INTRODUCTION TO AFRICA

Africa is the second largest continent in the world after Eurasia (Europe and Asia). It covers a
total area of about 30.300,300 km2 and it extends between 350 N and 34o S of the Equator. The Equator
divides Africa into almost two equal parts. Africa is the only continent where the Tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn cross the land mass.

Most of the countries in Africa were colonized by European powers, especially Britain, France,
Belgium, Italy and Portugal. However from the 1950s most African countries started to regain their
independence from their colonial masters. Today all independent African countries are members of A.U
(formerly O.A.U).

Africa is bordered by the Indian Ocean in the East, Red Sea in the North East, Mediterranean Sea
in the North and the Atlantic Ocean in the West.

MAP SHOWING THE POSITION OF AFRICA

 RELIEF OF AFRICA

Relief refers to the general appearance of the landscape. Africa is made up of several landforms i.e.
highlands, lowlands, basins, plateaus, ridges, escarpments, Inselbergs, hills e.t.c.

Africa is divided into 5 major relief divisions i.e.

(a) Plateau
(b) Basins
(c) Mountains/highlands
(d) Rift valleys
(e) Coastal lands.
(a) THE PLATEAU
A plateau is an area of raised ground with a level top. Africa is dominated by series of plateaux which is
higher in the East but gradually declining towards the west. The plateau surfaces vary between 500m
and 2000m above sea level. They include Jos plateau, Adamaqua, Darfur, Ahaggar plateau and Bie
Plateau. They have resulted from long periods of erosion which has removed large quantities of soil and
rocks from the continental surface to the sea beds.

(b) BASINS
A Basin is a broad, shallow, saucer- shaped feature separated by plateaux and mountain ranges. Africa
has a number of basins which include the Congo basin, Chad basin, Kalahari Basin, Kalahari, El Djouf,
Sudan basin, Gabes and Lake Victoria-Kyoga basin.

Formation of basins

Basins were formed as a result of down warping of the plateau. Due to down warping process, some
areas begun to sink (sag) forming saucer- shaped structures surrounded by up raised surfaces. Some of
the depressions (basins) formed on the land surface were later filled with water from in-flowing rivers to
form lake basins e.g. Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga basin, L. Chad basin. However, some basins are
very dry such as Kalahari, Gabes and Sudan.

BEFORE WARPING AFTER WARPING

A SKETCH MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING BASINS AND MOUNTAIN RANGES

(c) MOUNTAINS/HIGHLANDS
Africa’s highlands are divided into two groups:

1. Fold mountains; these were formed as a result of compressional forces acting on a layer of young
sedimentary rocks. Compressional forces push the land mass from either side causing the young
sedimentary rocks to develop anticlines and synclines. The anticlines form the Fold Mountains.
Examples of Fold Mountains include; Atlas ranges of North-West Africa and the Cape ranges of South
Africa.

Before folding After folding

2. Volcanic mountains: Africa has a number of volcanic mountains which include: the Tibesti and
Hoggar mountains of the Sahara, Ethiopian high lands, Adamawa, Cameroon highlands and
Drakensburg Mountains in South Africa.
Formation of volcanic mountains.

Volcanic mountains are formed as a result of molten magma being extruded onto the earth’s
surface. Earth movements (Faulting) led to the development of faults/cracks within the earth’s crust and
the molten magma from deep in the earth’s interior escapes through the cracks or faults. The magma, on
reaching the earth’s surface forms lava which solidifies around the vent to form a mountain. This
process in most cases involves a violent eruption with alternating layers of Ash and Lava. As more
eruptions occur, high volcanic mountains are formed.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MOUNTAINS TO MAN

 Many mountains are important sources of rivers used for a variety of purposes such as irrigation,
water for domestic use and industrial purposes e.t.c.
 Some mountains are important sources of minerals such as iron ore and cobalt in the Atlas Mtns, tin,
phosphates, Uranium and chrome in the Drakensburg Mtns which are important for the economic
development of a country.
 Mountains form impressive scenery which attracts tourists hence favouring the development of
tourism Industry which brings in foreign exchange.
 Mountains have acted as environmental engines by modifying the climate of the region by
promoting the formation of relief rainfall which in turn supports activities like agriculture,
lumbering, settlement.
 Volcanic mountains have fertile volcanic soils which favour growing of crops as well as animal
rearing e.g. Ethiopian highlands have favoured coffee growing, the Drakensburg ranges and the
highlands of Futa Djalon have favoured dairy farming.
 Mountains are used as recreational ground hence favouring sporting activities like mountain
climbing in the Drakensburg.
 High rainfall totals near mountains have favoured the growth of dense tropical forests which are
important sources of timber hence promoting lumbering.
 The mountains of Africa have acted as suitable habitats for wild life hence promoting wild life
conservation e.g. Virunga ranges for mountain gorillas in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
 Mountains have acted as important sources of stones, gravel and other rocks that are important in
building and construction industry this has promoted the activity of Quarrying.
PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE LIVING NEAR MOUNTAINS.

 Steep slopes and rugged relief limit various land uses such as settlement, transport and agriculture.
 Though mountains regions receive relief rainfall, this rainfall is received on the wind ward side
causing soil erosion.
 The lee ward side is left dry with very little or no rainfall (rain shadow area) which causes Aridity
and desertification.
 Mountainous regions experience landslides (movement of large blocks of soil and rock debris down
slope under the influence of gravity) which are a great threat to human life.
 Very cold temperatures are experienced in high altitude areas and this limits settlement.
 Steep relief also makes construction of transport and communication lines very difficult.
 Mountainous regions suffer from remoteness because they are connected by poor transport and
communication lines and also lack necessary infrastructures.
 Some mountains harbour wild animals which are a threat both to human life and crops. Some of the
animals like Mt. Gorillas, chimpanzees, Baboons tend to invade the neighbouring farmers and
destroy the crops. This has been experienced in areas around Mgahinga National parks.
 Some mountains have acted as a hide out for rebels who distabilize peace. E.g. the Nyamulenge
rebels in the Congo forests.
 In areas where active volcanoes exist, people have faced a challenge of abrupt eruptions which
threaten their lives, for instance in 1998, the eruption that took place at Sabinyo mountain ranges in the
Eastern D. R.C led to loss of lives.
 Mountain regions tend to be densely populated leading to sub-division of land into small plots which
are of less economic value (Land fragmentation).
 Some forested regions within the mountains tend to harbour pests and disease vectors which are
harmful to man, livestock and crops.
SOLUTION TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS:

 Soil erosion is solved by building terraces, practicing contour ploughing and mulching.
 Planting of trees especially on steep slopes such that they bind the soil practically together to control
landslides.
 Practicing irrigation farming on the lee ward side of the mountains which receive low rainfall, to
support agriculture and settlement.
 Land consolidations where by the small pieces (plots) of land which are of low economic value are
brought together to support meaningful agric to solve the problem of land fragmentation.
 Encouraging people to migrate to low densely populated areas to avoid the dangers of high
population density in mountain regions.
 Spraying with chemicals to combat the problems of pests and diseases.
 Construction of roads following contour lines to avoid steep gradient or if possible constructing
channels through the mountains to shorten the distance.
 Educating people about the dangers of settling near mountains and the effects of deforestation.
 Constructing tunnels through mountains to shorten distances.
 Use of cable cars to travel to the high altitude rugged areas.
EFFECTS OF HIGHLANDS ON CLIMATE

Highlands act as barriers to prevailing wind systems and as a result lead to rainfall formation of the
wind ward and lee ward sides.

(i) The wind ward side: here, moist winds are forced to rise up the mountain. Upon reaching the
condensation level, the vapour cools down, condenses and forms clouds. These clouds fall back to the
earth as relief/orographic rainfall. This is also responsible for the cool temperatures received on the wind
ward side of the mountain.
(ii) The lee ward side: here, dry descending winds make the area to be dry with little or no rainfall
forming the rain shadow. Also, the dry winds are responsible for the high temperatures received on the
lee wars side.
Illustration

Influence of highlands on human activities

 Heavy rainfall received on the windward side supports crop growing e.g. coffee growing in the
Ethiopian highlands and citrus fruits in the Cape ranges of South Africa.
 Dry climate on the lee ward side supports animal rearing due to the short grass for grazing.
 Rivers have their sources from highlands hence providing water for livestock and other uses.
 Highlands have forests which promote wildlife conservation leading to development of tourism.
 Montane forests give rise to lumbering activities.
 The wind ward side attracts settlements due to cool temperatures and fertile soils e.g. the Awash
valley near the Ethiopian highlands.
 Mining is carried out near mountains e.g. Iron Ore and Cobalt from the Atlas Mtns and Chromium in
the Ethiopian highlands.
 Quarrying is also carried out because the mountain rocks provide stones and gravel for road
construction and building purposes.
(d) THE RIFT VALLEY
This is an elongated trough or depression bordered by steep slopes (escarpments) on either side. In
Africa, the most commonly known rift valley is the Great East African rift valley. The East African rift
valley starts from the North Eastern corner of Egypt and stretches all the way to River Zambezi and
beyond. The width of the rift valley varies from 30 – 100 km and it stretches for a distance of about
5600km to the coast of Mozambique. The great East African rift valley is divided into two arms i.e.

1. The Western arm which stretches from southern Sudan through the Western region of
Uganda down to Tanzania where it joins the Eastern arm. It contains lakes like Albert, Edward, George,
Kivu, Tanganyika and Malawi.
2. The Eastern arm stretches through Kenya, Tanzania, and Malawi and joins the Indian
Ocean. It contains lakes like Turkana, Baringo, Naivasha, Eyasi, Manyara, Nakuru, Magadi e.t.c.
Formation of the rift valley

Many theories have been advanced to explain the formation of the rift valley which include the
tensional theory and compressional theory.

(i) TENSION FORCE THEORY

The tension force theory explains that tension forces pulled the earth crust apart creating normal fault
lines. Continuous pulling divided the earth crust into three blocks, where the middle block sunk into the
crust to form a depression called a rift valley. The side blocks remained standing to form the
escarpments.
(ii) COMPRESSION FORCE THEORY
The compression forces are these that move towards each other. Part of the earth crust was subjected to
compressional forces from either directions leading to formation of reverse faults. Continuous pushing
divided the earth crust into three blocks. This was followed by the outer blocks thrusting or over riding
up over the central block. The central block was held down to form a rift valley while the overhanging
sides of the rift valley were later modified by erosion to form escarpments.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF RIFT VALLEY

 The rift valley contains several lakes which are sources of fish, water for domestic and industrial
purposes, transport e.t.c.
 The rift valley has beautiful scenery which attracts tourists hence earning foreign exchange to
countries of Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia and Malawi.
 The rift valley region contains minerals of great economic value such as oil in Egypt.
 Some rift valley areas that are relatively flat have supported settlement especially Mzuzu and zomba
towns in Malawi.
 The rift valley rangelands have also supported the conservation of both fauna and flora species (wild
life).
 The sedimentary deposits eroded from the overhanging sides of the rift valley contain fertile soils
and this has promoted the growing of both food crops and cash crops e.g. awash valley in Ethiopia.
 The rangelands of the rift valley are used for rearing live stock e.g. cattle rearing in Sudan and
Ethiopia.
PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE LIVING IN RIFT VALLEY AREAS.

 Steep escarpments on the sides hinder the development of transport and communication net works.
 The Rift Valleys are at a low altitude hence experiencing very high temperatures which discourages
settlement and crop growing.
 Landslides are common due to steep slopes of rift valley sides which destroy human life and
property.
 Steep sides of the rift valley have led to soil erosion has become a threat leading to lose of soil
fertility.
 The Rift Valley regions are generally flat and this has resulted in severe flooding during heavy
prolonged rains.
 The region lies in the area of crustal instability and thus has been badly affected by earth quakes
which have destroyed both human life and property.
 The Rift Valley floors are in the rain shadow areas which receive insufficient rainfall which leads to
aridity.
 Fertile areas in the rift valleys have attracted large population leading to land fragmentation.
SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

 Re-settling people to other areas away from rift valley regions to avoid effects of landslides/erosion.
 Planting trees along slopes to control soil erosion.
 Practicing irrigation farming to combat aridity on the valley floor.
 Educating people about the dangers of settling in rift valley areas.
 Using cable cars to travel to the high-altitude areas on the rift valley slopes.
(e) COASTAL LANDS
Most of Africa’s coastal land is very smooth with very few deep gulfs and penetrating estuaries.
The continental shelf is very narrow and gently sloping thus Africa has very few natural habours.
However, there are a few areas that have indentations which reach far inland.

1. FORMATION OF ESTUARIES.
 Estuaries are drowned river valleys in lowland areas. They are formed when the level of the sea
rises and the lower parts of the land along river valley are drowned. It may also be formed when the
level of the land sinks such that the sea invades the land along the valley e.g. at the mouth of river
Zambezi in Mozambique, Free Town in Sierra Leone and Banjul in Gambia.
Before rise in sea level After rise in sea level

2. FORMATION OF DELTAS
Deltas are great triangular areas on flat, low lying ground seen where rivers join the lakes or seas.
During the old stage of the river, the speed of the water reduces due to a low gradient. This forces the
river to deposit its eroded materials at its mouth. If there are no strong sea waves, the eroded materials
will accumulate blocking the path of the river. The river therefore divides into small channels or
distributaries to find its way into the sea. This leads to the formation of the delta. Examples of deltas
include river Nile delta in Egypt, river Niger delta in Nigeria, river Senegal delta in Senegal e.t.c.

Illustration

VALUES OF COASTAL LANDS TO MAN

 The deltas have fertile soils resulting from river deposits. They have therefore supported the
cultivation of crops such as rice and cotton e.g. in the Niger and Nile deltas.
 The coastal areas have swamp vegetation which is a source of raw material for the local craft
industry.
 The coastal lands especially deltas support dense settlement due to fertile soils e.g. the Nile delta in
Egypt.
 The estuaries form natural habours which have encouraged the development of ports and water
transport e.g. Free Town port and Banjul.
 The lagoons found in deltas and along the coast form important fishing grounds.
 The coastal areas have minerals of great economic importance such as oil in the Nile delta.
 The coastal land forms such as coral reefs, lagoons, deltas from an attractive scenary which attract
tourists hence earning foreign exchange to the respective countries.
 Coral reefs have also provided good mining grounds for limestone used for cement making.

PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE LIVING IN COASTAL LANDS.

 Most of the coasts are low lying and face a danger of flooding hence discouraging settlement.
 Flooding results into ideal conditions for the breeding of pests and diseases such as mosquitoes that
spread malaria.
 There is a lot of population congestion on some coastal areas especially deltas due to fertile soils.
 Deposition of eroded materials on the river mouth and formation of deltas limit the usage of the river
for transport purposes.
 The boggy soils or ground along the coastal areas tend to hinder settlement and development of
transport routes.
 Coastal areas are at low altitude experience high temperatures which discourage activities like
settlement.
 Coral reefs form hard rocks that tear fishing nets hence affecting fishing.
MEASURES TAKEN TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS ABOVE

 Constant dredging of the river mouth to reduce the problem of silting and deposition of eroded
materials.
 Resettlement of people from the densely populated areas to reduce congestion.
 Spraying with chemicals to reduce the danger of pests and diseases.
 Planting of trees like Eucalyptus to reduce the water in the ground and avoid boggy grounds.
 Construction of water channels to drain away excess water and reduce floods.
 Construction of artificial levees or embankments to reduce flooding.

DRAINAGE OF AFRICA

Africa has got several of the world’s greatest rivers and lakes. The major river systems include;
river Nile, river Congo, river Niger, river Zambezi, Orange River, Okavango river, river Senegal, river
Gambia, river Limpopo e.t.c…

Most of Africa’s rivers have been used for generation of H.E.P, navigation purposes and
irrigation farming. However, due to the seasonal fluctuations, they have posed several challenges.

Africa has also got several lakes that are both majui8 n made/artificial and natural lakes. Natural
lakes include; Lake Chad (warped lake) and Lake Malawi (fault lake). Artificial lakes are those that are
found at the point where rivers have been dammed to form large reservoirs e.g. Lake Volta on river
Volta, Lake Kariba on river Zambezi, Lake Nasser on river Nile and Lake Kainji on river Niger

A SKETCH MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING MAJOR RIVERS

Characteristic features formed along river valleys

1. Gorge; this is a steep sided narrow and deep valley found along a river in the youthful/upper/torrent
stage. Its formed due to vertical erosion of the river bed by fast flowing water over the soft under lying
rock between hard rocks. It forms when waterfalls retreat up stream. Examples of rivers with gorges
include; Zambezi, Nile, Orange, Congo, Niger and Volta.
Importance of gorges

 They are tourist attractions hence earning foreign exchange for several countries.
 Offer suitable sites for dam construction to produce H.E.P.
 Ideal for construction of bridges hence facilitating transport.
2. Waterfall: this is a sharp break in the channel bed over which a river flows. They occur in the upper
stage/torrent/youthful stage of the river. Its formed where there is interruption caused by existence of a
hard rock lying across the river valley. Its also formed where there is a fault scarp created during
faulting to form a sharp edge of a plateau. When water erodes backwards, it leads to the formation of a
gorge/narrow valley. The water plunges/falls from an upper level to a lower level to form a plunge pool.
E.g. Victoria Falls on river Zambezi, Inga Falls on river Congo e.t.c.
Illustration showing a gorge and waterfall

Importance of waterfalls

 Waterfalls are sites for water sports/recreation e.g. white water rafting.
 They are tourist attractions leading to generation of foreign exchange.
 Provide sites for dam construction leading to generation of H.E.P.
 Bridges can be constructed across waterfalls to improve on transport and communication.

3. Flood plain: this is a wide/broad/flat river valley covered with layers of alluvial sediments. Its found
in the mature/old/senile stage or lower course of a river. Its formed when speed of river’s water reduces
and deposition takes place on the bed of the river making it shallow and wide. The sediments are then
spread across the valley by floods and meanders. During floods, rivers overflow their banks and deposit
silt and mud on the valley floor. Examples of rivers with flood plains include; Nile, Niger, Zambezi,
Volta and Congo.

Illustration showing a flood plain

Importance of flood plains

 They contain fertile alluvial soils for arable farming or crop growing.
 Provide pasture for livestock rearing.
 They are flat landscape ideal for settlement.
 Flat landscape favours the construction of roads and railways for transport.
 Flood plains contain trees used for building and construction purposes.
 They contain swamps and papyrus for art and crafts industry.
 Flood plains provide sand for building and construction industry.
 Provision of clay for pottery and brick making.
 Sites for research and study purposes.
Problems affecting the use of rivers as water ways

 Remoteness whereby they are located in areas of low population hence not effectively used.
 Presence of waterfalls and rapids interfering with navigation.
 Seasonal water fluctuation which makes it hard to use them in the dry season when the water level is
low.
 Existence of water weeds/vegetation e.g. Sudds/papyrus in Sudan interfering with navigation.
 Presence of inland deltas making some areas impassable e.g. river Niger.
 Some rivers are too narrow and shallow and cant allow big vessels to sail across.
 River meanders also make navigation very difficult.
 Presence of wild animals e.g. hippos and crocodiles which cause accidents.
 Fast flowing rivers also make navigation very difficult especially in the upper stage.
 Political instability/insecurity along river valleys also makes navigation very difficult.
 Limited capital to develop inland water transport.
 Presence of rock outcrops which damage water vessels during navigation.
 Low levels of technology to develop better water transport vessels.
 Competition with other forms of transport e.g. roads, railways which reduces their usage.
Solutions to the above problems

 Construction of locks to allow boats by-pass dams e.g. on Kainji dam.

 Construction of dams to by-pass rapids and other obstacles e.g. Jonglei canal in Sudan to by-pass
the sudd.
 Regular dredging to widen and deepen river channels.
 Removal of floating vegetation to increase navigability of rivers.
 Construction of dams to maintain water flow.
 Acquisition of loans to develop better port facilities.
 Attraction of foreign investors to inject more capital and advanced technology.

WETLANDS IN AFRICA

Wetlands are often located low-lying areas or flood plains adjacent to rivers that are subject to
periodic flooding. Because of the low gradient, rivers’ waters spread to form many lagoons and swamps.
The swamps are later occupied by floating vegetation e.g. papyrus.
 The SUDD as its popularly known in Arabic is the best example of a wetland found in Southern
Sudan along the White Nile.

