Table 1 Classification and assessment of the different energy-efficient solutions reviewed

Energy
Research
savings/enhancements Operation stage Challenges
Issue
Consequences on
planning and
Further work must be done in the
mechanisms that permit the
coordination of distributed/
CLA (1/3):
Energy efficiency improves with clustered mechanisms at large-
cell Energy saving around (25-
smaller cells and denser deployments. scale networks. This necessity is
breathing and 50)% according
However, it even more critical considering that
switching-off to [25,26,28]
increases infrastructure costs future cell breathing mechanism
schemes
will work in heterogeneous
networks combining macro/
femtocells and relays.
The utilization of centralized network
cell breathing
mechanisms could limit scalability and
introduce single point failure nodes.
There are open aspects on
Provides granularity to service
coordination and management
provision and coverage by tailoring the
mechanisms to handle the network
CLA (2/3): type of access device and resources to
Energy savings up to 60% heterogeneity: e.g. different levels
macro/ the real traffic needs.
combined with of resources in function of BS
femtocells
sleep modes [8] type; different environments, i.e.
networks Operating a macro BS during 1 year
outdoor,
can cost 60000 Euros/year, whereas a
indoor; interference, spectrum
femtoBS only 200 Euro/year [33].
management,
Careful planning needed: too many
femtoBS may imply over provisioning
(if no sleep mode used), increasing
unnecessarily the energy consumption.
It must continue the work on
New technologies like SDR [53] are flexibility of software and
providing flexibility and low cost, hardware in order to enhance the
CR is a tool that works which facilitates the introduction of features that CR may bring
along with the RRM and CR in modern communication to the energy-efficient approaches
the transmission systems. [53].It exist open topics to study
CR
mechanism. It is difficult like the combination of backhauls
to give a representative The CR is a very advantageous tool in protocol for information exchange
figure environment where it exists conflict of with CR for having
interest and information is not shared communications devices with
among nodes more accurate information from
outside world
Component The main concern is the Having energy-efficient components is Achieve higher components
approach PA, which nowadays (e.g. the basis before considering the other efficiencies. New prototypes like
Doherty-Pre-distorted, approaches for energy-efficient Class J Amplifier [14] and SMPA
Class AB) has PA eff. wireless networks [56] are candidates for next
around 50% [22,57]. The generation PAs. It is critical for
Class J amplifier is aimed future BSs to have this kind of
to achieve PA eff. of 85- components. Further work must be
90% [14] the SMPA done in optical networks and
although theoretically photonics in order to reduce
could reach 100% transmission losses at the backhaul
according to [22], so far it and components interconnection
has reached PA eff. of
55% [56]