in the ohmic regions

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___________________________________
III.3. The i-v Characteristics of the Diode
Фj
___________________________________
Zero bias
___________________________________

___________________________________
ʋd < 0 ʋd > 0
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
Reverse bias Forward bias

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___________________________________
III.3. The i-v Characteristics of the Diode
 The diode characteristic is definitely not linear;
 Vd<0, the diode is nonconducting; ___________________________________
 Vd>0 the current remains nearly zero.
 0.5V <Vd <0.7V, the current increases rapidly and the applied ___________________________________
voltage becomes almost independent.
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

 The turn-on voltage marks the point of significant current flow.

 IS is called the reverse saturation current.
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 ___________________________________
III.4. Diode Equation
___________________________________

where IS = reverse saturation current (A) ___________________________________

vD = voltage applied to diode (V)
q = electronic charge (1.60 x 10-19 C) ___________________________________
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = absolute temperature (Kelvins) ___________________________________
n = non-ideality factor (dimensionless)
VT = kT/q = thermal voltage (V) (25 mV at room temp.) ___________________________________
IS is typically between and 10-18 10-9
A and is strongly temperature
dependent due to its dependence on ni2. ___________________________________
The non-ideality factor is typically close to 1, but approaches 2 for
devices with high current densities.
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___________________________________
III.4. Diode Equation (cont.)
EXAMPLE: Diode voltage and current calculations
___________________________________
Problem: Find diode voltage for diode with given specifications
Given data: (IS, ID) = (0.1 fA, 300 mA), (10 fA, 300 mA), (0.1 fA, 1 mA) ___________________________________
Assumptions: Room-temperature dc operation with VT = 0.025 V
___________________________________
Analysis:
æ I ö æ 3x10 -4 A ö ___________________________________
With I S = 0.1 fA : VD = nVT lnç1+ D ÷ = 1(0.025V ) lnç1+ ÷ = 0.718 V
è IS ø è 10 -16 A ø
æ 3x10 -4 A ö ___________________________________
With I S = 10 fA : VD = (0.025V ) lnç1+ ÷ = 0.603 V
è 10 -14 A ø
æ 10 -3 A ö ___________________________________
With I S = 0.1 fA, I D = 1 mA : VD = (0.025V ) lnç1+ -16 ÷ = 0.748 V
è 10 A ø

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III.5. Diode Current for Reverse, Zero, and Forward Bias ___________________________________

• Reverse bias: ___________________________________

é æv ö ù
iD = IS êexpç D ÷ -1ú @ I S [0 -1] @ -IS ___________________________________
ë è nVT ø û
• Zero bias:
___________________________________
é æ v ö ù
iD = IS êexpç D ÷ -1ú @ IS [1-1] @ 0 ___________________________________
ë è nVT ø û
• Forward bias: ___________________________________

é æ v ö ù æ v ö ___________________________________
iD = IS êexpç D ÷ -1ú @ IS expç D ÷
ë è nVT ø û è nVT ø

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 ___________________________________
III.6. Diode Temperature Coefficient
Diode voltage under forward bias: ___________________________________
æi ö kT æ iD ö kT æ iD ö
v D = VT lnç D + 1÷ = lnç + 1÷ @ lnç ÷ ___________________________________
è IS ø q è IS ø q è IS ø
Taking the derivative with respect to temperature yields ___________________________________
dv D k æ i D ö kT 1 dI S v D 1 dI S v D - VGO - 3VT
= lnç ÷ - = - VT = V/K ___________________________________
dT q è I S ø q I S dT T I S dT T

Assuming iD >> IS, IS  ni2, and VGO is the silicon ___________________________________

bandgap energy at 0 K. For a typical silicon diode
___________________________________
dv D (0.65 -1.12 - 0.075)V
= = -1.82 mV/K » -1.8 mV/°C
dT 300K

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III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias ___________________________________

 Reverse bias
___________________________________
External reverse bias adds to the built-in potential of the p-n
___________________________________
junction. The shaded regions below illustrate the increase in the
characteristics of the space charge region due to an externally ___________________________________
applied reverse bias, vD.
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

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___________________________________
III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias (cont.)

External reverse bias also increases the width of the depletion ___________________________________
region since the larger electric field must be supported by
___________________________________
additional charge.
2e s æ 1 1 ö
w d = (x n + x p ) = ç +
q è NA ND ø
(
÷ f j + vR ) ___________________________________

___________________________________
v
wd = wd 0 1+ R ___________________________________
fj
___________________________________
2e s æ 1 1 ö
where wd 0 = ( xn + x p ) = ç + ÷f
q è N A ND ø j

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III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias (cont.) ___________________________________

1. Reverse bias saturation current

___________________________________
We earlier assumed that the reverse saturation current was
___________________________________
constant. Since it results from thermal generation of electron-
hole pairs in the depletion region, it is dependent on the ___________________________________
volume of the space charge region. It can be shown that the
___________________________________
reverse saturation gradually increases with increased reverse
bias. ___________________________________
vR
IS = IS0 1 +
fj ___________________________________

IS is approximately constant at IS0 under forward bias.