Importance of the sudd

 The vegetation is used by pastoralists to feed their goats, cattle and sheep.
 Source of water for domestic use and pastoralism in a desert country.
 Papyrus is a source of raw material for the art and craft industry.
 Evapo-transpiraton from the swamp and vegetation helps in rainfall formation.
 Source of fish from the swamps which supplements the peoples’ diet.
 Generation of employment opportunities through fishing, pastoralism and agriculture.
 Used for agricultural purposes due to fertile alluvial soils.
 Sudds help in control of floods during heavy rains.
 Swamp vegetation helps in water filtration before it enters the river Nile.
 Source of income through employment in fishing, pastoralism and agriculture.
Problems associated with the sudd

 Flooding during heavy rains which lead to destruction of life and property.
 Provide sites for disease spreading vectors e.g. mosquitoes and snails.
 Swamp vegetation is a barrier to water transport along river Nile.
 Swamp vegetation also slows the movement of water which leads to water loss due to high rates of
evaporation.
 They are habitats for wild animals e.g. snakes.
 Swamps also discourage settlements.
 The marshy and boggy ground makes it difficult to construct transport and communication lines.
 Areas with the sudd lack necessary social infrastructure which leads to remoteness.
Solutions/remedies to the above problems

 Resettling people away from the swampy areas.

 Constant spraying to control pests and diseases.
 Use of bridges and culverts along swamps to improve transport and communication.
 Construction of dams to control river flooding.
 Extension of better roads to connect to the swampy areas to reduce remoteness.
 Importance of lakes and rivers

 Lakes and rivers are tourist attractions thus earning African countries foreign exchange.
 Source of water for both domestic and industrial use.
 Used as a cheap means of transport e.g. Lake Nasser.
 Source of fish to supplement peoples’ diet.
 Generation of HEP e.g. Orange power project on river Orange.
 Source of water for irrigation e.g. Richard Toll Scheme on River Senegal.
 Source of raw materials for fish processing and art and craft industry.
 Generation of employment opportunities through fishing, transport and tourism hence improving on
peoples standards of living.
 Used as research grounds for students in geography, biology and fisheries studies.
 Used as recreational grounds e.g. swimming and white water rafting.
 Act as natural boundaries between countries e.g. river Ubanji between D.R.C and C.A.R.
 Climate modification through rainfall formation.
 Some lakes act as mining grounds e.g. salt pans in the Sahara desert.
 Have fertile banks providing good farming sites e.g. banks of river Senegal.
Problems associated with lakes and rivers

 They act as habitats for disease spreading vectors e.g. mosquitoes and snails.
 Hinder construction of transport and communication lines.
 Rise in water level leads to flooding and destruction of life and property.
 Harbour dangerous wild animals which destroy human life and property.
 Marshy and boggy ground around lakes and rivers hinder settlements.
 River valleys in arid areas are congested due to existence of fertile soils and fresh water.
 Water weeds on lakes limit fishing and navigation.
 Conflicts over water bodies shared between countries.
 They encourage smuggling across borders.
 Pollution of water bodies poses health problems e.g. skin diseases.

Solutions to the above problems

 Resettlement of people away from the congested areas.
 Enforcing laws against pollution.
 Employing security coast guards to control cross-border smuggling.
 Encouraging bi-lateral co-operation to reduce border conflict and tensions.
 Reducing water weeds by use of chemical spraying.
 Construction of dams to control flood and regulate water flow.
 Construction of levees and embankments to control flooding.
CLIMATE OF AFRICA
Climate refers to the average weather condition of a place studied and recorded over a long period
of time usually 30-35yrs.
Weather refers to the daily atmospheric conditions of a place in a short period of time .Weather
may be described as rainy, windy, cloudy, foggy, misty, and chilly.
Africa’s climate can be divided into 5 zones.
(a) Equatorial climate
(b) Tropical climate
(c) Desert and semi-desert climate
(d) Mediterranean climate
(e) Warm temperate climate
(f) Montane climate
A SKETCH MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING CLIMATIC REGIONS
(a) EQUATORIAL CLIMATE:
This type of climate occurs in the equatorial regions largely in the lower latitudes between 6 o –
7oNorth and South of the Equator.
In Africa, the equatorial climate is well pronounced in the
 Congo Basin
 Gabon
 West African coastal land (Cameroon).
 East coast of madagascar
Characteristics of equatorial climate
 The rainfall is heavy usually 1500 mm per year/annum and above.
 The rainfall is received throughout the year and is well distributed.
 The region experiences two rainfall peaks (Bi-modal/ double maxima rainfall) coinciding with the
over head sun.
 Rainfall is mainly convectional resulting from high evaporation from lakes, rivers and forests.
 Rainfall mainly falls in the afternoon accompanied by lightning and thunder.

 High temperatures of over 210C.

 The mean annual temperature range is very small less than 3o C.
 The diurnal temperature range is also small and about 7oC.
 The region is characterized by high relative humidity throughout the year due to high evaporation
rate.
 Dense or thick cloud cover making both day and night warm.
 Low pressure throughout the year due to high evaporation rates.
Economic activities carried out in equatorial climate regions
 Wild life conservation due to the existence of dense forests.
 Plantation farming due to the heavy rainfall received.
 Tourism due to the existence of dense forests and wild animals
 Equatorial climate has also favoured the existence of numerous water bodies giving rise to fishing
activities.
 Hunting due to the existence of wild animals.
 Lumbering due to the existence of dense forests
 .Fishing activities due to the presence of numerous rivers and lakes.
 Growing of perennial crops like coffee, cocoa in Ghana, oil palms in Nigeria, Sugar cane due to
heavy rainfall received throughout the year.
 Charcoal burning due to existence of dense forest cover.
 Food gathering like passion fruits due to thick forests.
Problems faced in equatorial regions.
 There is rampant occurrence of pests and diseases which attack man, livestock, crops and this has
scared away settlements leading to low development rates.
 The heavy rainfall received throughout the year and existence of the dense forested regions has made
the establishment of transport network very difficult.
 The region with its dense forests has made it difficult to exploit such areas leading to remoteness.
 The equatorial forests are commonly inhabited by robbers and this has constrained any attempts to
the development of the region.
 The heavy rainfall received throughout the year has caused a danger of erosion especially in areas
where agriculture is practiced.
 Heavy rainfall may also lead to flooding which destroys peoples’ lives and property.
 Leaching of the soils has also led to serious loss of soil fertility.
 High rate of weed growth hence increasing costs of farming and clearance of land.
Steps taken to improve conditions in equatorial regions
 Establishment of transport and communication networks such as roads to reduce remoteness.
 Ensure political stability by talking peace with the respective rebel groups so as to allow
development to take place in the affected areas.
 Practice modern methods of agriculture such as application of both organic and in-organic fertilizers
to check on the rate of soil fertility loss.
 Setting up processing and manufacturing industries to take up products from agriculture and forestry
to minimize wastage.
 Use of herbicides to control growth of weeds.
 Market research so as to enable the farmers in the region to sell their agricultural produce.
 Provision of capital in form of soft loans to enable different activities like agriculture and lumbering.
 Planting of trees to control soil erosion.

TROPICAL/SAVANNA CLIMATE.
This type of climate occurs between 5o to 15o north and south of the Equator.
Savanna climate occupies the largest part of Africa and it is found in the broad zone between the
equatorial climate and the hot desert.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL/SAVANNA CLIMATE
 Rainfall is moderate ranging between 750- 1000 mm near the equator and decreases towards
the desert about 250 mm.
 Rainfall is seasonal with alternating wet and dry conditions.
 High temperatures of over 240C.
 Rainfall is mainly received in the summer season.
 The rainfall received in the region is convectional in nature coinciding with the over head
sun.
 Annual temperature range is moderate ranging between 7oC – 9oC.
 Humidity is relatively high throughout the year due to high evaporation rates.
 The region experiences a low cloud cover generally though the cloud cover is a bit dense
during the summer seasons.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES THAT CAN BE CARRIED OUT IN TROPICAL REGIONS

 Seasonal cultivation of crops are e.g. maize, millet, groundnuts beans, and cotton.
 Livestock rearing due to the existence of grasslands.
 Lumbering due to the existence woodlands.
 Wild life conservation (game parks) due to the existence of grassland vegetation.
 Development of processing and manufacturing industries e.g. grain mills, ginneries for cotton, milk
processing plants etc.
 Charcoal burning and extraction of wood fuel due to the existence of woodlands.
 Hunting of wild animals due to the existence of the wild animals.
 Bee keeping (Api-culture) can also survive in the savanna woodlands.
 Tourism due to the existence of wild animals and savanna grasslands.

PROBLEMS FACED IN TROPICAL REGIONS

 Low and unreliable rainfall which leads to crop failure and low crop yields.
 Shortage of adequate pasture for the livestock especially during the dry season forcing people to live
a pastoral life.
 Large herds of livestock are kept which leads to over stocking, over grazing and eventually soil
erosion.
 Wide spread fire out break especially during the dry seasons which leaves the surface bare leading to
erosion when the rain season begins.
 Occurrence of pests and diseases which affect the crops and livestock for tsetse flies which spread
sleeping sickness in human beings and Nagana in livestock.
 Poaching of wild animals and this has affected the tourism industry.
 The severe occurrence of drought conditions forces wild animals to migrate which affects tourism.
 Some savannahs have inadequate transport and communication net work which has led to
remoteness and low levels of economic development.
 Inadequate capital to develop savannah regions.
 Growth of weeds during the wet season which makes crop growing very expensive.

SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

 Spraying with chemicals to control weeds and pests.
 Provisions of soft loans to reduce shortage of capital for developing the regions.
 Encourage crop rotation to ensure soil fertility and high productivity.
 Construction of valley dams to store water for the dry season.
 Establishing ranches to act as demonstration farms for the pastoralists.
 Extending veterinary services to reduce animal diseases.
 Construction of roads to reduce remoteness of such areas.

DESERT AND SEMI DESERT CLIMATE.

This type of climate is mainly found in the sub-tropical high pressure belt between 20 o and 30oNorth
and South of the Equator. These areas include Sahara desert in Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, and
Egypt etc, Kalahari Desert in Botswana and Northern South Africa and Namib Desert in Namibia.
Characteristics of desert and semi-desert climate
 Low and reliable Rainfall below 250 mm per year.
 Very hot temperatures usually above 300C
 The region experience high evaporation rate due to intense heat and high temperatures.
 The days are very hot while the nights are very cold.
 These regions experience low relative humidity because of the extreme dry conditions.
 The diurnal range of temperature is very high about 10 0C and above.
 They experience hot and dry conditions throughout the year.
 Rainfall is rare but torrential which leads to seasonal floods.
 Absence of cloud cover.

Factors that have led to desert type of climate

 Latitudinal location far away from the equator where rainfall is low and unreliable.
 Location on western side of the continent where off-shore winds lead to aridity.
 Absence of large water bodies in the interior hence reduced evaporation e.g. Sahara desert.
 Rain shadow effect due to presence of Ethiopian and Drakensburg Mtns.
 Presence of scanty vegetation which limits evapo-transpiration leading to low rainfall totals.
 Presence of off-shore winds which blow parallel to the coast diverting moisture bearing winds from
the land mass.
 Bush burning by pastoralists which leads to rise in temperatures.
Economic activities in desert and semi-desert climate
 Tourism due to the existence of numerous desert landforms that attract tourists e.g. sand dunes.
 Nomadic pastoralism due to existence of scanty pastures e.g. Fulani in the Sahel region.
 Mining e.g. oil in Libya and Algeria, diamonds in Namibia and salt pans in Egypt.
 Cultivation of drought resistant crops under irrigation e.g. cotton and dates on the Gezira in Sudan.
 Bee keeping due to the existence of scattered trees.

Problems faced by people living in desert regions

 Inadequate/limited supply of surface water for livestock and human consumption.
 Shortage of pasture for livestock rearing leading to nomadism.
 Infertile soils which don’t support crop growing.
 Low and unreliable rainfall which limits growth of crops and vegetation.
 Excessively high temperatures during the day making settlements difficult.
 Very cold nights due to absence of cloud cover.
 Some desert areas are remote due to absence of road network.
 Limited supply of food leading to frequent famine.
 Sandstorms are common leading to loss of lives and poor visibility.
 Small population makes it difficult to provide social services.
 Temporary flooding due to torrential downpours.
 Overcrowding near oases, rivers and water points.
 Shortage of labour and market due to small and sparse population.

Solutions to the above problems

 Construction of valley dams to help store water for pastoralists.
 Irrigation farming to improve food production and reduce famine.
 Planting of trees to help in climate modification through rainfall formation.
 Use of machines especially where labour is not enough.
 Educating pastoralists about the dangers of bush burning.
 Extending social services to attract big population and encourage people to settle down.
 Resettlement of people away from congested areas e.g. oases and river valleys.
 Encouraging tourism to acquire revenue for development of social services.

MONTANE CLIMATE
This is experienced in highlands and mountainous regions of Africa. Examples of these areas
include; Ethiopian highlands, Drakensburg Mountains, Cameroon and Atlas Mtns.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MONTANE CLIMATE

 Low temperatures are experienced. The temperature decreases with an increase in height or altitude.
 Relief or orographic rainfall is mainly received on the windward side of highlands.
 The tops of the mountains do not receive as much rain as the lower slopes.
 In areas where the altitude exceeds 4500 m above sea level, the areas are covered by permanent
snow due to extremely cold conditions.
 The leeward slopes are often dry due to the rain shadow effect while the wind ward side is wet.
 Lower slopes are warmer than higher slopes.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT IN MONTANE CLIMATE

 Tourism due to existence of permanent snow and glacial features that attract tourists
 Lumbering especially from the mountain forest favoured by the climate.
 Slopes that have fertile soil and receive heavy rains favour agriculture especially on the windward
side.
 Nomadic pastoralism especially on the lee ward sides of the highlands.
 Mineral exploitation due to occurrence of some mineral deposits in mountain rocks.
 Stone quarrying which provides materials for road construction and building.

N.B. For problems faced by people living in montane climate, refer to value of mountains in Africa.

(d) MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE.

This is also called warm temperate climate. In Africa, this type of climate is found around the Cape
region of South Africa and in the Northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
Characteristics of Mediterranean climate
 Rainfall is moderate ranging between 500 mm – 1000 mm per year.
 The region experiences high relative humidity in the winter season and low humidity in summer.
 The annual temperature range is moderate about 5oC.
 The region experiences cool dry summers and warm wet winters.
 The summer seasons are generally sunny.
 Alternate wet and dry seasons.
Economic activities carried out in Mediterranean climate
 Mediterranean climate favours the growth of citrus fruits, wheat and vegetables.
 Livestock rearing is carried out due to presence of pasture.
 The forest vegetation produces cork and other timber products of soft wood.
 Tourism due to the alternate dry and wet conditions which favour beach activities like swimming.

OCEAN CURRENTS IN AFRICA

Ocean currents are general movements of surface water of the ocean in a defined direction.

TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

There are two types of ocean currents i.e.
Warm ocean currents (warm Mozambique and Guinea)
Cold ocean currents.
A SKETCH MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING OCEAN CURRENTS

KEY
-------

COLD OCEAN CURRENTS

The cold ocean currents include:
 Canary
 Benguela current.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COLD OCEAN CURRENTS

 Cold/cool temperatures
 Flow on the western sides of continents
 Blow from high latitudes (poles) to low latitudes (equator)
  Characterized by high density.
INFLUENCE /EFFECTS OF COLD OCEAN CURRENTS ON CLIMATE.
 Cold ocean currents lead to low temperatures along the coast.
 Reduced rainfall totals due to less evaporation rates e.g. Namib Desert.
 Formation of off-shore fog due to rapid radiation.
 Cold ocean currents are associated with low humidity and low cloud cover for example Benguela
leads to clear skies in the Namib desert
 Low levels of condensation hence development of desert conditions
 Formation of advection fog along the coast

INFLUENCE /EFFECTS OF COLD OCEAN CURRENTS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES.

 Cold ocean currents cause formation of off shore fog thus limiting transport
 Offshore winds lead to desertification which limits crop cultivation
 Unreliable rainfall leads to nomadic pastoralism
 Formation of advection fog along the coast which affects visibility

WARM OCEAN CURRENTS

The warm ocean currents include include:

 Warm Mozambique/Agulhas
 Warm Guinea current.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WARM OCEAN CURRENTS
 Warm/hot temperatures
 Blow from low latitudes near the equator to high latitudes
 Blow from areas of low pressure to high pressure.
 Blow on the eastern side of continents
 Characterized by low density.

INFLUENCE /EFFECTS OF WARM OCEAN CURRENTS ON CLIMATE.

 Warm ocean currents raise the temperature along the coastal region.
 Increased amount of rainfall along the coastal areas e.g. Gabon and Congo.
 Warm ocean currents increase humidity and cloud cover at the coast.
 They cause low pressure belt along the coast because they force warm air to rise into the atmosphere.

INFLUENCE /EFFECTS OF WARM OCEAN CURRENTS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES.

Positive
 Warm ocean currents lead to heavy rainfall which favour agriculture like sisal and cloves at the
East African coast.
  Heavy rainfall leads to growth of thick tropical forests which favours lumbering and forestry e.g.
in Gabon
 Warm Mozambique current favours the growth of coral reefs which promote mining activities.
 Heavy rainfall formed by the warm Mozambique current has attracted settlements along the
coast like Mombasa.
Negative
 The thick forests are associated with pests and diseases like tsetse flies.
 Heavy rainfall at the coast sometimes leads to flooding hence destruction of property

PREVAILING WINDS
Africa’s climate is affected by a number of wind systems that determine the climate of a given
region e.g.

(a) South-East trade winds originating from Indian Ocean carry a lot of moisture that leads to heavy
amount of rainfall received in some parts of southern Africa and the east African coast.

(b) The North-East trade winds originating from Arabian Desert have very little moisture which is
trapped by the Ethiopian highlands leading to heavy rainfall formation but as they descend from the
Ethiopian highlands those winds are dry and have led to dry climatic conditions in Northern Kenya and
some parts of Somalia.

(c) The North East monsoon winds which are seasonal mainly affect the East coast of Africa and bring
rain along the East African coast down up to Durban in South Africa.

(d) The south west monsoon winds (westerlies) originate from Atlantic Ocean with a lot of moisture and
blow towards the Congo Basin. These winds have led to wet conditions in the D.R.C.

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF CLIMATE IN AFRICA

1. Altitude; temperatures tend to increase with rise in altitude at an average of 0.65oC for every 100m
of ascent thus highland areas of Atlas, Ethiopian, Futa Djalon e.t.c have experienced cool climate
conditions with the surrounding areas. The coastal regions experience high temps and warm climatic
conditions because of low altitude.
2. Relief: the highland regions tend to be wetter than the surrounding areas. They trap warm and moist
winds which cool and condense leading to the formation of clouds and relief rainfall. This rain is
mainly received on the wind ward side while the leeward side experiences dry or arid conditions due
to the influence of descending dry winds e.g. the East ward facing slopes of Drakensburg Mountains
are wetter while Western sides are dry.
3. Influence of water bodies (land and sea breezes): large water bodies like Indian Ocean and Lake
Victoria affect the climate of surrounding areas through the land and sea breezes.
(a) Sea breeze: during the day, land gets heated up faster than water and this forces the air over the land
to become warmer and it expands giving rise to a low pressure zone over land while cool air from the
water is forced to blow towards land because of high pressure over water .The warm air over land is
forced to rise and when it reaches the condensation level, it cools down, condenses and forms clouds
which fall back as rainfall especially in the afternoons and evenings.
Illustration
(b) Land breeze: at night the land cools faster than water. Low Pressure belt is formed over water and
high pressure belt forms over land. Cool air blows from land to the sea and the warm air over the sea is
forced to rise and then condenses to form rainfall which falls back in the early morning hours.
Illustration
4. Drainage/distance from the sea: most water bodies such as Streams, rivers, lakes, seas, oceans
promote evaporation. Due to high evaporation rate, the water vapour condenses to form rainfall and
that’s why areas with water bodies receive heavy rainfall and moderate temperatures e.g. near the
coastal lands while areas without water bodies experience low rainfall and very high temperatures
due to less evaporation rates e.g. Sahara desert.
5. Vegetation: this has also influenced climate of Africa through the process of evapo-transpiration by
plants. Areas with dense forest cover are wetter due to high rates of evapo-transpiration which leads
to heavy rainfall e.g. Congo basin while areas with scanty vegetation receive very low rainfall due to
absence of evapo-transpiration process e.g. the Namib desert.
6. Influence of the overhead sun: the apparent movement of over head sun North and South of the
equator influences rainfall formation and surface temperature. The over head sun creates a low
pressure belt within the equatorial regions which attracts the prevailing winds to converge. This zone
where winds converge is called the I.T.C.Z (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone). When the sun is
overhead, this creates intense heat and warm air is forced to rise, reaching the condensation level
where it cools down to form clouds that fall back as rainfall. When the sun is overhead in the
northern hemisphere (June-August), the region experiences rainfall while the southern hemisphere
experiences dry conditions and the reverse is also true when the sun is overhead in the southern
hemisphere (November-January). Along the equatorial regions, rainfall is received throughout the
with two rainfall peaks coinciding with the overhead sun.
7. Influence of prevailing winds: Africa’s climate is affected by a number of wind systems that
determine the climate of a given region e.g.
(e) South-East trade winds originating from Indian Ocean carry a lot of moisture that leads to high
amount of rainfall received in some parts of southern Africa.
(f) The North-East trade winds originating from Arabian Desert have very little moisture which is
trapped by the Ethiopian highlands leading to heavy rainfall formation but as they descend from the
Ethiopian highlands those winds are dry and have led to dry climatic conditions in Northern Kenya and
some parts of Somalia.
(g) The monsoon winds which are seasonal mainly affect the East coast of Africa and bring rain along
the East African coast down up to Durban in South Africa.
(h) Westeries: these originate from Atlantic Ocean with a lot of moisture and blow towards the Congo
Basin. These winds have led to wet conditions in the D.R.C.
8. Ocean Currents: there are two types of ocean currents i.e. Warm ocean currents and Cold ocean
currents.
(a) The warm ocean currents include: Warm Mozambique/Agulhas and Warm Guinea currents.
Characteristics

 Increase the temperature along the coastal region.

 High temperatures cause high evaporation rates and lead to increased amount of rainfall along the
coastal areas e.g. Gabon and Congo.
 They blow from warmer regions to colder regions i.e. from the equator to the poles.
 They cause low pressure belt along the coast because they force warm air to rise into the atmosphere.

(b) The cold ocean currents include: Canary and Benguela currents.
Characteristics
 Lead to reduction in temperatures along the coast.
 They lead to reduced rainfall totals due to less evaporation rates e.g. Namib Desert.
 They blow from colder regions to warmer areas i.e. from poles towards the equator.
 They cause high pressure belt along the coast because of the cool air that can’t rise into the
atmosphere.
9. Influence of man: areas where man has cleared forests to set up land for farming, industrialisation
and road construction, reclamation of swamps and bush burning, the climate has become
increasingly arid due to reduced rainfall totals and rise in temperatures. However, where man has
engaged in afforestation and re-afforestation practices, there has been climate modification due to
rainfall formation.

Influence of climate on agricultural activities

1. During the wet season, farmers engage in activities such as:
 Planting due to enough water needed for crop germination.
 Weeding to remove the unwanted plants from gardens.
 Pruning to reduce excess branches from the crops for proper growth.
 Spraying against pests and diseases that lower crop yields.
 Settled grazing due to abundance of water and pastures for feeding animals.
2. During the dry season, farmers engage in activities such as:
 Nomadic pastoralism due to absence of surface water and pasture for feeding animals,
 Ploughing the land to prepare it for the planting season.
 Clearing of land to prepare for the rain season.
 Digging of dams to store water.

Effects of climate on agricultural activities

1. During the wet season, climate leads to:
 Growth of weeds due to presence of surface water.
 Flooding which leads to destruction of crops and animals.
 Excessive soil erosion which leads to loss of soil fertility.
 High rate of spread of pests and diseases due to humid conditions.
2. During the dry season, climate leads to:
 Death of animals due to inadequate supply of water.
 Water shortage which leads to aridity and desertification.
 Shortage of pastures leading to inadequate animal feeds.
 Wind erosion which also leads to loss of soil fertility.
 Shortage of food which leads to famine and hunger.
 Migration/movement of farmers/nomads over long distances in search of water and pastures.
Ripening of crops which favours harvesting of crops.

NATURAL VEGETATION IN AFRICA

Natural vegetation refers to that type of plant life that grows naturally in a particular physical
environment without man’s influence or interference. It can be a forest, grassland or scrub.

TYPES OF NATURAL VEGETATION IN AFRICA.

Africa has a number of natural vegetation types which include:

 Tropical or Equatorial vegetation
 Savannah vegetation
 Mediterranean vegetation
 Semi-desert and Desert vegetation
 montane vegetation
 temperate forests and
 The High Veld.
A SKETCH MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL VEGETATION

(a) TROPICAL/EQUATORIAL RAINFOREST

This type of vegetation is found in areas which experience an equatorial type of climate between
5 North and 50South of the Equator. Such areas include the Congo Basin, West African Coastal areas
0

and the East coast of Madagascar Island.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL RAINFORESTS

 The forests are thick and luxuriant.
 Little or no under growth due to limited sunlight reaching the floor of the forest.
 The trees are ever green due to the heavy rainfall received throughout the year.
 The trees are very tall usually 30 – 50m and above.
 The branches of trees form 2 - 3 distinct layers called canopies.
 Characterized by many hard wood tree species that include Mahogany, Ebony, Obeche, Mvule,
musizi etc.
 Trees have Buttress roots to support the great weight.
 There are many climbing plants which twine from tree to tree e.g. lianas and epiphytes.
 Trees have broad leaves.
 Forests are ever green throughout the year and shade off their leaves at different intervals.
 The trees don’t appear in pure stands that is different tree species are inter-mixed.

FACTORS/CONDITIONS THAT FAVOUR THE GROWTH OF TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

Physical factors
 Heavy rainfall of over1500mm per annum to support tree growth.
 Well distributed rainfall throughout the year for proper growth of trees.
 High temperature ranging between 25 – 30oC to support growth of tropical trees.
 Presence of well drained fertile soils for the growth of trees.
 The high humidity throughout the year to ensure proper tree growth.
 Low altitudes which ensures high temperature for proper tree growth.

Human factors
 Low population density that favours these forests to grow freely without any interruption.
 Supportive government policies of preserving forests and protecting them from encroachers.
 Remoteness of areas which are not easily accessible giving chance to trees to grow luxuriantly.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES TAKING PLACE IN TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

(Influence of tropical rainforests on Human activities)
 Crop cultivation such as coffee, tea, palm oil and cocoa due to heavy rainfall and fertile soils.
 Livestock rearing due to existence of abundant pasture for livestock.
 Lumbering is also carried out due to existence of thick tropical rain forests.
 Hunting of wild animals for wild beef due to presence of a variety of wild animals.
 Gathering of fruits (wild fruits) like mangoes and passion fruits due to many trees that yield fruits.
 Bee keeping due to existence of thick forests that harbour bees.
 Small scale fishing especially on rivers that flow through the forests.
 Mining e.g. gold in Ghana, Diamonds in Congo basin and Oil in Nigeria etc.
 Manufacturing industries have developed due to existence of raw materials e.g. timber.
 Tourism due to existence of a variety of flora and fauna in the thick forests.
 Wildlife conservation due to the presence of thick forests that harbour wild animals.

PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE LIVING IN OF TROPICAL RAIN FOREST AREAS

 Thick forest vegetation hinders construction of transport network leading to remoteness.
 Forests harbour dangerous insects and animals that attack man and his animals as well as crops.
 Infertile Soils in some areas due to leaching limiting crop cultivation.
 Forests act as hide outs for rebels that destabilize peace.
 Heavy rainfall and dump ground leads to floods and soil erosion which discourages settlement.
 Remoteness due to absence of transport and communication lines.
 Population explosion which has led to disappearance of the forests.
 Rapid spread of pests and diseases which limits crop cultivation.

SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

 Use of population control methods to reduce deforestation.
 Licensing workers to reduce over exploitation.
 Use of fertilizers, crop rotation to reduce loss of soil fertility.
 Peaceful resolutions e.g. round table discussions to control rebel activities.
 Use of chemical spraying to control pests and diseases.
 Construction of modern transport lines connecting to forests to reduce remoteness.

(b) SAVANNAH VEGETATION

The type of vegetation occurs in areas which receive tropical or savannah type of climate between
5-150 North and South of the Equator.
Savanna vegetation is the most widespread form of natural vegetation.
It is dominant in regions where rainfall is between 750 – 1000 mm per annum.
Savanna vegetation is sub-divided in to three namely
 Savanna grassland
 Savanna woodland
 Dry savanna

SAVANNA WOODLAND
This is a type of savanna vegetation with a more or less continuous cover of trees mixed with
shrubs.it is also referred to as tropical woodland or savanna woodland and it grows near the tropical
forests.
Savanna woodland is found in central Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Ivory Coast and Guinea north of
tropical rain forests. In Tanzania it is referred to as the Miombo woodlands.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SAVANNA WOODLAND

 The trees form a more or continuous cover.

 The trees are short ranging from 8-16m in height.
 Thick under growth of tall grass and very short trees due to sunlight.
 The trees are umbrella shaped for example Acacia
 The tress shade of their leaves in the dry season
 The trees are drought and fire resistant for example Boabab and Acacia.
 The trees have broad leaves.
 Some trees have swollen trunks to store water for the dry season.
 The trees consist of mainly hardwood.

CONDITIONS /FACTORS FAVOURING SAVANNA WOODLAND

 Moderate and seasonal rainfall of about 750-1000mm per annum for tree growth.
 Hot temperatures of over 240C
 Fairly fertile soils with low retention capacity enables the growth of drought resistant trees.
 Relief especially low lying plateaus for growth of short trees and grass.
 Human activities like deforestation which reduced the once tropical forests to woodland
forests.

SAVANNA GRASSLAND
This is a type of savanna vegetation found near (fringes) savanna woodlands. It is a continuous cover
of grass
Savanna grassland occurs north of savanna woodlands in Nigeria, Benin and Togo as well as Nyika
plateau of Kenya, northern Uganda, Nakasongola Twara and Tanga in Tanzania.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SAVANNA GRASSLAND

 The vegetation mainly consists of grass.
 The height of the grass ranges between 1-3 metres.
 Consists of short tress.
 The trees are drought resistant.
 Savanna grassland is characterized by short umbrella scattered trees.
 The grass is green in the wet season and brown in the dry season.

CONDITIONS /FACTORS FAVOURING SAVANNA GRASSLAND

 Moderate and seasonal rainfall of about 760-1000mm per annum for grass and tree growth.
 Hot temperatures of over 250C which leads to shedding in the dry season.
 Fairly fertile soils which can support the growth of drought luxuriant grass and scattered
trees.
 Relief especially low lying plateaus for growth of short trees and grass.
 Human activities like deforestation which reduced the once woodland forests to grasslands.

DRY SAVANNA
Dry savanna if found in dry areas at the fringes of deserts especially in the Sahel region.
Dry Savanna vegetation is common in
 Botswana, Niger, Ethiopia.
 Albert flats, semiliki, north eastern Uganda in Uganda as well as
 Northern Kenya in Turkanaland and Masai Mara region around Lake Magadi.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY SAVANNA.

 Characterized by bushy thorny trees.
 Growth of thickets
 The trees have long tap root system to penetrate deep underground searching for water.
 Trees have small leaves to reduce transpiration.
 Trees are umbrella shaped.
 Some trees like Boabab have thick trunks for storing water

CONDITIONS /FACTORS FAVOURING DRY SAVANNA.

 Low and unreliable rainfall between 250-500mm per annum favours growth of dry savanna.
 Hot temperatures of over 260C which leads to shedding in the dry season.
 Poor and infertile soils with limited retention capacity which favour growth of dry savanna.
 Relief in that some dry savannas are found along the leeward side of mountains like
Ethiopian highlands.
 Low lying relief below 1250 m above sea level.
 Human activities like deforestation, over grazing, wild bush fires which reduced the once
grasslands to dry savanna.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SAVANNA VEGETATION
 Divided into savannah woodlands, grasslands and dry savanna.
 The vegetation consists of mainly grassland which has very tall grass e.g. elephant grass.
 The grasses are green during the dry season and turn brown in the dry season.
 Woodlands have scattered trees of a moderate size e.g. acacia.
 In some places, the trees have an umbrella shape.
 Trees are deciduous and shade off their leaves during the dry season and regenerate in the wet
season.
 The tree trunks are short and some have a medium size.
 The barks of the trees tend to be hard and thick to reduce water loss.
 Near the desert fringes where the dry season is a little bit long, thorny bushes and shrubs are found.
 Trees are made of hard wood.
 Trees are drought resistant e.g. baobab trees that store water for use in the dry season.
 Trees are deep rooted.
 There is thick under growth in savannah woodlands.

CONDITIONS THAT FAVOUR GROWTH OF SAVANNAH VEGETATION

 Seasonal rainfall i.e. alternating wet and dry season.
 Moderate rainfall of about 750-1000mm per annum.
 High temperatures of about 25-30 0c.
 Fertile and well drained soils for proper growth of trees and grass.
 Low altitude areas to ensure high temperatures.
 Flat landscape which is undulating dissected by river valleys.
 High humidity during the rainy season and low during the dry season.
 Human activities e.g. bush burning, deforestation, pastoralism and settlements which lead to
disappearance of tropical forests.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN SAVANNAH VEGETATION.

 Seasonal cultivation/arable farming of drought resistant crops are e.g. maize, millet, groundnuts
beans, and cotton due unreliable rainfall.
 Livestock rearing due to the existence of grasslands like Masai in Kenya and Fulani in Nigeria.
 Lumbering due to the existence woodlands.
 Wild life conservation (game parks) due to the existence of grassland vegetation like Tsavo
 Development of processing and manufacturing industries e.g. grain mills, ginneries for cotton, milk
processing plants due to agricultural raw materials.
 Charcoal burning and extraction of wood fuel due to the existence of woodlands.
 Hunting of wild game due to the existence of the wild animals.
 Bee keeping (Api-culture) can also survive in the savanna woodlands.
 Tourism due to the existence of wild animals and savanna grasslands.
 Fruit gathering for example Shea nuts, palm nuts due to trees that yield fruits.

PROBLEMS FACING LAND USE IN SAVANNA REGIONS

 Low and unreliable rainfall which leads to crop failure and low crop yields.
 Scarcity of pasture for the livestock especially during the dry season forcing people to live a pastoral
life.
 Large herds of livestock are kept which leads to over stocking, over grazing and eventually soil
erosion.
 Wide spread fire out break especially during the dry seasons which leaves the surface bare leading to
erosion when the rain season begins.
 Pests and diseases which affect the crops and livestock.
 Poaching of wild animals and this has affected the tourism industry.
 The severe occurrence of drought conditions forces wild animals to migrate which affects tourism.
 Poorly developed transport network which has led to remoteness and low levels of economic
development.
 Inadequate capital to develop savannah regions.
 Growth of weeds during the wet season which makes crop growing very expensive.
 The increasing government policy of gazetting savanna regions as game parks has limited hunting..

SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

 Spraying with pesticides to control weeds and pests.
 Provisions of soft loans to reduce shortage of capital for developing the regions.
 Encourage crop rotation to ensure soil fertility and high productivity.
 Application of fertilizers and manure to improve soil fertility.
 Digging of boreholes to provide water for both livestock and people.
 Construction of valley dams to store water for the dry season.
 Establishing ranches to act as demonstration farms for the pastoralists.
 Extending veterinary services to reduce animal diseases.
 Construction of roads to reduce remoteness of such areas.
 Educating farmers better farming practices.
 Irrigation farming is being practiced to solve the problem of prolonged drought.

(c) DESERT AND SEMI DESERT VEGETATION

This type of vegetation is found in areas that experience desert and semi-desert climate between
20 -30 North and South of the equator.
0 0

The key areas having desert vegetation in Africa include

 Sahara desert in Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt etc.
 Kalahari Desert in Botswana and Northern South Africa.
 Namib Desert in Namibia.
Semi-desert vegetation is found in the Sahel region.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DESERT AND SEMI-DESERT VEGETATION

 Scanty vegetation varying from short grass to bare ground.
 The vegetation type is mainly made up of thorny bushes, coarse grasses and flowering herbs.
 Many plants have deep penetrating tap roots that reach far underground to absorb water.
 Many plants have a waxy surface and hard barks to reduce the rate of transpiration.
 The leaves are tiny thorny and small to reduce water loss.
 Some plants have swollen trunks in which they store water to use during the long dry season e.g.
Baobab.
 The plants have seeds that can lay dormant on the ground for a long time until the rain falls to allow
germination.
 Many plants complete their life cycle within a few weeks before the soils dry up e.g. shrubs.

CONDITIONS THAT HAVE LED TO/ FAVOURING THE GROWTH OF DESERT AND
SEMI-DESERT VEGETATION
 Unreliable rainfall of about 250mm per annum limiting plant growth hence scanty vegetation.
 Very thin and infertile sandy soils that are so porous to allow easy loss of water in the soil.
 Hot temperatures of above 300c which limits plant growth.
 Very low humidity which leads to unreliable rainfall hence limiting plant growth.
 Human activities e.g. bush burning, over grazing and deforestation which lead to loss of vegetation.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN DESERT AND SEMI-DESERT CLIMATE

 Tourism due to the existence of numerous desert landforms that attract tourists e.g. sand dunes.
 Nomadic pastoralism due to existence of scanty pastures e.g. Fulani in the Sahel region.
 Mining e.g. oil in Libya and Algeria, diamonds in Namibia and salt pans in Egypt.
 Cultivation of drought resistant crops under irrigation e.g. cotton and dates on the Gezira in Sudan.
 Bee keeping due to the existence of scattered trees.

PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE LIVING IN DESERT REGIONS

 Inadequate/limited supply of surface water for livestock and human consumption.
 Shortage of pasture for livestock rearing leading to nomadism.
 Infertile soils which don’t support crop growing.
 Low and unreliable rainfall which limits growth of crops and vegetation.
 Excessively high temperatures during the day making settlements difficult.
 Very cold nights due to absence of cloud cover.
 Some desert areas are remote due to absence of road network.
 Limited supply of food leading to frequent famine.
 Sandstorms are common leading to loss of lives and poor visibility.
 Small population makes it difficult to provide social services.
 Temporal flooding due to torrential downpours.
 Overcrowding near oases, rivers and water points.
 Shortage of labour and market due to small and sparse population.

SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

 Construction of valley dams to help store water for pastoralists.
 Irrigation farming to improve food production and reduce famine.
 Planting of trees to help in climate modification through rainfall formation.
 Use of machines especially where labour is not enough.
 Educating pastoralists about the dangers of bush burning.
 Extending social services to attract big population and encourage people to settle down.
 Resettlement of people away from congested areas e.g. oases and river valleys.
 Encouraging tourism to acquire revenue for development of social services.

(d) MEDITERANEAN VEGETATION

This vegetation type is mainly found in the South western part of South Africa (Cape Province) and
the extreme Northern parts of Africa i.e. Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and some parts of Libya.

Characteristics of Mediterranean vegetation

 Trees are ever green due to moderate rainfall received.
 Trees have deep tap roots to reach the water table that is too low.
 Trees have thick barks to reduce water loss.
 Some plants have large fleshy bulb roots which store water.
 The trees have shiny waxy and fairly light leaves to reduce transpiration and water loss.
 The trees are cone shaped with tiny spiny leaves.
 The tree species in that region mainly include oak, orchards, figs, cork and olives.
 In drier areas, vegetation consists of open, short patches of grass which are like shrubs.
 Vegetation is characterized by sweet smelling herbs.
 The grass is hairy and bunchy.

Conditions favouring the growth of Mediterranean vegetation

 Warm and wet winters for tree germination.
 Cool and dry summers to reduce water loss.
 Deep and well drained fertile alluvial soils for tree growth.
 Moderate rainfall of about 1000mm per annum.
 Moderate temperatures of between 15-230c.
 Seasonal rainfall with one rainfall peak.
 Human activities e.g. intensive farming to support flower and fruit growth.

N.B. Economic activities carried out in Mediterranean climate (refer to Mediterranean climate)

(e) MONTANE VEGETATION

This occurs in mountain ranges and highland regions e.g. Drakensburg and Ethiopian highlands.
Due to a varying altitude, the vegetation changes as one moves up the mountain as shown below.
 Savannah: this is found at the lowest level of the mountain and consists of dry grasses and shrubs. It’s
due to man’s interference through clearance of tropical forests.
Tropical rain forests: these are above savannah at an altitude between 1500 to 2500 metres. It consists
of thick luxuriant and evergreen vegetation.
Temperate and bamboo forests: as altitude increases, the rainfall amount reduces and this gives rise to
the temperate and bamboo forest which thrive well under cold conditions.
Heath and moorland: at the level between 3500 to 4500 m above sea level. The temperatures are very
low as well as rainfall. Vegetation here consist of flowering plants, grasses and shrubs e.g. cedar and
camphor.
Snow and bare rock: above 4500 above sea level, temperatures are extremely cold thus the existence
of snow and bare rocks. No vegetation grows at this level.