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III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias (cont.) ___________________________________

2. Reverse breakdown
___________________________________
Increased reverse bias
eventually results in the ___________________________________
diode entering the
___________________________________
breakdown region,
resulting in a sharp increase
___________________________________
in the diode current. The
voltage at which this occurs ___________________________________
is the breakdown voltage,
V Z. ___________________________________
2 V < VZ < 2000 V

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III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias (cont.) ___________________________________

2.1. Reverse breakdown mechanism
___________________________________
Avalanche Breakdown
• Si diodes with VZ greater than about 5.6 volts breakdown
according to an avalanche mechanism. ___________________________________
• As the electric field increases, accelerated carriers begin to
collide with fixed atoms. ___________________________________
• As the reverse bias increases, the energy of the accelerated
carriers increases, eventually leading to ionization of the ___________________________________
impacted ions.
• The new carriers also ___________________________________
accelerate and ionize other
atoms ___________________________________
• This process feeds on itself
and leads rapidly to avalanche
breakdown.
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III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias (cont.) ___________________________________
2.1. Reverse breakdown mechanism
Zener Breakdown ___________________________________
• Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped diodes.
• It results in a very narrow depletion region at the diode junction. ___________________________________
• Reverse bias leads to carriers with sufficient energy to tunnel
directly between conduction and valence bands moving across the ___________________________________
junction.
• Once the tunneling threshold is reached, additional reverse bias
leads to a rapidly increasing reverse current. ___________________________________

___________________________________
p++

___________________________________
n++

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III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias (cont.) ___________________________________

2.1. Reverse breakdown mechanism
___________________________________
Breakdown Voltage Temperature Coefficient
___________________________________
Temperature coefficient is a quick way to distinguish
breakdown mechanisms. ___________________________________
Avalanche breakdown voltage increases with
temperature, ___________________________________
Zener breakdown decreases with temperature.
For silicon diodes, zero temperature coefficient is ___________________________________
achieved at approximately 5.6 V.
• Breakdown voltage > 5.6 V => Avalanche breakdown ___________________________________
• Breakdown voltage < 5.6 V => Zener breakdown

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III.7. Diodes Under Reverse Bias (cont.) ___________________________________

2.2. Breakdown region diode model
___________________________________
In breakdown, the diode is
modeled with a voltage source, VZ, ___________________________________
and a series resistance, RZ. RZ
models the slope of the i-v ___________________________________
characteristic.
___________________________________
Diodes designed to operate in
reverse breakdown are called Zener ___________________________________
diodes (regardless of the actual
mechanism) and use the indicated ___________________________________
symbol.

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III.8. pn Junction Capacitance ___________________________________
1. Reverse bias capacitance
___________________________________
Changes in voltage lead to changes in depletion width and
charge. This leads to a capacitance that we can calculate
___________________________________
from the charge-voltage dependence.

æ N N ö ___________________________________
Qn = qN D x n A = qç A D ÷w d A Coulombs
è NA + ND ø ___________________________________

dQn C j0A es ___________________________________

Cj = = F/cm 2 where C j 0 =
dv R v wd 0
1+ R ___________________________________
fj
Cj0 is the zero bias junction capacitance per unit area.

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III.8. pn Junction Capacitance ___________________________________

Diodes can be designed with hyper-abrupt doping ___________________________________

profiles that optimize the reverse-biased diode as a voltage
controlled capacitor. ___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
Circuit symbol for the variable
capacitance diode ___________________________________
(Varactor diodes)

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___________________________________
III.8. pn Junction Capacitance
2. Forward bias capacitance ___________________________________

In forward bias operation, additional charge is stored in the

___________________________________
neutral region near the edges of space charge region.

QD = iDt T Coulombs ___________________________________

tT is called diode transit time and depends on the size and type ___________________________________
of diode.
Additional diffusion capacitance, associated with forward region ___________________________________
operation is proportional to current and becomes quite large at
high currents. ___________________________________
dQD (iD + I S )tT iDtT
Cj = = @ F
dv D VT VT