Characteristics of montane forests

 Altitudinal zonation of forest vegetation i.e. tropical forests at lower slopes, temperate slopes at mid-
slopes, coniferous and bamboo slopes at higher slopes.
 Tropical forests (low altitude) are of mixed stand and have two layers of canopy.
 Tropical forests are of hard wood.
 Temperate, coniferous and bamboo forests are pure stand and have single canopy.
 Temperate and coniferous forests are soft wood, have thick barks, cone shaped trees, needle shaped
leaves, straight trunks and some species have hollow stems.
N.B. 1. Economic activities carried out in montane vegetation (refer to montane climate)

(f) HIGH VELD

This type of vegetation is also referred to as temperate vegetation. It is experienced in Southern
Transvaal and the Orange Free State of South Africa.

Characteristics of high Veld

 It has a few scattered trees.
 Mainly made up of tropical trees and temperate grasslands.
 Grasses grow to a medium height of 2m.
 Grasses wither in the dry winters.
 Low altitude areas give rise to warn temperate forests.

Conditions that favour the growth of high Veld

 High altitude for proper tree growth.
 High summer rainfall totals.
 Cool winters for proper plant growth.
 High summer humidity and low winter humidity.
 Intensive farming e.g. crop growing and animal rearing.

Economic activities carried out in the high Veld

 Crop growing especially fruits e.g. oranges and apples.
 Animal rearing especially exotic breeds.
 Small scale lumbering from the tropical trees.
 Industrialization due to existence of raw materials e.g. timber and agricultural products.

(g) MANGROVE / SWAMP VEGETATION

This type of vegetation occurs along the coastal areas of West, East and Southern Africa. It’s also
common along rivers and lakes e.g. river Niger and Congo.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MANGROVE VEGETATION

 Trees are evergreen throughout the year.
 Trees are medium height usually less than 10m due to high temperatures.
 Trees grow close to each other making forests thick.
 Trees have fibrous roots and straight stems.
 Trees have broad leaves and are characterized by hard wood.
 Some trees have twisted stems/trunks.
 Trees mainly consist of palm trees, coconuts and papyrus.

CONDITIONS THAT FAVOUR THE GROWTH OF MANGROVE VEGETATION

 Very low altitude or at sea level.
 Salty muddy clay soils.
 High coastal temperatures of about 200c.
 High humidity to ensure constant water supply.
 Poorly drained coastal soils that have stagnant water.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT IN MANGROVE VEGETATION

 Art and craft especially basket and mat making from papyrus.
 Agriculture especially the growth of crops that survive in swampy conditions e.g. sugarcane, rice,
coconuts and yams.
 Fishing especially mud fish, and haplochromis (nkejje).
 Hunting especially wild Kobs and Gazelles.
 Mining and quarrying especially extraction of sand and clay.
 Tourism due to many tourist attractions e.g. wild animals and swamp vegetation.
 Research and study purposes especially for geographical, biological and chemistry studies.

PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE LIVING NEAR MANGROVE VEGETATION

 Constant flooding especially during periods of heavy rains leading to destruction of life and property
 Presence of many disease spreading vectors e.g. mosquitoes and snails which discourages
settlement.
 Swamps are normally good hiding places for criminals e.g. thieves and rebels who cause insecurity.
 Presence of many wild animals that make human settlement difficult e.g. snakes.
 Poorly developed transport network due to the dump ground leading to remoteness.

FACTORS INCLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION IN AFRICA

1. Climate:
  Tropical forests grow in areas that experience heavy and reliable rainfall of about
1500mm and above. They also thrive well where temperatures are high throughout the
year.
 The amount of rainfall reduces as one moves away from the tropical region and this has
led to Savannah vegetation consisting of Savannah Woodland and Savannah Grass Land.
 Desert regions where rainfall is very low, shrub and dry bush are dominant. Such areas
receive rainfall that is below 250 mm per year.
2. Altitude: the altitude of the region influences vegetation distribution depending on the height of
land above sea level. Tropical rain forests, mangrove forests and savannah vegetation thrive well
on the low altitude areas while montane forests, heath and moorland thrive well on high altitude
areas.
3. Drainage
Areas with permanent and stagnant water have favoured swamp vegetation as well as mangrove
forest e.g. at the East African Coast. Areas with no permanent drainage features such as lakes
and rivers tend to be very dry and these have a dominance of desert or dry vegetation. Areas that
are well drained have a dominance of savannah and tropical rain forests.
4. Soils
 Areas with fertile and well drained soils tend to favour tropical forest vegetation.
 Areas with moderately fertile soils favour the growth of Savannah grasslands whereas
very infertile areas will favour dry vegetation and at times do not favour vegetation at all
e.g. Sahel region.
 High water retaining soils e.g. clay soils lead to occurrence of swamp or mangrove
vegetation e.g. along the coastal belts.
5. Biotic factors: some areas that are infested with pests tend to scare away settlement creating
fovourable conditions for the growth of dense vegetation or savannah wood lands e.g. Miombo
Woodlands of central Tanzania. Areas without pests such as tsetse flies attract settlement and
lead to savannah grass land. Areas that are infected with locusts and army worms tend to have
scanty vegetation because these pests destroy the existing vegetation.
6. Human activities: a number of human activities have influenced vegetation distribution in
various ways. Large areas of forest have been cleared for timber to create room for settlement
and cultivation which has resulted into forested areas turning into savannah grasslands. Large
areas of savannah vegetation have been turned into shrubs and wood lands because of activities
like over grazing, bush burning, charcoal burning etc. Some areas have been let without
vegetation because of human practices like monoculture and shifting cultivation etc leading to
semi-desert and desert vegetation. In some areas where man has engaged in afforestation and re-
afforestation activities, he has led to luxuriant tropical rain forests.

IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL VEGETATION

 Modification of the climate of the region e.g. the forested areas promote the formation of
convectional rainfall e.g. in the Congo basin.
 Act as homes for wild life especially thus giving Africa a rich eco-system leading to development of
tourism.
 Source of raw materials important for building and construction.
 Various vegetation types have acted as a source of fuel in form of fire wood and charcoal.
 Promotion bee keeping especially in the grasslands and wood lands.
 Many herbs of medical value are harvested from different vegetation types to improve health
standards.
 Most vegetation types have been greatly used for field study as well as research.
 Provision of pasture suitable condition for live stock keeping
 Provision of fertile ground for crop growing which greatly provides food.
 Helped to hold soil firmly together hence reducing soil erosion.

FORESTRY IN AFRICA
A forest is a large tract of land covered extensively by trees. It is a type of vegetation dominated
by trees.
Forestry is a scientific process of planting, exploitation, and conservation of forests. It is
concerned with managing forests on a sustainable basis, balancing exploitation and conservation.
Africa has a large area of land under forests ranging from tropical rainforests to manmade or
planted forests.
The most important of these forests are the tropical rain forests or equatorial forests found in areas
which experience an equatorial type of climate e.g. in countries like Congo (D.R.C), Gabon, Cameroon,
Ivory Coast, Guinea, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Ghana.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
 The forests are thick and luxuriant.
 Little or no under growth due to limited sunlight reaching the floor of the forest.
 The trees are ever green due to the heavy rainfall received throughout the year.
 The trees are very tall usually 30 – 50m and above.
 The branches of trees form 2 - 3 distinct layers called canopies.
 Characterized by many hard wood tree species that include Mahogany, Ebony, Obeche, Mvule,
musizi etc.
 Trees have Buttress roots to support the great weight.
 There are many climbing plants which twine from tree to tree e.g. lianas and epiphytes.
 Trees have broad leaves.
 Forests are ever green throughout the year and shade off their leaves at different intervals.
 The trees don’t appear in pure stands that is different tree species are inter-mixed.

FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE GROWTH OF TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

 Heavy rainfall of about 1500mm per annum for proper tree growth.
 Well distributed rainfall all year round for steady water supply for tree growth.
 Deep and well drained fertile soils which support tree growth.
 Hot temperatures of about 200c-300c which support proper tree growth.
 High humidity which leads to rainfall formation.
 Abundant sunshine which supports growth of natural forests.
 Low altitude which ensures hot temperatures.
 Low population density which ensures continued tree growth.
 Supportive government policy of forest preservation through setting up forest reserves.
 Low levels of technology which ensures less exploitation.
 Inaccessibility of some areas has also ensured continued growth of natural forests.
IMPORTANCE OF TROPICAL FORESTS
 Forests control soil erosion by binding the soil particles together while the leaves reduce the force of
falling rain drops on the surface.
 Modification of the climate of the surrounding area through evapo-transpiration leading to the
formation of convectional rainfall.
 Source of fire wood and charcoal which is the most commonly used form of fuel in Africa.
 source of raw materials such as timber used for furniture making, boat building, construction and
paper industries which has favoured the development of industries.
 Generation of employment opportunities either directly from the lumbers or indirectly for those who
use forestry raw materials or products.
 Forests are a source of herbs and local medicine used to treat a variety of diseases such as malaria,
cough etc.
 Habitat for the wild animals providing fovourable grounds for wild life conservation which has
attracted tourists who bring in a lot of foreign exchange.
 Provision of revenue to the respective government through imposition of taxes on the lumbering
companies.
 Source of foreign exchange through exportation of timber and other wood products.
 Some tropical rain forests act as a source of food especially wild fruits and roots such fruits include
mangoes, oranges, and guavas.
 Forests help to clean up our environment and control desertification and global warming by
absorbing carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and give out oxygen which makes our environment a
better place to leave in.
 Recreational grounds favouring activities like picnics, hunting and forest walks.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
 Thick forest vegetation hinders construction of transport network leading to remoteness.
 Forests harbour dangerous insects and animals that attack man and his animals as well as crops.
 Infertile Soils in some areas due to leaching limiting crop cultivation.
 Forests act as hide outs for rebels that destabilize peace.
 Heavy rainfall and dump ground leads to floods and soil erosion which discourages settlement.
 Remoteness due to absence of transport and communication lines.
 Population explosion which has led to disappearance of the forests.
 Rapid spread of pests and diseases which limits crop cultivation.
 Forests occupy large expanse of land that would be used for other purposes like settlement and
agriculture

EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS
This refers to extraction of timber and other wood products for the benefit of a given area or
country. Commercial timber exploitation for export is mainly carried out in Gabon, Ghana, Swaziland,
South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Nigeria and Ivory Coast.
Most of the timber exploited from tropical forests is of hard wood type e.g. mahogany, ebony,
sapele, rosewood, greenheart , edinam and makore.
Much of the timber is felled using rudimentary tools like axes, pangas and handsaws. However, the
use of modern methods of exploitation is also taking shape e.g. use of power-driven saws, tractors and
logging arches.
Much of the exploited timber is exported to European countries such as Germany, Netherlands,
Belgium, Switzerland, Portugal and United Kingdom.
PROBLEMS FACED IN THE EXPLOITATION OF TROPICAL FORESTS
Physical Problems
 Trees do not grow in pure stands and most valuable trees are widely scattered all over the forest
which makes it difficult to select a valuable tree.
 The logs are big, heavy and bulky making it difficult and expensive to transport.
 Inaccessibility due to poorly developed transport routes which makes movement of both lumber
jacks and forest products difficult.
 All tropical forests experience equatorial climate characterized by heavy rainfall and high humidity
that are hostile to forestry exploiters.
 The trees in rain forests are of hard wood type such as Mvule and Mahogany which makes the
exploitation very difficult.
 The tree species in tropical forests take long to mature when cut which hinders continued
exploitation.
 Many trees have buttress roots extending outwards from the base of the trunk which makes cutting
of those trees very difficult.
 The pests and diseases in tropical forests also scare away forest exploiters limiting exploitation.
 The forests are thick and impenetrable with many climbing plants like Lianas and this makes cutting
and transportation of logs difficult.
 Due to presence of wild animals like snakes, most exploiters have run away for fear of their lives.

NON-PHYSICAL PROBLEMS (HUMAN FACTORS)

 Use of poor technology and equipment like pangas, axes making exploitation uneconomical.
 Limited capital to be used in the purchase of machinery, paying workers.
 Limited market for the hard wood products out competed by metal and plastic products e.g. plastic
chairs, metallic beds which discourages exploiters.
 Limited power supply to be used in forestry Industries such as in saw mils which affects forest
exploitation.
 Fire out break also threatens the forestry activities because it destroys the available tree species
leaving nothing for exploitation.
 The hostility of neighboring communities has also discouraged exploitation e.g. the primitive
societies like Pygmies in D.R.C who largely depend on forests for survival. They thus scare away
exploiters.
 Political instabilities due to anti-government elements which makes exploitation impossible e.g. in
D.R.C.
 Stiff competition from other sectors of the economy which diverts investment for example
agriculture.
 Inadequate skilled labour force to harvest tropical rainforests.
 Unfavorable government policy of setting up restrictions against harvesting forest resources hence
limiting exploitation.

FORESTRY IN GABON
Gabon is located in the Equatorial region of West Africa a stride the equator hence it receives heavy
rainfall therefore Gabon is covered with dense tropical rain forests and the major tree species are
 Ebony
 Okoume
 Mahogany
  Green Heart
 Mahogany
 Ozigo
 Azobe
 Karaninga.
Okoume tree (soft wood) is the most important and commercially valuable tree than any other
species.
The major forest exploitation/lumbering areas in Gabon include:
i) The wide coastal strip running from Cocoa beach North of Libreville to Settecama in the South.
ii) Interior lands along river Ogooue (Ogowe) in areas such as Makokou, Kango, Okonja, Mekambo,
Franceville and Koula Moutoue.
N.B. lumbering along the coastal strip is almost ended due to exhaustion of forests and today, most
lumbering takes place in the interior along river Ogooue.
FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE DEVELOPMENT FORESTRY INDUSTRY IN GABON
Physical factors
 Presence of heavy rainfall of over 1500mm and well distributed throughout the year for proper tree
growth.
 Hot equatorial temperature of about 25oC and above which supports the growth of tropical trees.
 Presence of valuable commercial tree species like Okoume, Mahogany and Ebony that have got high
market demand.
 The relatively flat nature of the landscape which has facilitated the construction of transport and
communication networks.
 Fairly low altitude that favours growth of tropical low land forests.
 Presence of fertile alluvial sols especially along the coastal regions for the growth of the trees.
 Presence of rivers and their tributaries such as river Ogooue which has facilitated the transportation
of logs from the interior to the coastal saw mills.
 The rivers have also provided fovourable sites for H.E.P generation used in running machines in saw
mills.
 The sparse population of Gabon has favoured the growth of forest in luxuriant environment with less
encroachment.

Other factors
 Availability of adequate capital from the government and foreign investors especially from France
used in forest exploitation.
 Availability of ready market to buy timber and other products not only in Gabon but also in other
countries e.g. Libya, United Kingdom and Belgium.
 High level of technology used in the processing of timber e.g. the government of Gabon built
modern giant saw mills at Kango where almost half of Gabon’s timber is processed.
 Availability of several timber processing plants inform of saw mills for example port Owendo.
 Presence of cheap and abundant labour force provided by the local population as well as the skilled
labour force from foreign countries such as France to work in the lumbering sector.
 The supportive government policy through market research and attraction of foreign investors to
pump more money into the lumbering sector.
 Well-developed transport and communication network inform of roads ,railways for the
transportation of forest products to market centres

Forest products from Gabon

1. Timber
2. Furniture
3. Ply wood
4. Tanning materials
5. Wood fuel
6. Poles for electricity and construction of buildings
7. Pulp and paper.

PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM FOREST EXPLOITATION IN GABON

 Exhaustion of forests e.g. the valuable Okoume tree species have been extremely depleted and it is
becoming scarce due to over cutting.
 Extinction of wild animals due to deforestation.
 The removal of the forest vegetation has left the ground bare exposing it to dangers of soil erosion.
 Reduced evapo-transpiration leading to the reduction in rainfall amounts.
 Reduction in tourism due to destruction of fauna and flora.
 Price fluctuations due to over dependence on timber exports has also affected foreign exchange in-
flow
 Urbanization has been realized with its evils e.g. high crime rate, unemployment and congestion.

PROBLEMS FACING THE FORESTRY INDUSTRY IN GABON

Qn. Outline the problems limiting forestry in Gabon.
Physical Problems
 Trees do not grow in pure stands and most valuable trees are widely scattered all over the forest
which makes it difficult to select a valuable tree.
 The logs are big, heavy and bulky making it difficult and expensive to transport.
 Inaccessibility due to poorly developed transport routes which makes movement of both lumber
jacks and wood or forest products difficult.
 Tropical forests experience equatorial climate characterized by heavy rainfall and high humidity that
are hostile to forestry exploiters.
 The trees in rain forests are of hard wood type such as Mvule and Mahogany and this makes the
exploitation very difficult.
 The tree species in Gabon take long to mature when cut which hinders continued exploitation.
 Many trees have buttress roots extending outwards from the base of the trunk which makes cutting
of those trees very difficult.
 The pests and diseases in tropical forests also scare away forest exploiters limiting exploitation.
 The forests are thick and impenetrable with many climbing plants like Lianas and this makes cutting
and transportation of logs difficult.
 Due to presence of wild animals like snakes, most exploiters have run away for fear of their lives.
Non-physical problems (human)
 Use of inappropriate technology and equipment like pangas, axes making exploitation
uneconomical.
 Limited capital to be invested in the purchase of machinery, paying workers.
 Limited market for the hard wood products which have been out competed by metal and plastic
products e.g. plastic chairs, metallic beds etc. which discourages exploiters.
 Competition from other forest product exporters e.g. Ghana, Cameroon and Nigeria which reduces
market.
 Limited power supply to be used in forestry Industries such as in saw mils which affects forest
exploitation.
 Fire out break which destroys the available tree species leaving nothing for exploitation.
 The hostility of neighboring communities who largely depend on forests for survival scares away
exploiters.
 Most tropical forests used as bases for rebels and political instabilities have made exploitation
impossible.
 Shortage of skilled labour force to work in the forestry industry.

STEPS TAKEN TO SOLVE THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

 Practicing re-afforestation in the areas where the forests have been exhausted to reduce exhaustion.
 Diversification of the economy to reduce on the over reliance on timber exports e.g. exporting
minerals like Uranium, Manganese and Iron ore.
 Extension of the forestry activities into the interior where virgin forests still exist to reduce on the
exhaustion of the coastal forested areas.
 Growing of fast maturing tree species such as Eucalyptus trees since tropical trees take long to
regenerate.
 Introduction of cash crops like cocoa, coffee and ground nuts to reduce on over dependence on
forestry.
 Constructing better roads and railway lines to improve on accessibility to lumbering areas.
 Carrying out market research to expand the export market for timber.
 Attracting foreign investors with capital and modern technology to invest in forestry.
 Spraying with chemicals to control pests and diseases.
 Educating the local population about the importance of forests.
 Employing fire patrol units to prevent fire from spreading and destroying large forested land.
CONTRIBUTION OF FORESTRY INDUSTRY TO THE ECONOMY OF GABON
 Source of foreign exchange through the export of forest products which is later used to provide
social services.
 Creation of employment opportunities to people e.g. fellers hence improving on their standards of
living.
 Development of industries e.g. giant saw mills at Kango and a cellulose factory.
 Development of transport routes e.g. roads, railways and ports that handle timber products.
 Generation of government revenue through taxes imposed used to provide social services.
 Improved standards of living by the nationals through income derived from working in forestry
industry.
 Development of urban centres especially those that handle and process timber products e.g. Port
Owendo and Gentil.
 Improvement in technology within the forestry sector brought in by the large European firms from
France hence technological development in Gabon.
 Mobilization of more capital and its accumulation leading to growth and development of other
sectors e.g. agriculture and tourism.
 The forestry sector attracts tourists hence earning the country foreign exchange which is later used
for development
 Source of medicine for the local people for the treatment of various diseases.
 Improved international relationships with Gabon’s trade partners.
 Climate modification through evapotranspiration which supports agriculture.
 Forests are also used for research and study purposes.

FORESTRY IN SWAZILAND
Swaziland had expansive forests which were unfortunately cut down for fuel and to create more
land for farming. However, since 1940 many artificial forests have been planted and today, the man-
made forests consist of mainly pine and Eucalyptus. The major forests in Swaziland include:
1. The Sappi Usutu formerly Great Usutu forests covering about 40,000 hectares in the south near
Mbabane.
2. Mondi peak formerly Piggs peak forest covering about 32000 hectares found in North West
Swaziland.
3. Shiselweni formerly Nhlanngano forest which is the most recent found in the South West of
Swaziland.

CONDITIONS THAT HAVE FAVOURED THE GROWTH OF PLANTED FORESTS IN

SWAZILAND
Physical factors
 Favourable climate of the area ranging from tropical to sub-tropical with heavy rainfall favouring
quick maturity of the trees.
 High altitude of over 1000m above sea level which favours growth of soft wood species.
 Proximity/nearness to the coast which has favoured easy exploitation of forests.
 The rugged nature of landscape with thin soils that can’t support agriculture hence put under forest
cover.
 The need to conserve soil by planting trees on the hills of Swaziland threatened with soil erosion has
favoured forestry.
 The desire to preserve the catchments areas in the lower Veld which had been threatened by massive
deforestation and depletion of natural forests.
Human factors
 Availability of adequate capital from the Swaziland government and common wealth countries to
invest in forest conservation and exploitation.
 The supportive government policy of re-afforestation in the areas where natural forests were cut.
 Availability of ready market for wood products both at home and abroad.
 Presence of well-developed transport routes such as roads, railway and water transport linking to
saw mills.
 Availability of abundant skilled labour that works in the forestry sector.
 Presence of advanced technology used in lumbering operations. For example bulldozers.

ADVANTAGES OF PLANTED FORESTS IN SWAZILAND

 The Trees grow and mature very fast compared to the tropical forests which take over 45 years.
 The trees appear in pure stands making exploitation or harvesting of the forest resources very easy.
 Effective use of land that would be lying idle because of being rugged.
 Planted forests have conserved the environment through controlling soil erosion and protection of
the water catchments areas.
 Forests yield soft wood products which have a variety of uses hence earning Swaziland a lot of
revenue.
 Some soft wood products are exported and this has earned foreign exchange to Swaziland’s
economy.
 The forests regenerate easily and this has favoured the continuity of the forestry activity.
 Planted forests have played an important role in climate modification through encouraging evapo-
transpiration hence favouring the formation of convectional rainfall.
 The planted forests have provided wood fuel to the people both for commercial purposes and home
consumption.
 Forests act as tourist attractions thus earning foreign exchange to Swaziland’s economy.
 Forests have generated employment opportunities for the people working in the forests.
 The forests are used for research or education purposes.

Lumbering process in Swaziland

Forest cutting is done largely by mechanical saws. Tractors drag the logs to the main service
roads where they are loaded onto huge trucks and transported to saws mills. The saw mills make
products such as Pulp, black boards, pit props, Telegraph poles, timber and plywood.
Timber products are then exported to Japan, South America, United Kingdom, Germany and
Belgium.
N.B. Other planted forests in Africa can be found in Nigeria, Gabon, Ethiopia, South Africa, Botswana
and Lesotho.
PROBLEMS FACING THE FORESTRY INDUSTRY IN SWAZILAND
 High rates of forest exploitation which leads to forest depletion/exhaustion.
 Some forested regions are in accessible due to poor transport network and this hinders exploitation.
 Inadequate capital to purchase modern equipment for lumbering.
 Rapid population increase which has created more demand for land for settlement and this has led to
encroachment on the forests.
 Market for timber is only readily available in the outside countries and this makes transport costs
very high.
 Limited demand for soft wood due to competition from other soft wood producing counties e.g.
Sweden.
 Inadequate labour force due to small population in the forested regions.
 Competition from other sectors of the economy e.g. agriculture reduces on investment in forestry.
 Over dependence on foreign companies which repatriate profits back to their home countries.
 Pests and diseases which destroy large parts of forested lands.
 Fire outbreaks that destroy large areas occupied by forests.
SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS
 Afforestation and re-afforestation to replant trees in areas where they have been cut.
 Construction of modern roads and railway routes to ease the transportation of timber.
 Increased capital investment by government to purchase better and modern forest exploitation
equipments such as electric saws.
 Mechanization e.g. use of power driven saws where possible to solve the problem of labour shortage.
 Market research to solve the problem of limited market.
 Carrying regular forest patrols to fight forest fire.
 Training local man power to provide the required skilled man power.
 Spraying with chemicals to control tree pests and diseases.
FOREST DESTRUCTION IN AFRICA
THE CAUSES OF FOREST DESTRUCTION INCLUDE:
 Rapid population increase leading to clearance of forests to create land for agriculture and
settlement.
 The need for fuel such as firewood and charcoal leading to deforestation.
 Increasing urbanization and industrialization which has created more pressure on forests for raw
materials.
 Forest fires that destroy large areas of forested land. These fires are started by careless hunters,
holiday makers and smokers.
 People have little knowledge about the value and roles of forests leading to their mass destruction.
 Pests and diseases also destroy the trees e.g. locusts and aphids.
 Increased demand for the forest products especially its valuable species leading to over exploitation.
 Poor harvesting methods which lead to a lot of wastage e.g. failure to replace after cutting.
 Wild animals e.g. elephants also destroy large tracts of forested land.
 Poor farming methods e.g. bush burning and shifting cultivation also lead to destruction of forests.
 Political instabilities in Africa have also led to forest destruction e.g. in the Congo basin.
 Mining activities especially open cast mining in the Shaba province of the Zambian copper belt.
EFFECTS OF FOREST DESTRUCTION ON THE ENVIRONMENT
 Results into massive soil erosion because the ground is left bare.
 Lowers the amount of rainfall because of less evapo-transpiration.
 Reduce soil fertility due to massive soil erosion.
 Affects the water catchment areas leading to lowering of water level of lakes and rivers.
 Increases carbon dioxide in the atmosphere hence global warning.
 Deny wildlife their natural habitats causing extinction.
 Forest clearance results in desertification and aridity after some time.
 Increases government expenditure in carrying out afforestation and re-afforestation programmes.
 With increased aridity and desertification, it leads to famine and hunger due to low yields from poor
soils.
 Presence of very many illegal lumber jacks who cut down trees without replacing.
SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS
 Re-afforestation which involves the planting of trees to replace those which have been cut.
 Afforestation which involves the planting of forests in areas where forests have never existed.
 Introduction of fast maturing trees E.g. Eucalyptus and pines to ensure continuity of forestry.
 Development of alternative source of energy such as solar, H.E. P and Bio gas to reduce on demand
for firewood.
 Educating the masses on the importance of forest in conserving nature as well as the environment.
 Conservation and preservation of the endangered forest reserves from encroachers.
 Government control of forest exploitation through the use of licenses and regular patrols to curb
illegal exploitations.
 Research is being carried out to develop better harvesting methods so as to reduce wastage.
 Encouraging agro-forestry which combines demands of agriculture with elements of forestry.
 Population control measures such as family planning to reduce on deforestation.
 Using improved tree cutting practices such as selective cutting to reduce exhaustion.
DESERTIFICATION IN AFRICA
Desertification refers to the development of arid conditions in an area.
OR
Desertification is the decline in biological or economical productivity of the soil in arid and
semi-arid areas. In Africa, desertification is dominant in desert and semi-desert areas e.g. Sahel region
and Namib Desert. Countries affected by desertification include: Botswana, Sudan, Chad, Namibia,
Algeria, Zimbabwe, Somalia and South Africa.
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION IN AFRICA
 Climatic change leading to global warming which has reduced rainfall totals leading to infertile and
unproductive soils.
 Location in the interior i.e. deep inside the continent and far away from large water bodies hence
reducing rainfall totals.
 Effects of dry winds that don’t carry moisture e.g. North East Trade Winds that blow over Ethiopian
highlands leading to aridity Northern Kenya.
 Unreliable rainfall which leads to low moisture content in the soil hence low yields.
 Nearness to deserts which are affected by dry desert winds that bring about aridity.
 Hot temperatures which lead to high rates of evapo-transpiration hence excess loss of moisture
content.
 Over grazing which leads to reduction in evaporation and increase in global temperatures.
 Destruction of vegetation through man’s activities e.g. bush burning and swamp reclamation leading
to less evapo-transpiration hence less moisture.
 Increased demand for wood fuel and charcoal for domestic use leading to encroachment on forests.
EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT
 Loss of human lives due to hunger and starvation.
 Death of animals due to inadequate water and pastures.
 Failure of crops due to poor soils and less moisture content.
 Increased land degradation through wind erosion leading to loss of soil fertility.
 Crop failure means increased demand for food imports which leads to high cost of living.
 Migration of people with their animals in search of water and pastures.
 Reduction in surface water due to excessive evaporation and transpiration.
 Conflicts over limited resources e.g. water sources (oases) in desert regions.
 Shortage of pastures for feeding the animals.
STEPS BEING TAKEN TO SOLVE THE ABOVE PROBLEMS
 Planting fast maturing trees e.g. eucalyptus to help in rainfall formation and reduce wind erosion.
 Sending of relief and aid to areas affected by desertification.
 Planting drought resistant tree species that can survive extremely hot temperatures.
 Reducing livestock to control over grazing and bush burning.
 Developing other sources of energy e.g. solar and wind energy to reduce dependence on wood fuel.
 Planting drought resistant crops to ensure steady food supply.
 Building of valley dams and boreholes to store and provide water.
 Practicing irrigation to provide water artificially to improve crop productivity.
 Mulching and crop rotation to improve soil fertility leading to increased food production.

POPULATION IN AFRICA

Population refers to a number of people living in a given area in a given period of time. The
population of Africa is not evenly distributed i.e. some areas have got high/dense population, others
moderate/average population while others low/sparse population.

In Africa, the densely populated countries include Nigeria, Egypt, South Africa, Democratic
Republic of Congo and Ethiopia. Moderately populated countries include: Ghana, Mozambique,
Zimbabwe, Benin and Mozambique etc while the sparsely populated countries include Chad, Somalia,
Lesotho, Namibia and Libya etc.

FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA

Physical factors

1. Climate: the amount of rainfall and its distribution are the greatest influences on population
distribution in Africa. Areas with low and unreliable rainfall such as Sahara, Kalahari, Namibia and the
semi-desert area of Somalia have very low population density while areas with heavy and reliable
rainfall support high population since many crops can be grown to support the population. That’s why
the South Eastern parts of Nigeria, Nile Valley of Egypt, Drakensburg highlands (Kwa-Zulu Natal
province) and Ethiopian highlands are densely populated.
2. Soil: deep and well drained fertile soils support agriculture and encourage many people to settle in
such regions. That’s why the highlands of Rwanda, Burundi, South Africa, Cameroon and Ethiopia have
high population because of fertile volcanic soils. Fertile alluvial soils in the lower Nile valley have also
supported high population density in Egypt. Moderately fertile areas are characterized by moderate
population while infertile soils discourage agriculture leading to low population e.g. the desert region in
Namibia and Somalia.
3. Relief: high relief areas tend to have low population because of extremely cold temperatures. Steep
slopes also scare away settlement since it is not easy to settle on such slopes. Gentle slopes and plateau
areas have high population densities because of favorable settlement conditions. That’s why the gentle
slopes of mountains like Cameroon and Drakensburg are densely populated. The valley regions have got
low population because of water logging and frequent occurrence of floods.
4. Vegetation: The dense tropical forests like those of Gabon and Congo are hard to clear and are
characterized by unfavorable conditions that scare away population. Areas with savannah vegetation are
easy to clear for both settlement and agriculture and this account for high population e.g. Ethiopia.
5. Biotic factors: areas infested with disease vectors like tsetse flies and mosquitoes etc scare away
settlement e.g. the area occupied by the Fulani in West Africa. Areas free from disease vectors attract
more settlements e.g. Natal province in South Africa.
6. Drainage: low lying areas which are subject to flooding tend to be avoided by people while well
drained areas are heavily settled. Besides areas with no water bodies, tend to be dry and this has
attracted low or moderate population e.g. the Chad basin and Sudan basin.
Other factors

7. Historical factors
(a) Slave trade: slave trade greatly influenced population distribution in Africa. The low population in
the middle belt of West Africa lying between latitude 7 oN and 10oN is not only as a result of infertile
soils but also depopulation that was caused by slave trade. Liberia is moderately populated than the
surrounding countries because it was formally used as a resettlement centre for freed slaves.
(b) Ancient political kingdoms: though these kingdoms no longer exist, the legacy left behind by these
kingdoms has influenced population. Today, dense population is found in South Benin, Yoruba land, Ibo
land because they had strong ancient political kingdoms.
(c) Early settlers: areas especially the coastal region of Africa that had early contacts with Arab
traders, Portuguese, British and Dutch traders have got high population density e.g. the South African
coast and West African coast. This is because many people were attracted by the lucrative trade
contrally to what was in the interior.
8. Economic factors
(a) Mineral deposit: the mining areas of Africa have attracted a considerably high population
especially in the Zambian copper belt, Shaba province of Congo and Johannesburg in South Africa.
(b) Industrialization: Population distribution has also been influenced by development of
manufacturing industries. Industrial centers of Johannesburg, Durban, Pretoria, Lagos, Cairo and
Alexandria in Egypt have attracted dense population unlike the less industrialized centers.
9. Culture: cultural differences also account for the population distribution in Africa. Areas with
nomadic pastoralists have low population density e.g. Fulani regions of West Africa whereas areas
where people live a settled life, the population is dense e.g. Bantu settlements of Kwa-Zulu Natal.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN NIGERIA

Nigeria is one of the highest densely populated countries in Africa with a population of over
150,000,000 people. This population however is unevenly distributed.

The dense population in Nigeria is found in areas such as Enugu, Aba, and Port Harcourt in
South Eastern Nigeria, Ibadan, Abeokuta and North of Lagos. Moderate population is found in areas of
South Western Nigeria, Kano state in the central areas of North Nigeria. Low population is found in the
central belt, North Western parts (Borno region) and North Eastern parts (Sokoto region).

FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULTION DISTRIBUTION IN NIGERIA

PHYSICAL FACTORS

1. Climate: the amount of rainfall and its seasonal distribution has influenced population distribution
in Nigeria. Areas which receive heavy rainfall of over 1500 mm per year which is well distributed e.g.
the Southern parts of the country has attracted high population. In the Northern and central areas, the
low rainfall which is seasonal has discouraged settlement hence sparse population.
2. Soils: fertile soils attract dense population for agricultural purposes e.g. the fertile alluvial soils in
the Niger delta while infertile soils discourage settlement e.g. the sparse population in central Nigeria is
due to thin soils.
3. Drainage: the low lying areas such as the delta region have got mangrove swamps that discourage
settlement hence sparse population. Well drained areas of Abeokuta, Aba and Ibadan are densely settled.
4. Pests and diseases: the presence of pests and diseases especially in the central region has kept
population low. Areas around R. Niger and Benue have got tsetse flies accounting for population.
Disease free areas have attracted more population.
Other factors
5. Historical factor (Slave trade): the central areas and the Northern regions of Kano, Sokoto, Borno
suffered from rampant slave raiders who came from North Africa. This has left the areas with low
population densities up to date.
6. Minerals: the mining of petroleum and its associated industries in Southern parts of the country
especially around Niger delta has contributed to high population density unlike regions like Sokoto and
Kaduna which do not have minerals to attract big settlements.
7. Commerce: the commercial and industrial areas of Nigeria such as Lagos, Port Harcourt and Kano
e.t.c have attracted high population density than areas without industrial establishments e.g. the Fulani
area of Northern Nigeria.
8. Ethnic grouping: areas of ancient kingdoms have high population density e.g. Ibo region in South
Eastern Nigeria and Yoruba land. Borno and Katsina that were not well organized during the ancient
times have continued to have sparse population. It should be noted that some tribes in North Nigeria
lived a pastoral lifestyle e.g. the Fulani have continued to have sparse settlements.
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN EGYPT

In Egypt, areas such as the Nile valley, delta region and some of the Nile basin regions are the
densely populated areas. Other areas of Egypt population is sparsely distributed e.g. Suez Canal.

Causes of high population density in the Nile valley

 Presence of deep and well drained fertile alluvial soils along the Nile has encouraged farming hence
encouraging high population.
 Availability of abundant water supply from river Nile for both domestic and industrial use as well as
agriculture through irrigation has also attracted a dense population.
 Presence of efficient and well developed transport systems such as roads and railway lines have also
encouraged easy accessibility to the area in the region leading to high population growth.
 The Nile Valley has more industries that have attracted many people that come in search for
employment opportunity hence accounting for high population density.
 Heavy and well distributed rainfall especially along the Mediterranean coast has also attracted many
people leading to a dense population.
 Trade and Commerce are well established in the Nile Valley especially in the major areas of Aswan,
Cairo, Alexandria e.t.c and these commercial areas attracted high population density.
 Availability of well developed social services such as hospitals, schools and other institutions within
the Nile Valley in Egypt have also attracted high population density.
 The colonial factor: Since the time of colonialism in 1880s, most European plantation farms were
established along the Nile valley and these farms attracted many people in the region and account s for
high population density even up to today.

Causes of low population density in other parts of Egypt

 Absence of surface water especially in desert area. Apart from a few oases with in the desert
region, it’s only such areas that have attracted minimal population.
 Presence of thin and infertile soils which are sandy and rocky and cannot support agriculture.
 Low and unreliable rainfall in many regions of Egypt also accounts for low population density.
In these regions, rainfall is less than 150 mm per annum.
 There are limited economic activities which cannot attract many people in those regions.
 The remoteness of the desert region has encouraged inaccessibility leading to very low
population density.
 Remoteness of the desert areas has also led to low population density in those areas.

POPULATION GROWTH IN AFRICA

Population growth is the rate at which the population changes. It is always given as a percentage of
birth rate minus death rate per 1000 people.

Africa’s population has been increasing over the years and this increase is due to the following
factors;

(a) Natural increase: in most areas of Africa, the number of births in the year exceeds the number of
deaths and such a difference has caused high population growth.
(b) Improved medical services: this has led to low infant mortality rate and death rates causing
population growth.
(c) Early marriages: people tend to marry/get married at a tender age and this has led to a longer period
of the child production cycle.
(d) High fertility rate: this refers to the number of children a woman can produce during her child
bearing age. On average, African women give birth to 5 to 7 children and this has led to high rate of
population growth.
(e) Value attached to children: many families in Africa value children especially girls as a source of
wealth or boys as a source of labour and security. Others look at children as a source of insurance and
help at an old age. They thus end up producing many hence leading to population growth.
(f) Polygamy: it refers to the act of marrying more than one wife. In Africa, polygamy is common
because it is looked at as a sign of prestige in society and as a traditional obligation which has led to
high population growth.
(g) Low levels of education: many people do not know the value of a small family. Besides, most
people drop out of school early and end up into early marriages leading to production of many children.
(h) Religion: Some religions encourage polygamy which has resulted into high birth rates especially
among Moslems, while others religions are opposed to family planning methods e.g. Catholics.
(i) Poverty: In Africa, many families can’t afford to buy pills, condoms for family planning and this has
led to many families producing children without birth control measures.
(j) Improved nutrition levels: this has ensured balanced diet and steady supply of food which
encourages people to have large families.
(k) Increased immigrations: many people have entered Africa from other regions e.g. Asians,
Europeans and this has led to population increase on the continent.
Advantages of high/large population size

Over population refers to a situation where the population is more than/exceeds the available
resources.

 High population provides enough labour force for the economic development of the country.
 It can be a source of a large amount of taxes that avails the country with enough revenue for
development.
 It is easy and economical to provide social services in a situation where many people are
concentrated in the same area.
 In case of security, a large population can easily provide enough man power for the army/defense of
a country.
 It is a source of cheap labour since many people are willing to work at a low wage rate.
 A high population encourages the exploitation of idle resources.
 A high population also provides a large market for goods and services within a given country.
 It also encourages a high level of innovation and invention as people try to look for survival in a
competitive environment.
 It encourages increased agricultural output as people try to produce enough food for their own
survival.
Disadvantages of large population size

 Shortage of land for settlement and farming leading to land fragmentation.