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III.9. Schottky Barrier Diode
• One semiconductor region of
the pn junction diode can be
replaced by a non-ohmic
rectifying metal contact.
• A Schottky contact is easily
formed on n-type silicon.
• The metal region becomes the
anode.
• An n+
region is added to ensure
that the cathode contact is
ohmic.
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III.10. Diode Layout
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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics
A circuit contain a
voltage source,
resistor and diode
The objective of diode dc
circuit analysis is to find
the quiescent operating
point for the diode.
Q-Point = (ID, VD)
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___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
• Schottky diodes turn on at ___________________________________
a lower voltage than pn
junction diodes and have
___________________________________
significantly reduced
internal charge storage
under forward bias. ___________________________________
• Thus, Schottky diodes
switch faster.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
The loop equation for the diode circuit is: ___________________________________
V = I D R + VD
The solution to this equation can be found ___________________________________
by:
1) Graphical analysis using the load- ___________________________________
line method.
2) Analysis with the diode’s ___________________________________
mathematical model.
3) Simplified analysis with the ideal ___________________________________
diode model.
4) Simplified analysis using the ___________________________________
constant voltage drop (CVD) model.
III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________
1) Load-line analysis EXAMPLE: Load-Line Analysis
___________________________________
Problem: Find diode Q-point
Given data: V = 10 V, R = 10 kΩ.
Analysis: ___________________________________
10 = ID104 + VD
___________________________________
To define the load line we use,

For VD = 0, ID = (10V/10kΩ) = 1 mA ___________________________________

For VD = 0, ID = (5V/10kΩ) = 0.5 mA
___________________________________
These points and the resulting load
line are plotted. Q-point is given by
the intersection of the load line and ___________________________________
diode characteristic:

Q-point = (0.95 mA, 0.6 V)

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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________

2) Analysis using the mathematical model for the diode
EXAMPLE: Analysis using Diode Mathematical Model ___________________________________
Problem: Find the Q-point for a •Make initial guess VD0 .
given diode characteristic. •Evaluate f and its derivative f’ for ___________________________________
IS =10-13A, n=1, VT = 0.025V this value of VD.
Analysis: •Calculate new guess for VD using
___________________________________
é æV ö ù
÷÷ - 1ú = 10-13 [exp (40VD )- 1]
I D = I S êexp çç D
V =V -
1 0
( )
f VD
0

ë è nVT ø û D D 0
f ¢(VD ) ___________________________________
\10 = 10410-13 [exp (40VD )- 1]+ VD
•Repeat steps 2 and 3 till
The solution is given by a convergence. ___________________________________
transcendental equation. Using a spread sheet we get :
Q-point = ( 0.9426 mA, 0.5742 V)
A numerical answer can be ___________________________________
found by using Newton ’ s
iterative method.
f = 10 - 10410-13 [exp (40VD )- 1]- VD
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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________

3) Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode
If an ideal diode is forward-biased, the ___________________________________
voltage across the diode is zero. If an ideal
diode is reverse-biased, the current through
___________________________________
the diode is zero.
vD = 0 for iD > 0 and iD = 0 for vD < 0
Thus, the diode is assumed to be either on or ___________________________________
off. Analysis is conducted in following steps:
• Select a diode model. ___________________________________
• Identify anode and cathode of the diode
and label vD and iD.
• Guess diode ’ s region of operation from ___________________________________
circuit.
• Analyze circuit using diode model ___________________________________
appropriate for assumed region of operation.
• Check results to check consistency with
assumptions.
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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________
EXAMPLE: Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

Since source appears to force
positive current through diode,
assume diode is on.
___________________________________
Since source is forcing current
backward through diode assume,
diode is off. Hence ID = 0 . Loop ___________________________________
equation is:
10 + VD + 10 4 ID = 0
___________________________________
VD = -10V | VD < 0

Our assumption is correct, and the Our assumption is correct and the
Q-Point = (1 mA, 0V) Q-Point = (0, -10 V)
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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________

4) Analysis using constant voltage drop model for diode
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

Analysis:
___________________________________
Since the 10V source appears to force positive current through the diode,
assume diode is on.
___________________________________
vD = Von for iD > 0 and
vD = 0 for vD < Von.

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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________

Model comparison
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
• Von << 10 => Von has small effect on the result
• The source voltage ~ 1V => Von significantly effect on the result

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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________
EXAMPLE: Two-Diode Circuit Analysis
Analysis: The ideal diode model is chosen. Since ___________________________________
the 15V source appears to force positive current
through D1 and D2, and the -10V source is forcing ___________________________________
positive current through D2, assume both diodes are
on.
___________________________________
Since the voltage at node D is zero due to the short
circuit of ideal diode D1,
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
The Q-points are (-0.5 mA, 0 V) and (2.0 mA, 0 V)
But, ID1<0 is not allowed by the diode, so try again.