 Shortage of social services e.g. schools and hospitals.
 High government expenditure to provide social services for the people.
 High dependency ratio since much of the population is made up of children hence reducing
investments and future savings.
 High rates of unemployment because of the less available jobs.
 Unemployment leads to high rates of crime and social unrest especially among the youths.
 Exhaustion of resources due to over exploitation.
 It encourages rural-urban migration and its evils like high crime rate, unemployment and drug abuse.
 Shortage of accommodation leading to development of slums.
 Shortage of food which results to famine and starvation.
 Overcrowding which results into congestion and poor hygiene hence easy spread of diseases.
 High cost of living due to competition for scarce resources.
 Poverty as a result of high dependency ratio.
 Environmental degradation through pollution, soil erosion, swamp reclamation and deforestation.
 Desertification/global warming due to pollution, deforestation and industrialization.
Steps being taken to solve such problems

 Encouraging family planning methods to reduce on the birth rates involving the use of pills,
condoms and other contraceptives.
 Encouraging outward migration from the densely populated region to the sparsely populated areas.
 Setting up resettlement schemes for people from densely populated regions.
 Low enforcement policies are being emphasized to reduce the level of crime rates.
 Agriculture modernization has also been emphasized through the use of high yielding food varieties
to increase food production and combat the problem of famine.
 Vertical expansion of towns and cities through building of storied buildings has been embraced to
solve the problem of congestion in most African cities.
 Land reform policies like land consolidation are being emphasized to solve the problem of land
fragmentation.
 Industrialization is also being encouraged in most African countries to reduce over dependence on
the land and reduce the level of u employment.
 The governments are also trying very hard to establish enough social services such as health centres,
schools and transport to contain the problem of congestion over these services.
 Encouraging monogamy to reduce polygamy.
 Raising the marriage of girls to reduce early marriages.
LOW/UNDER POPULATION

It refers to a situation where the number of people is less than the available resources within a given
area.

Advantages of low/under population

 It avails enough land for agriculture and settlement.

 It minimizes the problem of congestion and overcrowding.
 Dependency ratio is low and this may encourage savings and investments.
 Less possibility of slum development since people are few.
 Less government expenditure on the provision of social services.
 Social conflicts over land are not likely to come up due to a low population.
 It avails people with enough food hence reducing the possibility of famine.

Disadvantages of low/under population

 Limited supply of labour.

 Small market size for goods and services due to low demand.
 It is expensive for the government to provide social services to a few users.
 It leads to low tax base hence low government revenue.
 It leads to under utilization of resources such as minerals and land.
 It leads to slow economic growth which leads to dependency on other countries for skilled labour
and market.
 It limits the level of innovation and invention since most of the resources are not put to use.
POPULATION DENSITY: It refers to the number of people living in an area per square km. In Africa,
some places have got high population density while others have got low population density.

Causes of high population density (why some areas have high population)

(a) Hot and wet climatic conditions that favour the growth of various crops to support high
population e.g. South Eastern parts of Nigeria.
(b) Presence of deep and well drained fertile soils which support farming also attract a large
number of people e.g. the Nile alley of Egypt and Sudan, Upper Volta and Southern lands of Mali e.t.c.
(c) Availability of abundant supply water for both domestic and commercial use e.g. Nile valley
of Egypt and Sudan.
(d) Presence of many industries that attract a large labour force e.g. in Cairo, Johannesburg and
Lagos.
(e) Availability of a variety of minerals such as oil in Niger delta of Nigeria and Diamonds in
Kimberley in South Africa.
(f) Urbanization that tends to attract many migrants into large cities of Africa like Khartoum,
Cairo, Lagos and Cape Town.
(g) Easy accessibility due to well developed transport and communication net work for easy
movement.
(h) Availability of a relatively flat landscape which make settlement and development of
infrastructures relatively easy hence attracting large settlements.
Causes of low population density (why some areas have low population)

1. Low and unreliable rainfall that cannot favour agriculture e.g. the desert region of Namibia.
2. High temperatures of 300C and above that make it impossible for many people to live in such
areas e.g. in the Sahara desert.
3. Absence of surface water that is essential for human life e.g. in Somalia and Ethiopia.
4. Poor quality soils that can’t support agriculture tend to scare away settlements e.g. Jos
plateau.
5. Pests and diseases such as tsetse flies and mosquitoes in some parts of West Africa and
Congo basin scare away man due to fear of loss his life.
6. Remoteness of the area that hinder accessibility due to poor transport and communication
lines.
7. Limited economic activities which means that jobs are not existent.
8. Limited social services which scare away people.

AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA

Agriculture refers to the growing of crops and rearing of animals. Much of Africa’s population
entirely depends on land either by growing crops or rearing of animals or both. Agriculture in Africa
is divided into two:

1. Arable farming which is the growing of crops.

2. Animal rearing.
Arable farming: there are two categories of farming practices under this system which are;

a. Subsistence/traditional crop farming.

b. Commercial/modern crop farming.

Subsistence/traditional farming: this is the production of food mainly for home consumption and
very little surplus for sale. It is sub-divided into two forms;

i. Shifting cultivation: this is the most primitive method of subsistence farming. It involves a
farmer clearing a small piece of land and plants his crops. After a few harvests for about 1 to
3 years, crop yields decline and the farmer abandons that plot and moves to fresh area. This
system is practiced by different tribes which include:
 Azande people in Congo.
 Chipinga district of Eastern Zimbabwe.
  Bemba people of Northern Democratic Republic of Congo.
Characteristics of shifting cultivation

 Small plots are cleared usually about 1 to 3 acres.

 Elementary/rudimentary tools are used e.g. pangas, hoes, axes and fire.
 Several food crops are grown on the same piece of land e.g. cassava, beans, maize and sweet
potatoes.
 Little attention is given to the crops.
 Family labour is used.
 Produce is for home consumption and a little surplus for sale to acquire salt, sugar and match
boxes.
 When crop yields decline, the farmer moves to a fresh area, clears the land and rarely returns
to the old plot.
Advantages of shifting cultivation

 Constant movements ensure new sites with fertile soils.

 Constant movement reduces multiplication of pests and hence less risk of diseases.
 Reduces soil erosion since only small plots are cleared.
 Bush burning adds ash to the soil which improves its fertility.
 Weeds can be effectively reduced through bush burning.
 It’s very cheap since elementary tools are used e.g. hoes and axes.
 Reduces wastage of output since production is only for the small family size.
 Organisation of the work allows farmers to engage in other activities e.g. fishing and
hunting.
Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

 Burning destroys organic matter and bacteria hence affecting the soil formation process.
 Time is wasted in constant shifting and land clearance.
 Natural forests are destroyed through bush burning.
 Low crop yields are got after harvest.
 Doesn’t encourage production for monetary economy.
 Can only be practiced in areas with low population.
  Hinders development of infrastructure e.g. schools and hospitals since people are always
moving.
 Leads to remoteness since the area lacks infrastructure.

ii. Rotational bush fallowing: it involves a farmer clearing a small piece of land which is used for
about 2 to 3 years and when yields decline, the land is left to rest (fallowing) in order to regain
fertility. After sometime, the farmer returns to re-cultivate the original plot of land. This system
is replacing shifting cultivation in tropical Africa e.g. in Ghana, Nigeria and Zambia.

Characteristic of bush fallowing

 When crop yields decline, land is always left under fallow (rest) before it’s re-cultivated
later on.
 Elementary tools are used e.g. hoes, pangas and axes.
 Both food and cash crops are grown.
 Small plots of land are cleared.
 Labour is provided by the family members.
 Land is divided into many plots i.e. some cultivated and others left to rest.
 Settlements are permanent or semi-permanent depending but within same area.
Advantages of bush fallowing

 Soil fertility is maintained when land is left under fallow.

 Higher crop yields are got after harvest due to fertile soils.
 Involves growing of both food and cash crops hence encouraging monetary economy.
 Output can sustain family size and requires less labour.
 Very cheap since elementary tools are used e.g. axes and hoes.
 Encourages development of infrastructures since settlements are more or less permanent.
Disadvantages of bush fallowing

 Can only survive in areas of low population.

 Lead to clearance of forest which leads to desertification.
 Output is small and may not yield a lot of profits for the farmers.
Reasons why subsistence farming is disappearing in Africa
  Rapid population increase has reduced on the available land for constant shifting.
 Land ownership has reduced movement of farmers hence encouraging permanent
settlements.
 Population increase has also led to increased demand for food hence adoption of modern
farming methods.
 Introduction of perennial crops e.g. rubber, coffee and cocoa has forced farmers to have
permanent farms.
 Current monetary economy encourages surplus production for sale and not production for a
small family.
 Increased demand for cash crops has led to increased crop yields to satisfy export markets.
 Industrialisation has also encouraged large scale production by providing ready market for
farm products.
 Coming of white settlers who introduced better forms of crop cultivation e.g. plantation
agriculture.
 Subsistence farming has many disadvantages and therefore farmers are abandoning it for
modern farming.
Nomadic pastoralism

This is a subsistence form of animal rearing where a herder moves from place to place with his
animals in search for pastures and looking for water.

The nomads are categorized into two:

(a) True nomads—these move constantly with their animals, with no specific direction.

(b) Transhumants—these migrate seasonally between wet season and dry season for pastures
and water (transhumance).

Nomadic pastoralism is the simplest form of animal rearing and it is common in areas of low and
unreliable rainfall-where arable farming (crop growing) is very difficult unless irrigation is
employed. Grazing lands are distributed in grasslands and shrub lands for example the dry
grasslands of East and West Africa.

Examples of nomadic pastoralists in Africa include:

 The Fulani of northern Nigeria and other parts of the Sahel region

 The Dinka and Nuer of Southern Sudan

 The Berbers and Tuaregs of the Sahara desert

 Somalis of Somalia

 Nama-Herero of Kalahari desert( Namibia)

 Hottentots of south Africa,( and the southern part of Namibia)

Characteristics of nomadic pastoralism

1) Pastoralists occupy areas of low and unreliable rainfall, which also experience a marked dry
season (such as Sahara desert, Sahel zone, and Kalahari deserts).

2) The most valued animals are generally cattle although sheep and goats are also common.
Camels are kept in the drier areas because they can live for several days without water.

3) Traditional breeds of animals are kept which are usually of low quality and have low milk
yields and poor quality meat.

4) The livestock depend on natural pastures which comprise of hard and fibrous grasses and this
is attributed to the prolonged drought conditions.

5) The animals are mainly kept for subsistence and the herders do not want to sell off any
surplus animal, but this is gradually changing.

6) Large numbers of animals are kept since the pastoralists regard livestock as a source of
wealth and prestige /status in society; for performance of social functions (such as paying
bride wealth). Large herds offer security against drought, famine or even disease outbreak
(some can survive).

7) There is over stocking resulting into over grazing.

8) Grazing is mostly communal, that is, there is no individual ownership of land –land belongs
to the whole community.

9) A large amount of grazing land is required to support to support a single herd due to low
carrying capacity (number of animals per unit area) of the grazing area.

10) No permanent settlements are put up by herders, since they are ever on the move in search of
good pastures and water supply; which movement can be constant or in form of
transhumance.

11) No modern scientific methods of animal rearing are used such as spraying against pests and
diseases, controlled grazing. Seasonal movements are necessary to ensure sufficient water
supply and pasture for animals. During the dry season the pastoralists move near water
sources (like rivers, wells).
12) Burning of grass is common during the dry season in anticipation of fresh pastures at the
onset of the wet season.

Note: Nomadism is usually confined to the drier regions due to the fear of being interfered with
by cultivators who prefer well watered areas for cultivation.

Factors favouring nomadic pastoralism in Africa

(Reasons for persistence of nomadic pastoralism in parts of Africa)

1. Low and unreliable rainfall of about 250-750mm per year making cultivation of crops very
difficult (unless irrigation is practiced) and hence nomadic pastoralism being the best
alternative land use.

2. The prolonged drought (lasting beyond 9 months in the Sahel) leading to shortage of water
and pasture, necessitating movement from pace to place.

3. The short savanna grassland/vegetation, which is open and favours movement of

pastoralists with their animals such as the savanna zones of the Fulani in West Africa.

4. Infertile soils which limit arable farming (growing of crops), making pastoralism the best
alternative land use. For example the sandy soils in Botswana and Namibia.

5. Generally flat relief/landscape; which allows easy movement of pastoralists and their
animals over a large area.

6. Sparse population of the pastoral areas and thus leaving a large area for the pastoralists to
keep on shifting from one place to another.

7. Traditional/cultural conservatism of the pastoral communities that is, looking at

nomadism as the best way of life and considering themselves as cattle keepers and are not
willing to change their practices away from pastoralism.

8. Dependence on animals as a Source of livelihood such as milk, meat and blood; clothing
in form of hides and skins; and transport (in case of camels). According to them, therefore
their animals can provide almost everything they need.

9. The value attached to the animals. The pastoralists look at the animals as a basic payment
of bride price, a symbol of wealth, prestige and power in society; making them to keep large
herds of livestock regardless of the quality.

10. Hostility of the nomads. The pastoralists resist any foreigners into their areas because they
take it as a threat their land and animals. This has also forced many people and organizations
to ignore the pastoral areas.
11. The land tenure system –communal ownership of land in the pastoral areas, which
encourages their free/constant movement from place to place with their animals.

12. Remoteness/Poorly developed transport network, which has prevented them from entering
the main stream economy such as selling off animals.

13. Government neglect of the pastoral areas. The governments have not done much to
change the ways of life such as by setting up the required infrastructure.

The Fulani of West Africa

The Fulani are the largest group of cattle keepers in Africa and they are pastoralists scattered
over a wide area in the Sahel and savanna zones of West Africa from Senegal to Lake Chad.
They are therefore transhumants occupying countries of Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Niger,
Northern Nigeria, Chad, and parts of Cameroon.

Note: Sahel zone is the region of transition between the desert and savanna lands, where rainfall
is unreliable and periodic drought is common.

The life of the Fulani is adapted to natural conditions of the area characterized by along dry
season. The dry season is brought by the dry north easterly Harmattan winds. Rainfall here
averages between 750—900mm per annum. In the southern Sahel, rainfall is lower being 500-
700mm per annum .The areas also have poor/infertile soils, scarce surface water ,poor pastures
and generally remote.

The climate supports scattered palms, butter trees, shrubs and during the rainy season short grass.
In the southern Sahel the region is more open, trees smaller and vegetation is dominated by
thorny bushes. The Fulani are basically cattle keepers although often sheep and goats as well.
However in very arid areas, camels are also reared since they can go for several days without
water such as in towards (such as in Sahara desert).

The Fulani are called transhumants because of their seasonal movements between latitudes.
Therefore transhumance refers to the seasonal movement of pastoralists and their animals
(between latitudes) in search of grazing pasture and water.

A sketch map showing the Fulani lands of West Africa

Activities of the Fulani during the dry season

During the dry season they move southwards in order to look for water and pasture. At the
onset of the dry season they move together but as the dry season progresses, they divide into
small groups grazing far and wide. In the grazing they move closer to the watering points and
often send out scouts to find out where there is grass and water before they can advance. The
movement southwards takes place during the dry season because the tsetse flies will also have
migrated further southwards.

[However they do not move up to the coastal belt due to the threat of tsetse flies and too much
rainfall which conditions are not favourable for cattle keeping].

Also during the dry season roots and berries are collected. Wells are dug and cattle spread out in
search for water. Burning grass is common as they move in anticipation/expectation of fresh
pastures at the on-set of the wet season.

Activities of the Fulani during the wet season

During the wet season, when the rains start coming, the Fulani start moving northwards. When
rains come, the condition of the cattle improves. The Fulani move northwards following the
movement of tsetse flies northwards, yet the conditions in the north are at least better. They may
also seek tsetse fly free uplands of Futa Jalon, Bauchi and Cameroon highlands.

Note: In their movements, the Fulani try as much as possible to avoid contacts with diseased
herds. The Fulani do not undertake any crop cultivation and they engage in barter trade with
cultivators.

*Traditional importance of pastoralism to the Fulani people

a) Source of food i.e. milk, meat and blood

b) Bridal wealth and prestige , that is, for social and cultural functions

c) Stock of wealth and creates a sense of responsibility

d) Hides and skins used for shelter e.g. clothing and beddings, footwear etc

e) Transport to some extent in case of camels in the Sahel region.

*contributions of the Fulani to the economy of Nigeria

1) Provide food especially in form of milk and meat.

2) When the animals are sold , they get income to improve welfare

3) Offer employment such as in demonstration ranches

4) Provision of raw materials for industries such as hides and skins

5) Lead to agricultural diversification

6) Foreign exchange is earned when the cattle products are exported.

7) Utilization of the would be idle land due to low rainfall and poor infertile soils.

Problems facing nomadic pastoralists in Africa

1. Shortage of water for their animals due to low and unreliable rainfall. The areas receive
rainfall of less than 500mm per annum, hence losing a large number of animals.

2. The pastures are naturally poor in quality, dominated by coarse grasses which are less
nutritious and cannot support large of herds of cattle and therefore even poor products are
realized.

3. Diseases which affect the animals such as Nagana (trypanosomiasis) caused by tsetse flies,
leading to loss of large numbers of animals/ poor quality animals.

4. Periodic invasion of locusts in the pastoral areas, which cause wide spread destruction of
pastures which would support animals/which leads to loss of live stock.

5. The native breeds of cattle reared are of poor quality taking long to mature and producing
poor quality meat and low milk yields.

6. Long distances moved by the pastoralists with their animals, in search of water and pasture,
making the animals lose weight.

7. Occurrence of wild animals (predators) especially in the savanna zones such as hyenas, lions,
wild dogs, and fox—which attack the pastoralists and their animals especially as they
migrate.

8. Persistent famine among the pastoralists due to prolonged drought conditions and failure of
the nomads to settle down and grow food crops/ hence frequent food shortages.

9. Over stocking resulting into over grazing, vegetation destruction and soil erosion.

10. The practice of burning grass during the dry season leaves the soils bare, exposing it to soil
erosion and leads to the growth of resistant/tough grasses-less nutritious to livestock.

11. Conflicts between the nomads and other people especially cultivators over land. This is
because nomads do not respect boundaries or other people in their search for pasture and
water supply.

12. Hostile attitudes of other people towards the nomadic pastoralists. This has made the nomads
fail to change since they look isolated as a group and they choose to preserve their primitive
norms and values instead of focusing on modernity.

13. Illiteracy/lack of education among the pastoralists. Education services have not been
effectively extended to the nomadic pastoralists and therefore they are one of the most
illiterate communities.
14. Remoteness / poor infrastructure in pastoral areas. The pastoralists are remote and far from
trading centres. They lack good transport networks to the market their animal produce.

15. Inadequate/limited capital to carry out improvements in their animal rearing such as
constructing bore holes for water supply and buying drugs.

16. Government neglect for example the governments have gazetted large areas of dry lands for
national parks, game reserves and other activities. Extension services and
model/demonstration farms have not been extended into many pastoral areas.

17. Clay soils which are waterlogged during the rainy season making movement of nomads and
animals difficult.

18. Rapidly growing population in many parts of Africa, which increases pressure on the pastoral
areas (to get settlement land) and hence limiting their movement from place to place.

Suggested solutions to the problems faced by the nomadic pastoralists (measures being
taken to improve the livestock industry in Africa)

1. Establishing ranching schemes to promote a more settled way of life such as at Katsina near
the Niger—Nigeria border.

2. Setting up demonstration schemes/farms for the pastoralists to copy better methods of

livestock rearing.

3. Setting up processing plants to offer market for pastoral animals. For example milk
separators and butter processing facilities in Nigeria.

4. Improving transport infrastructure such as feeder roads and railways constructed to enable
marketing of animals.

5. Introduction of exotic breeds and cross—breeding to upgrade the quality of local animal
breeds.

6. Encouraging pastoralists to settle down and cultivate crops on small scale to minimize
famine.

7. Encouraging the pastoralists to sell off excess animals to reduce over stocking such as the
Fulani selling in southern Nigeria.

8. Constructing permanent water points like bore holes, valley dams and water tanks to
encourage settled livestock rearing.

9. Providing extension services such as controlling diseases using dips, and artificial
insemination to improve quality of animals.
10. Educating the farmers about better methods of animal rearing such as Paddocking /controlled
grazing and the need to emphasize quality instead of quantity.

11. Establishing and encouraging pasture irrigation schemes to avoid constant movement from
place to place in search of pastures.

12. Formation of cooperatives for easy acquiring of credit facilities to improve livestock rearing.

13. Changing /modifying the land tenure system in order to encourage individual ownership
(instead of communal ownership) and hence settled animal rearing.

14. Encouraging cattle keepers to use alternative feeds to animals such as seed waste, fodder
crops to avoid dependence on only natural pastures.

RANCHING IN AFRICA

Ranching refers to the rearing of animals for beef production. Ranching involves keeping
animals/livestock on a defined piece of land called a ranch.

In Africa model ranches are found in Botswana, Zambia, Bie plateau of Angola, Zimbabwe,
Nigeria, grass land of South Africa, Kenya and Tanzania.

Characteristics of livestock ranching

 Many animal types are kept depending on the region. In Africa breeds like improved Zebu
and Boran are kept co-existing with goats.

 The pastures are improved such as re-sawn alfalfa , Lucerne, clovers among others; nutritious
for livestock

 Grazing is on permanent farms called ranches (implying that there is limited movement from
place to place).

 Paddocking is practiced using wire fences or wooden barriers. This facilitates rotational
grazing since the animals graze from paddock to paddock.

 There is strict following of the carrying capacity of land and therefore there is no over
grazing.

 There is high capital investment to procure the required machinery, veterinary services, and
feed troughs.

 The major aim of livestock rearing is commercial.

 There is scientific management of ranches; involving selective breeding for high quality beef,
wool, mutton among others.

 It involves regular disease control for example using spraying, dipping, vaccination, de-
worming.

 There is individual, cooperative or state ownership of land.

 Record keeping is very important.

 The ranches are large farms covering many hectares.

Differences between ranching and nomadic pastoralism

1. The nomadic pastoralists mainly rear animals for subsistence and less motivated to selloff
any while ranchers have their primary goal as commercial.

2. Under nomadism there is communal ownership of land while under ranching there is
clear/definite ownership of land (individual, cooperative, state).

3. The ranchers keep improved herds for meat and meat products while the pastoralists are
concerned about quantity rather than quality.

4. Under ranching fattening is considered important before slaughtering unlike under

pastoralism.

5. Under ranching there is controlled grazing and movement using the Paddocking system while
the pastoralists have their movements influenced by seasonal changes, with uncontrolled
grazing.

6. Under ranching scientific methods are dominant such as spraying, dipping. The rancher also
in most case specializes in rearing one type of animal. All these are non-existent under
pastoralism.

7. Improved pastures are used under ranching while the nomadic pastoralists depend on natural
pastures.

8. Activities under pastoralism are majorly dictated by the environment they live in especially
in the arid and semi-arid areas. However the ranchers depend on individual preference
although dominant in well-watered areas.

9. Record keeping is very important under ranching while it does not exist under pastoralism.

PLANTATION FARMING
Plantation farming refers to the growing of a single crop (one crop) on large scale using scientific
methods, basically for commercial purposes. (The system is at times referred to as extensive
agriculture). Plantations range from hundreds to thousands of hectares.

Examples of big plantations include:

 Rubber growing in Nigeria, Liberia and Ghana.

 Sugarcane growing Natal province of South Africa.

 Tea growing in Malawi.

 Oil palm in Zaire (DRC), Gabon, Cameroon, Nigeria and Ghana.

 Tobacco growing in Zimbabwe

Characteristics of plantation farming

1. Crops are grown on large scale. The plantation estates cover hundreds to thousands of
hectares of land.

2. Plantations usually specialize in the production of a single crop for a long time
(monoculture). In some cases however two or more crops are grown on the same plantation
depending on the level of organization.

3. Large numbers of workers are employed –skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour.

4. Involves heavy capital investment to set up the plantation infrastructure such as constructing
transport routes, housing estates, setting up processing plants among others.

5. Plantation crops have long gestation periods for example sugarcane—1.5 years, oil palm—3
years, Cocoa—5 years, and rubber—7 years.

6. Many plantations are owned by foreigners for example the French own coffee and cocoa
estates in Cameroon.

7. Plantation farming is characterized by high output because large areas of land are cultivated
using improved seeds.

8. The plantations are scientifically managed, involving application of fertilizers and farm
chemicals for quality and quantity output.

9. The plantations are highly mechanized involving use of tractors, bulldozers, combined
harvesters, sorters, and processors among others.

10. Plantations crops are intended for sale, that is, it is commercial-oriented either for domestic
or foreign markets.
11. Plantations are mainly confined to the tropical latitudes such as tropical Africa.

Advantages of plantation farming

1. High output is realized because large areas are cultivated using scientific methods and thus
ensure regular supply of produce.

2. Provision of many employment opportunities to the skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled

workers since plantations are large enterprises; hence the standards of living improve.

3. Acquisition of skills by workers on the estates. For example skills in maintenance of

machinery, application of fertilizers and farm chemicals, identifying diseased crops, picking
and sorting skills.

4. Promotion of out growers, since plantations provide market, advice and inputs to the farmers.

Note: Out growers are farmers outside /near the plantations who grow the main plantations
who grow the same crop grown on the plantations (and sell output to the plantation).
5. Promotion of research to generate high quality varieties of crops which are fast growing,
disease resistant and high yielding leading to higher incomes.

6. Generation of government revenue through taxation of the plantation estates, workers’

incomes, export duties and land rent. OR The tax revenue helps to support several sectors of
the economy such as health, education.

7. Development of infrastructure such as roads, housing estates for the workers, schools for the
children of the estate workers, medical facilities, and recreation facilities. These facilities
also benefit the surrounding people.

8. Foreign exchange generation through exportation of plantation output to other countries.

9. Promotion of international relations between producing and importing countries or the

countries from where the companies originate which is a basis of trade contacts, investment,
foreign aid inflow

10. Marketing of output is easy. This is because the estates are operated on large scale production
and hence constant supply throughout the year to satisfy the markets.

11. Promotion of industrial development by providing raw materials for the industries such as
sugarcane used in the making of sugar (and the sugar is used in the making of confectionary
products).

12. Promotion of urban development with associated facilities such as hospitals, banking
facilities, market centers, and other facilities.
13. It is easy to acquire and extend credit because of the large assets which are used as collateral
security for obtaining loans.

14. Plantations ensure that there is no wastage since everything is controlled through
administration. For example crushed sugarcane stems are used as fuel; coffee husks used as
fertilizers.

Disadvantages of plantation farming

1. Leads to soil exhaustion/decline in soil fertility due to growing of a single crop year after
year and therefore lower yields.

2. Associated with price fluctuations on the world market due over concentration on a single
crop leading to unstable incomes.

3. High costs of starting and maintenance of the plantations and the infrastructure. It is for this
reason that estate farming is dominated by foreign investors.

4. There is greater risk of spread of pests and diseases due to growing of a single crop over a
large area; yet these are less likely to spread on small peasant holdings.

5. There is profit repatriation since most plantations are owned by foreigners. They send most
of the profits out to their home countries which undermines further investment.

6. Employing a lot of labour leads to diminishing returns and eventual profit decline. Still the
effort put in by workers is less than if they were managing their own small plots/farms.

7. Many plantation crops take long to mature which increases the costs of production such as
rubber taking 7 years, cocoa –5 years.

8. Plantations require large land area which results into displacement of people.

9. There are problems of clearing and maintenance of access roads to various parts of the
plantations since many plantations occur in tropical areas/ due to rapid vegetation growth.

10. There is a likelihood of famine since the plantations and out growers are concentrating on
cash crops such as coffee, tea, palm oil, rubber.

11. Plantations have been one of the major causes of population movements especially the young
able-bodied men who seek employment on the estate farms and this reduces rural production.

Cocoa growing in Ghana

Cocoa production in West Africa is essentially a small farm activity and it is more typical in
Ghana. Other important cocoa growing countries include: Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Cameroon,
Sierra Leone, Togo, and Liberia.
Ghana’s main cocoa lands are found in the southwest of the country where rainfall is heavier and
the land a little higher than elsewhere. There is another cocoa area to the east of Lake Volta on
the border with Togo.

The major cocoa growing areas in Ghana specifically include: Ashanti, Brong Ahafo wets of
Kumasi—in the western region. Akwampin east of Lake Volta on the border with Togo. Cocoa
farms are on average between 2.5 and 4 hectares in area. They are often found in groups which
are based near or around a small village.

Note: Other crops grown in Ghana include: oil palm, maize, coffee, bananas, yams, kola nuts,
groundnuts among others.

Qn. Why is cocoa growing limited/ restricted to the south unlike the north in Ghana?

 The north has insufficient rainfall for cocoa growing.

 The influence of the dry Harmattan winds in the north, yet cocoa growing requires high
humidity.

 Presence of sandy soils above the Mampong escarpment, yet cocoa requires deep fertile
loamy soils.

 etc

Factors which have favoured cocoa growing in Ghana

1. Hot temperatures throughout the year with a mean annual temperature of about 24 0c
favouring cocoa growing.

2. Heavy rainfall of over 1300mm per annum and which is evenly distributed throughout the
year (at least 1000mm per annum) favouring cocoa growing.

3. High humidity throughout the year favouring growing of cocoa.

4. Presence of deep well drained fertile soils favouring cocoa growing.

5. Presence of large tracts of land to establish and expand cocoa farms.

6. Large sums of capital to invest in cocoa growing such as purchasing farm inputs and paying
of wages.

7. Presence of skilled and unskilled labour used on the cocoa farms.

8. Improved/developed transport routes such as road and railway connected to the ports of
Accra, Tema and Takoradi to transport farm output.
9. Presence of large market for cocoa both internal and external like in Europe.

10. Positive/ encouraging government policy towards cocoa growing such as giving soft loans to
small holder cocoa farmers.

11. Increased/intensive research to come up with better seedlings which are high yielding and
disease resistant.

Harvesting and processing of cocoa

The cocoa pods grow from the trunk and main branches of the tree. Pods are yellow—orange
when ripe. The cocoa trees begin bearing fruits between 3 to 5 years. In Ghana there are two
harvests each year between September and January, and between April and august. Harvesting is
done by cutting pod using sharp knives. The pods are split open with a knife (matchet), and then
the seeds are scooped out by hand and heaped on the ground.

The beans are covered with leaves to ferment. The fermentation process takes about 5 to 6 days.
The fermented beans are washed and dried on raised platforms (under the sun). When the beans
are thoroughly dry, they are packed into sacks and taken to buying centres.

Marketing of cocoa

The whole crop is bought by the state /government cocoa marketing board (which fixes prices to
be paid to the farmers). The main collecting centres include: Kumasi, Sunyani and Kade. Much
of the crop is exported through ports of Takoradi and Tema. Exports go to Europe (like Germany
and Britain), Russia, china, and Japan.

Uses of cocoa

 Cocoa is used as a beverage

 Making of chocolate

 Making cocoa butter

 Making biscuits ,ice cream and sweets

 Making cosmetics

Problems facing the cocoa farmers in Ghana

1. Pests and diseases for example capsid pest destroying pods, black pod disease, swollen shoot
disease leading to low yields.

2. Poorly developed transport routes such as flooded roads during the rainy season, making the
marketing of cocoa difficult.
3. Uncontrolled bush fires which destroy cocoa farms especially during the dry season.

4. Shortage of labour especially during the busy periods of planting and harvesting which
affects production.

5. Price fluctuations on the world market which results into unstable incomes to farmers.

6. Competition from other beverages/ cocoa substitutes like tea, coffee, soya—hence reducing
the available market.

7. Competition from other cocoa producers such as Nigeria, and Ivory Coast which limits the
market for output.

8. Soil exhaustion due to mono-cropping leading to reduced yields.

9. Occasional prolonged dry season and at times floods –which also limit cocoa production.

10. Hailstorms which also destroy cocoa trees.

11. High costs of production such as expensive pesticides and fertilizers which also limits
production.

12. Land shortage to expand cocoa farms due to growing population in southern Ghana.

13. High land rent since most farmers do not own their farmlands.

14. Political unrest in some years which also limits cocoa production and marketing.

Measures being taken to solve the above problems

1. Spraying with pesticides control pests and diseases. The government is selling cheaper sprays
and spraying machines to farmers.

2. Cutting down the affected trees to minimize the spread of diseases to other trees.

3. Improving on the transport networks that is, construction of better feeder roads to ease
marketing of cocoa.

4. Providing more incentives to persuade labourers especially during the busy periods of
planting and harvesting.

5. Diversifying of crop farming to reduce dependence on cocoa whose prices are declining/
fluctuating such as by growing palm oil and maize.

6. Applying fertilizers and manure to improve soil fertility.

7. Processing or semi—processing of the crop before export / setting up more cocoa processing
factories to increase the cocoa export earnings.
8. Practicing irrigation where rainfall is inadequate (dry season) to increase production.

9. Providing credit to small holder famers through the financial institutions to enable them to
afford the farm inputs.

10. Restoring political stability in various parts of the country such as by promoting democracy
and peace talks.

11. Encouraging farmers to join cooperatives to enable easily access farm inputs and better
markets.

Research is being carried out to breed more disease resistant and high yielding cocoa varieties.

MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN AFRICA

A multi- purpose project refers to a project set up to serve many purposes.

They are examples of how rivers can be fully used to yield benefits for that particular country. It
involves a large and a man-made lake (reservoir) behind it.

Examples of multi-purpose river development projects in Africa

1) Aswan high dam on river Nile in Egypt.

2) The Volta river project( Akasombo dam)

3) Kainji dam on the Niger river in Nigeria

4) Kariba dam between Zambia and Zimbabwe on Zambezi river

5) Cabora Bassa dam on the Zambezi river ( Mozambique)

6) The Orange River scheme in South Africa.

7) Lesotho highlands water project.

8) Inga dam on Congo River in DRC.

A sketch map showing the major river dam projects in Africa.

KAINJI DAM PROJECT (NIGER DAM PROJECT)

The project is located in the northwestern part of Nigeria across the Niger River at Kainji. The
project was opened in 1969 and lies in a remote, thinly populated and very poor part of Nigeria.
The dam is 66 meters high and 55 meters long and has produced a manmade lake behind it,
known as Lake Kainji (130 km long and 1300 km2 ).
Objectives of the Kainji dam project

 To generate hydro electric power ( the main aim of building the dam)

 To control flooding of the Niger River.

 To promote irrigation, there by facilitating farming to increase food production.

 To promote the industrial sector

Factors which have favoured the establishment of Kainji dam project.

1. Presence of the Niger River with large volumes of water that is, sufficient water supply to
generate power.

2. Presence of waterfalls –fast flow of water to turn the turbines

3. Presence of a gorge at the place that is a narrow gap as the Niger River flows through a low
line of plateau—which increases the water pressure behind the dam to generate power.

4. Presence of a hard basement rock which offered a firm foundation for the construction the
dam.

5. The sparse population of the area, allowing cheap /easy compensation of the displaced
people.

6. The need to provide hydro electric power for domestic and industrial use. There was a large
market for Hydro electricity.

7. Presence of adequate capital for the construction of the project from the government of
Nigeria World Bank, Italy, Britain, USA, Netherlands.

8. Presence of skilled labour used in the construction of the dam project especially from abroad
and cheap labor provided by nationals.

9. High level of technology used in the setting up of the project such as the use of large
turbines.

10. Supportive government policy to develop the multipurpose scheme to promote economic
growth such as by mobilizing funds for the construction.

Contribution of the Kainji dam project to the development of Nigeria

1. Generated hydro electric power for the country. The dam produces over half of the country’s
generation capacity. This increases the standards of living.
2. Promotion of the industrial sector due to the production of the hydroelectric power to run
machines in industries.

3. The dam has controlled flooding of the Niger River since the huge reservoir holds back a lot
of water (hence better living conditions).

4. Generation of employment opportunities for the people of Nigeria such as at the dam and the
industrial sector—hence improving the standards of living.

5. Fishing has been promoted by Lake Kainji behind the dam, hence increasing people’s
incomes.

6. The depth of the water in the reservoir has increased navigation (water transport) yet the
depth of the water in the Niger up –river from Lake Kainji has also increased navigation, thus
promoting trade activities.

7. The project has promoted irrigation farming such as the large sugar plantation at Bacita,
rice and vegetables.

8. Promoting of the tourism sector since the project is a tourist attraction, and hence generating
valuable foreign exchange.

9. Promotion of urbanisation/ development of urban centres such as Yelwa is a flourishing

inland port.

Problems created by the establishment of the Kainji dam project

1. Displacement of people by the formation of the Kainji lake reservoir. Many villages were
submerged and over 60,000 people were displaced.

2. High costs of resettling and rehabilitating the displaced people –hence increased government
expenditure.

3. Loss of grazing land since a large area was drained by Lake Kainji.

4. Has led to a decline in farming activities in some parts of the Niger delta, due to loss of silt
which used to maintain fertility since it now settles in the lake and yet currents are eroding its
edge.

5. A large/vast would be cultivation land has been drowned by the reservoir lake, thus limiting
farming activities.

6. Pollution of the environment due to development of the industries.

7. Stagnation of water leads to easy spread of pests and diseases that is, waterborne diseases
like bilharzia.
8. Salination causing infertile soils especially in the Niger delta zone and this limits farming
activities.

9. The reservoir lake is a barrier to easy communication in the area, since it occupies a large
area.

Steps being taken to solve the above problems

1. Resettling of the displaced people in other areas, with careful planning.

2. Spraying to control pests and diseases

3. Treating of wastes before disposal / emphasizing environmental laws to regulate careless

dumping.

4. Regular dredging to remove the silt from the water body.

5. Introduction of a ferry, lake steamers to ease communication around the lake formed.

6. Afforestation in other areas, to compensate for the destroyed vegetation.

7. Enforcement of law and order to control urban-related problems such as the high crime rate.

ASWAN HIGH DAM PROJECT

This project is found in Egypt near the country’s border with Sudan, and it is one of the biggest
multipurpose river projects in Africa, together with Lake Nasser-the man-made lake behind the
dam.

There are two dams at Aswan and both have power stations. The first dam was constructed in
1902 at Aswan to control flooding. But this was totally inadequate and in 1956 a new dam was
set up south of Aswan called the Aswan high dam. This Aswan high dam was completed in
1970. It is 3600m long and 111m high. At the top its 40m wide and its base is almost a km wide
yet it is a very strong dam. Behind the dam is Lake Nasser (500kmlong nearly 150km into
Sudan).

A sketch map showing the location of the Aswan high dam in Egypt.

Aims for the construction of the Aswan high dam

 To control flooding along the Nile river ( therefore when the original dam was inadequate
anew high dam was put up)

 To provide water for irrigation (since Egypt is largely a desert country).

 To generate hydro electric power

 To create a reservoir for water supply for domestic and industrial use.

 To improve navigation by increasing the water level of the Nile river.

 To create employment for the people.

Note: The dam was financed Russian capital and expertise, and Egyptian labour was used in
great part.

Factors that favoured the establishment of the Aswan high dam project

1. Presence of the Nile River with large volumes of water that is, sufficient water supply to
generate power.

2. Seasonal floods of river Nile which made it necessary to control floods.

3. Presence of waterfalls –fast flow of water to turn the turbines for generating HEP power.
( strong head of water/ force to turn the turbines)

4. Presence of a narrow gorge which offered a suitable site for river damming (and also which
increases the water pressure behind the dam to generate power).

5. Presence of a hard basement rock, which offered a firm foundation for the construction the
dam.

6. Low and unreliable rainfall, which necessitated storing of water for use during the dry
season.

7. Vast/ large tracts of land to accommodate the reservoir / man-made lake upstream. This is
due to the sparse population of the area, allowing cheap /easy compensation of the displaced
people.

8. The need to provide hydro electric power for domestic and industrial use. There was a large
market for Hydro electricity.

9. Presence of adequate capital/large sums of capital for the construction of the project from
the government of Nigeria World Bank, Italy, Britain, USA, Netherlands.

10. Presence of skilled and unskilled/ cheap labour used in the construction of the dam project
especially from abroad and cheap labor provided mainly by nationals.

11. High level of technology / modern technology used in the setting up of the project such as the
use of large turbines to produce quality work.
12. Supportive government policy to develop the multipurpose scheme to promote economic
growth such as by mobilizing funds for the construction and encouraging investors.

Benefits of the Aswan high dam

1. The dam has controlled flooding of the Nile in Egypt which used to threaten life in the lower
Nile, since the reservoir holds back a lot of water.

2. The project has promoted irrigation, hence increasing cultivable land. This has increased
food and cash crop production such as rice, cotton, maize, orchards, and wheat.

3. Generation of hydro electric power which has promoted a number of activities such as
trade/service sector.

4. Promotion of industrial development due to hydro electric power and water supply such as
the aluminium plant, grain mills.

5. Generation of employment of opportunities to the people of the region such as at the dam,
farm lands and industry—hence increasing incomes.

6. Promotion of tourism development and hence valuable foreign exchange. The dam, lake
Nasser and irrigated farmlands are all tourist attractions.

7. Promotion of urbanisation and associated infrastructural development such as Luxor, Qena,

and Cairo.

8. Fishing has been developed due to presence of Lake Nasser behind the dam, hence increasing
incomes of the people.

9. Lake Nasser and the dam also supply water for domestic and industrial use.

10. Diversification of the economy by developing many economic activities in the region such as
farming, trade, industries—hence increasing national income.

Problems caused by the Aswan high dam project

1. Has led to the displacement of many people who used to live in the area now covered by
Lake Nasser.

2. The project has led to expensive resettling of the displaced people (the nomads). They had to
be given double hectorage of their former land/ increasing government expenditure.