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III.11. Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics (Cont.) ___________________________________

EXAMPLE: Two-Diode Circuit Analysis (Cont.)
___________________________________
Since the current in D1 is zero, ID2 = I1,
___________________________________

Analysis: Since current
in D2 is valid, but that in
D1 is not, the second
guess is D1 off and D2 on.
___________________________________
Q-Points are D1 : (0 mA, -1.67 V): off ___________________________________
D2 : (1.67 mA, 0 V) : on
___________________________________
Now, the results are consistent with the
assumptions.
___________________________________

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III.12. Analysis of Diodes Operating in the Breakdown Region (cont.) ___________________________________

EXMPLE: Analysis of diodes in reverse breakdown
___________________________________
1) Using load-line analysis:
-20 =VD + 5000ID
___________________________________
Choose 2 points (0 V, -4 mA) and (-5 V, -3
mA) to draw the load line. It intersects the i-v
characteristic at the Q-point: (-2.9 mA, -5.2 V). ___________________________________
2) Using the piecewise linear model:
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
IZ = -ID > 0
Since IZ > 0 (ID < 0), the solution is
consistent with Zener breakdown.
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III.12. Analysis of Diodes Operating in the Breakdown Region (cont.) ___________________________________
EXAMPLE: Voltage regulator using the Zener diode
___________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________
For proper regulation, Zener current IZ
must be positive. If the Zener current <
0, the Zener diode no longer controls
___________________________________
the voltage across the load resistor
The Zener diode keeps and the voltage regulator is said to ___________________________________
the voltage across load have “dropped out of regulation”.
resistor RL constant. For
VS æ ö
R ___________________________________
Zener breakdown IZ = -V çç 1 + 1 ÷÷ > 0 | RL > æ =R
R Z è R RL ø V
ö min
operation, IZ > 0. ç ÷
ç S -1÷
ç ÷
çV ÷
è Z ø

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III.12. Analysis of Diodes Operating in the Breakdown Region (cont.) ___________________________________

EXAMPLE: Voltage Regulator Including Zener Resistance

___________________________________
Problem: Find the output voltage and
Zener diode current for a Zener diode ___________________________________
regulator.
Given data: VS = 20 V, R = 5 kW, RZ = ___________________________________
0.1 kW, VZ = 5 V
Analysis: The output voltage is now a ___________________________________
function of the current through the
Zener diode.
___________________________________

___________________________________

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III.12. Analysis of Diodes Operating in the Breakdown Region (cont.) ___________________________________

 Line and Load Regulation
Line regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to
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input voltage changes.
dV ___________________________________
Line Regulation= L mV/V
dVS

For a fixed load current, Line Regulation =

RZ ___________________________________
R+ RZ
Load regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to ___________________________________
changes in load current withdrawn from regulator.

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Load regulation is the Thévenin equivalent resistance looking
back into the regulator from the load terminals.

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 ___________________________________
III.13. Photo Diodes and Photodetectors
 Photodetectors are semiconductor devices that can convert
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optical signals into electrical signals.
 Photodetectors have a broad range of applications, including
infrared sensors in optoisolators and detectors for optical- ___________________________________
fiber communications.
If the depletion region of a pn junction diode is illuminated with ___________________________________
light with sufficiently high frequency, photons can provide
enough energy to cause electrons to jump the semiconductor ___________________________________
bandgap to generate electron-hole pairs:
hc ___________________________________
EP = hu = ³ EG
l
h =Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s ___________________________________
u = frequency of optical illumination
l = wavelength of optical illumination
c = velocity of light = 3 x 108 m/s
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III.13. Photo Diodes and Photodetectors ___________________________________

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• Photon-generated current (iPH) can be used in photodetector
circuits to generate an output voltage. ___________________________________
• The diode is reverse-biased to enhance depletion-region width
and electric field.
vO = iPHR
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III.14. Solar Cells and Light-Emitting Diodes ___________________________________

hν
In solar cell applications, optical
illumination is steady, and dc current ___________________________________
N+ IPH is generated. The goal is to
P extract power from the cell, and the i- ___________________________________
v characteristics are plotted in terms
of cell current and cell voltage. For a ___________________________________
solar cell to supply power to an
external circuit, the ICVC product
must be positive, and the cell should ___________________________________
be operated near the point of
maximum output power Pmax. ___________________________________

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III.14. Solar Cells and Light-Emitting Diodes ___________________________________
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) use recombination processes in
the forward-biased pn junction diode to produce light. When a ___________________________________
hole and electron recombine, an energy equal to the bandgap of
the semiconductor is released as a photon. ___________________________________
Emitted photon
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N+ P-n junction
P active layer ___________________________________
Reflective
layer ___________________________________

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End of Chapter 3
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