3. Pollution of the environment due to many industries setup in the region.

4. It has led to a decline in farming in some parts of the upper Nile delta region, due to the loss
of silt which used to maintain soil fertility as it now settles out in Lake Nasser.
5. Decline in fishing industry at the coast due to loss of silt deposits now settling out in the lake,
which would support plankton growth.

6. Due to loss of water through evaporation and irrigation, the fresh water in the soil near the
mouth is being replaced by salty/saline sea water and some rendered unfit for cultivation.

7. The extension of perennial irrigation is resulting into spread of diseases especially bilharzia
due stagnant water.

8. The delta has reduced in size as it is not receiving significant silt deposits, and hence currents
are eroding the edge of the delta, and this limits coastal/delta activities such as tourism.

9. Resulted into urban related problems in the towns which have come up such as high crime
rate, traffic congestion.

10. The manmade lake is a barrier to communication in the area around it, since it occupies a
large area.

Steps being taken to solve the above problems

1. Resettling /re-locating of the displaced people in other areas.

2. Getting loans to rehabilitate the displaced people.

3. Treating of industrial wastes before disposal. The government is also putting up

environmental laws to regulate pollution.

4. Applying of artificial fertilizers/ manure to increase soil fertility in the delta zone.

5. Regular spraying with chemicals to control water borne diseases.

6. Improving medical services to control water borne diseases.

7. De-silting of the lake and canals through regular dredging.

8. Introduction of a ferry, lake steamers to ease communication around the lake formed.

9. Strengthening policies and law enforcement to control urban related problems.

THE AKASOMBO DAM PROJECT (VOLTA RIVER PROJECT)

The Akasombo dam project was opened in 1966 and was built across the Volta River where the
river passes through a narrow gorge. The project was funded by Ghana, USA, Britain, and the
World Bank.

Objectives of the Akasombo dam project

 To generate hydro electric power especially for smelting aluminium and other industries.

 To control and regulate the flow of river Volta which was characterized by seasonal
fluctuations in the water level.

 To improve inland water transport / navigation.

 To improve agriculture through providing water for irrigation.

 To store water for industrial and domestic use.

 To create a lake behind the dam to act as a fishing ground and a tourist attraction.

Note: The Volta dam complex includes a power dam and station on the west bank and a flood
control dam and saddle dam on the east bank. Lake Volta is the man-made lake which has
developed behind the dam.

Ghana has also developed other dams such as:

 Bui dam project on black Volta

 Kpong dam near Akasombo dam

Factors which have favoured the establishment of the Akasombo dam project

1. The seasonal fluctuation of river Volta and therefore the need to regulate the flow such as
controlling of flooding during the rainy season.

2. There was need to generate hydro electric power , to replace thermal which was consuming a
lot of foreign exchange through oil imports.

3. Presence of a narrow gorge (deep narrow valley) for easy construction of the dam.

4. Presence of river falls—hence fast flow of water to turn turbines.

5. Presence of a hard basement rock which provided a firm foundation for the construction of
the dam.

6. Presence of a large /extensive land behind the hills due to sparse population, which could
accommodate a large reservoir behind the dam.

7. Presence of adequate capital to establish the dam provided by Ghana, World Bank, Britain.

8. High level of technology employed to put up the project, provided by especially Britain and
USA; such as use of large turbines to generate power.
9. Presence of skilled labour used in the construction and maintenance of the dam project.

10. Presence of a large market for power in the area and surrounding countries, which
encouraged investment in the dam project.

Problems resulting from the establishment of the Akasombo dam project

1. Resulted into displacement of many people from their land, since many villages were
drowned by the lake water.

2. Led to high costs of resettling the displaced people and disruption of families.

3. Pollution of the environment due to development of many industries such Aluminium

smelting at Tema.

4. Resulted Loss of agricultural land since large areas were covered by the lake water.

5. The lake formed effectively divided Ghana into two providing a barrier to east-west
communication.

6. Loss of biodiversity –vegetation and animal life when setting up the dam project.

7. Decrease in the delta size due reduced silt deposits and this negatively affects costal/ delta
activities such as tourism.

8. Resulted into urban related problems such as slum growth, unemployment and high crime
rate.

9. Siltation of the lake which necessitates constant dredging.

10. Reduction in farming activities in the delta region due to loss of fertile alluvial soils.

11. Stagnation of water leading to water leading to water borne diseases such as bilharzia.

KARIBA DAM PROJECT

The Kariba dam is located on the Zambia—Zimbabwe border on River Zambezi.

Factors which favoured the establishment of the Kariba dam project

1. Presence of a permanent river with waterfalls, hence fast flow of water to turn the turbines.

2. High volume of water in River Zambezi, hence sufficient water supply for generating power.

3. Presence of a narrow gorge called Kariba—that enabled construction of the dam.

4. Existence of a hard basement rock which provided a firm foundation for constructing the
dam

5. The need to control the seasonal floods of the river, by regulating the volume of water.

6. Presence of a wide valley to act as the reservoir for water behind the dam.

7. Availability of adequate capital provided by governments of Zambia and Zimbabwe to

set/construct the dam.

8. Presence of skilled labour that helped in the construction of the dam.

9. Increased demand for hydro-electric power, due to growing population, the Zambian copper
belt and the mines in Zimbabwe—encouraging dam construction.

10. High level of technology employed when constructing the dam such as the use of large
turbines.

11. Supportive government policy towards the construction of the dam in order to develop the
region such as by providing power.

12. Presence of raw materials such as rocks used in the construction of the dam.

13. Extensive/large tracts of land available for the dam project/ to be occupied by the reservoir
due to low population density

Benefits of the construction of the Kariba dam

1. Provision of adequate power for the mining industry in Zambia and Zimbabwe.

2. Provision of hydro electric power for industrial and domestic use.

3. Rive r flooding has been controlled, since a lot of water is held back in the reservoir lake.

4. It has provided employment opportunities to the people of the area, thus increasing incomes.

5. Generation of government revenue through taxation of the dam project and workers’
incomes.

6. Has led to the growth of towns /urbanisation such as Lusaka and Harare—with associated
facilities.

7. It has led to the reduction in the price of energy, since it reduced the importation of coal for
power.

8. Promotion of the tourism sector, since the project is a tourist attraction. This generates
foreign exchange to Zambia and Zimbabwe.
9. Promoted international cooperation between the governments of Zambia and Zimbabwe,
hence more trade contacts.

10. Lake Kariba created behind the dam has promoted fishing activities, thus increased incomes
of the people.

11. Lake Kariba is also used for navigation /water transport—hence promoting trade activities.

12. Promoted environmental protection / reduced deforestation for fuel energy, since more
people use hydro electricity.

Problems which resulted from the construction of the Kariba dam

1. Displacement of many people from their land, since a large area was downed by the lake
(due to back ponding of water to form Lake Kariba).

2. Led to high costs of resettling of the displaced people and disruption of families.

3. Pollution of the environment due to the development of the industries in the area.

4. Led to loss of agricultural land since a large area/the valley was covered by the lake.

5. Resulted in urban-related problems such as high crime rate, prostitution, and slum growth.

6. Lake Kariba is a habitat for mosquitoes and snails which are disease causing vectors /pests.

7. Loss of biodiversity –vegetation and animal life when setting up the dam project.

8. High costs of establishment of the project, hence diverting resources from other sectors.

9. The lake is a barrier to communication between Zambia and Zimbabwe, since it occupies a
large area.

10. Loss of fertile soils behind the dam/in the man-made lake, hence limiting agricultural
production.

CABORA BASSA DAM

Cabora Bassa dam is located on river Zambezi in Mozambique, and it was completed in 1975.

A sketch map showing the location of the Kariba dam and the Cabora Bassa dam

Factors which favoured the establishment of Cabora Bassa dam

1. Presence of the Zambezi River with waterfalls/ fast flowing water to turn turbines.

2. The need to control the fluctuations of the Zambezi River such as controlling floods during
the rainy season.

3. Presence of a narrow gorge (called Quebrabasa) for easy construction of the dam.

4. Existence of a hard basement rock which offered a firm foundation for constructing the dam.

5. Low population density of the area, hence availing extensive/ large tract of land to be
occupied by the reservoir lake.

6. Availability of adequate capital to set up the dam provided by the governments of Portugal
and South Africa.

7. Presence of a large market for hydro-electric power in South Africa and Mozambique (local
and foreign)—hence encouraging the dam project.

8. High level of technology employed when setting up the dam such as the engineering
technology to fix the turbines.

9. Presence of skilled labour to construct and maintain the dam project.

10. Presence of raw materials such as rocks used in the construction of the dam.

11. Supportive/favourable government policy to promote economic growth by the multi-purpose

scheme such as by financing the project.

Contribution of the Cabora Bassa scheme to the development of Mozambique

1. Provision of power for industrial and domestic use—hence better standards of living.

2. Hydro electricity is exported to South Africa, hence earning Mozambique foreign exchange.

3. Facilitated development of inland water transport by the man-made lake behind the dam—
hence enabling trade activities.

4. Provision of water for irrigation, hence supporting crops like cotton, sugar cane, rice among
others.

5. The man-made lake behind the dam has also promoted fishing activities, hence increasing
people’s incomes.

6. The tourism sector has been promoted, since the dam project (dam and lake) is a tourist
attraction—hence generating foreign exchange.

7. Provided employment opportunities to the people of the area, hence increasing incomes.
8. Floods of River Zambezi have been controlled by the reservoir created which holds back a
lot of water.

9. It has promoted development of towns such as Tete, Blantyre, Moatize and Zobue—with
associated facilities.

10. Generation of government revenue through taxation of various activities supported by the
dam project.

FISHING IN AFRICA

Fishing refers to the extraction/exploitation of aquatic animals from water bodies like the
seas/oceans and inland water bodies such as lakes, rivers as well as ponds and swamps.

However the fishing industry in Africa is not well developed. Some countries cannot afford big
ships and other equipment; but the situation is gradually changing as fishing activities increase.

Sources of fish

There are two main sources of fish: that is inland and marine fishing grounds. The greatest
difference between the two is that inland waters are fresh while the marine/ coastal waters are
salty.

a) Inland fisheries/Fresh water fishing

Fresh water fishing is carried out in lakes, rivers and swamps.

Important lakes include: Lake Chad, Lake Malawi and Lake Chilwa in Malawi, Lake
Tanganyika, Lake Nasser, Lake Kariba, lake Volta, and Lake Kainji.

The rivers are: Niger, Volta, Congo, Zambezi, and the Nile.

The most important species in fresh water fishing include (fresh water species)
 Nile pearch
 tilapia
 Dagaa
 cat fish
 silver fish
 lung fish
 Mud fish

Note: There are also artificial ponds constructed –widely used in democratic republic of
Congo, Malawi among other countries. It is also known as fish farming/ aqua-culture.

b) Marine fisheries ( seas/ oceans)

 Marine fishing is done in the Indian Ocean and Atlantic Ocean. Africa’s seas/oceans provide
a good fishing ground in the world and the fishing grounds mostly used are along the coasts
of south Africa, Angola, Nigeria, Ghana, morocco, Mauritania; which export fish and fish
products. Other grounds are the Mediterranean Sea and red sea.

In marine fisheries there are both pelagic and demersal fish.

The pelagic fish
 tuna,
 sword fish,
 marlin,
 pilchards,
 mackerel,
 cavalla,
 barracuda
 lobsters
While the Demersal fish live in deep waters, nearer to the sea bed such as
 sardines,
 stock fish,
 hake,
 herrings,
 anchovy,
 Pollock etc

CONDITIONS LIMITING COMMERCIAL FISHING IN AFRICA

(Reasons for low development of the fishing industry in Africa)
PHYSICAL
 Limited indented coastline which hinders the port development and fish breeding.
 Presence of coral reefs along the east African coast which tear fishing nets and affect
moving vessels for example in Mombasa.
 Narrow/Small continental shelf which hinders fish breeding and plankton growth.
 Hot temperatures all year round which limits plankton growth and fish survival.
 Limited/ few off-shore islands hinders deep sea fishing and fishing villages.
 Limited commercial fish species for example cod and tuna which discourages investment
in the fishing industry.
 Scattered fish species / very few species moving in shoals due to scattered planktons
(such that the fish also scatter in search for them).
 The warm Mozambique Ocean current that brings warm temperatures along the coast
which hinders fish breeding.
  The great potentials of agricultural activities due to fertile soils and reliable rainfall hence
less attention is given to the fishing industry.
HUMAN FACTORS
 Inadequate capital to invest in fishing, processing and fisheries research, buying fishing
gear in Angola, Namibia and Zambia.
 Low level of technology which limits quality production for example use of poor fishing
and preservation methods in Angola.
 Limited market for fish in Africa due to small population and traditional customs which
prevent fish consumption for example Fulani.
 Stiff competition from developed countries which limits the export market of marine fish
like Europe and America.
 Political instability in most African countries which discourages long term investment in
the fishing industry.
 The underdeveloped and unreliable transport routes which hinders easy transportation of
fish to the market centres.
 Shortage of indigenous skilled labour limits the use of modern methods of fishing and
fish preservation e.g. in Chad.
 Illegal fishing by foreign vessels from China, Japan causing conflicts.
 Insecurity /pirates along Somalia coast leading to loss of life and fishing gear.
 Poorly developed transport network in Angola, Namibia which limits fish transportation,
leads to delays
METHODS OF FISHING USED IN AFRICA

Both traditional/simple and modern methods are used. The simple methods include:

1. Spearing

2. Use of baskets

3. Hook and line method

4. Beach seining

5. Use of light

(Refer to east Africa for explanations)

MODERN /COMMERCIAL FISHING METHODS USED IN AFRICA

1. Gill netting (drifting method)

2. Long lining

3. Trawling method

4. Purse seining

Gill netting /drift netting

In this method, the nets are hanged vertically in the sea. They are filled with floats on the upper
edge and weights below. This net is mobile and it’s allowed to drift with prevailing currents over
water. The fish are caught by their gills and fins in the mesh of the net that are unable to move
forward or backwards.

Purse seining
This method is used to trap deep fish/fish at a moderate depth.
In this method, the seine net is laid out in a circle supported by floats at the top and weights
below. It’s made to enclose fish in a circular shoal. At the bottom of the net are strings through
which a rope passes. When the circle is complete, the rope is pulled to close the bottom thus
trapping the fish inside. Mainly used to catch fish near the surface of the ocean e.g. tuna and
herrings.
Trawling
This method is used to trap deep sea fish.
A trawl net is a conical shaped net with a circular mouth. Its mouth is kept open and has floats at
the top and weights at the bottom. The net is tied to a boat (trawler) which keeps it dragged along
the ocean floor. When it’s filled up, it’s pulled out of the water and emptied into the ship. Mainly
used to catch demersal fish like cod, haddock and halibut.

A) Long lining: In this method, a long rope with hundreds of baited hooks is set vertically in
the water. The fish are trapped as they struggle to eat the bait. This method is mainly used in
rocky sea waters where the nets can be damaged. Size of the fish caught depends on the size of
the hook. Fish species caught with this method include haddock, cod and sharks.
Methods of fish preservation

Although most fish is consumed fresh, due to tropical conditions some conservation methods are
used:

 Sun drying

 Smoking

 Salting

 Frying/ deep frying

 Refrigeration ( such as refrigerated trucks)

 Freezing

 Fish canning

Uses of fish

 Fish is used as food providing valuable proteins and minerals (like iodine and calcium)

 Manufacture of animal feeds

 Manufacture of edible oil (used in cooking)

 Making of cosmetics and soap

 Fish skin used as leather material for shoes, belts and bags

 Making of fertilizers

 Making of fish glue

 Making of paints, ink and medicine

Marketing of fish

Much of the fish in Africa is consumed locally. However some countries are exporting fish
including: South Africa, Namibia, Angola, morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Liberia, and Chad.
Morocco is the leading fish processing country in Africa (such as producing canned fish, fish oil
and fish meal)

Difficulties faced in the marketing of fish in Africa

1. Limited capital necessary to acquire modern preservation methods.

2. Limited domestic market due to small population in Africa and the taboos and traditional
customs limiting eating of fish.

3. Stiff competition from the developed fishing countries which limits the export of marine fish.

4. Poorly developed transport routes infrastructure connecting the fishing grounds and market
centres.

5. Political instability in some areas limiting marketing of fish.

6. Limited market research

7. Some species of fish are of low value on the international market such as snapper.

FISHING IN SOUTH WEST AFRICAN FISHING GROUNDS

In Africa, the countries of South Africa, Namibia and Angola have a more developed fishing
industry compared to those of West Africa. South African fisheries together with Namibia are
the most highly developed on the continent. About 20% of the catch is canned and the most
important canaries are found at: Cape Town, Saldanha bay, lamberts bay for South Africa. For
Namibia there is: Walvis Bay and Luderitz as the most important.
The fishing industry in South Africa and Namibia is highly capitalized with modern equipment
like trawls and purse seines. The main fish species are: cape hake, cape anchovy, sardines,
pilchards, stock fish and sole fish plus whales. Rock lobsters are also caught mainly for export.

In the south West African fisheries, there is Angola—which shares similar conditions in
Namibia. In the South West African fishing grounds purse seining and trawling are the most
important fishing methods.

FISHING IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa is one of the major fishing nation in Africa with deep sea fishing and acquiculture

The major fishing region is Agulhas

The major fishing ports include

 Port Elizabeth

 East London

 Cape town

The major fish species include

 Pilchards

 Sardines

 Mackerel

 Lobsters

FACTORS FAVOURING COMMERCIAL FISHING IN THE SOUTH WEST AFRICAN

COAST/ FISHING GROUNDS

 Presence of a relatively large continental shelf which facilitates fish breeding and the growth
of planktons (since sunlight easily reaches the sea bed).

 The coastline is washed by the cold Benguela current, which offers cool conditions for the
growth of planktons and the survival of fish.

 Presence of many fish species of commercial value such as pilchards, anchovy, hake, lobsters
—which have many uses.

 Large areas of Namibia experience a desert type of climate while parts of South Africa and
Angola experience a semi-desert climate. This limits economic activities such as farming
making many people to resort to fishing.
 Presence of a large fishing ground –the Atlantic Ocean favouring large scale fishing
investment.

 Large sums of capital to invest in the fishing industry provided by both local and foreign
investors.

 Presence of a large market for fish both local and foreign. There are also many fish
processing plants that provide the immediate market.

 Developed/ improved such as the use of modern methods of fishing (purse seining, trawling)
which leads to high quality production.

 Improved transport and communication routes such as modern port facilities for export,
roads connecting to market centres.

 Presence of cheap labour to work in the fishing activities due to presence of many coastal
settlements.

 Favourable/supportive government policy of diversifying the economy such as by developing

processing plants and encouraging fisheries research.

 The development of many fish processing plants along the coast, such as making fertilizers,
cooking oil—which add value to the fish produced.

 Increased fisheries research such as at Cape Town and Saldanha bay on fish breeding, fish
feeding and maturing.

PROBLEMS FACING THE SOUTH WEST AFRICAN FISHERIES

 Over fishing due to foreign vessels especially Japanese and US vessels invading the South
African fishing grounds, hence reducing fish stocks.

 Pollution due to industrialization which reduces the quality of fish and fish products, hence
marketing problems.

 Initial apartheid and on-going elements of racial discrimination /segregation in South Africa
which limits fishing activities.

 Competition from well developed fishing countries such as Canada, USA, Japan; which
reduces the market for fish.

 Accidents associated with the fishing industry such as the capsizing of boats leading to loss
of life and equipment.

 Reduction in valuable fish species due to indiscriminate fishing.

 Narrow continental shelf in some sections of the south West African coast which limits
plankton growth and the fish breeding.

 (Refer to general points.)

WEST AFRICAN FISHING GROUNDS

Fishing is an important activity along most parts of the West African coastline and in the many
rivers and lakes. However the greatest catch comes from marine fishing. Deep sea fishing has
been developed in

 Senegal,

 Ghana,

 Ivory Coast and

 Nigeria with modern technology.

The species include:

 herrings,

 sardines,

 tuna,

 mackerel,

 barracuda,

 cavalla,

 anchovy and

 snapper.

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS FAVOURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST

AFRICAN MARINE FISHING INDUSTRY

 Presence of a relatively shallow continental shelf which facilitates penetration of sunlight to

the seabed and hence favouring the growth of planktons.

 Relatively indented coastline with sheltered harbors suitable for the construction of fishing
ports and for fish breeding.
 The meeting/mixing of the cold canary and warm guinea current providing ideal conditions
for growth of planktons and growth of fish.

 The upwelling of water important in bringing to the surface planktons and mineral salts to the
benefit of fish.

 Presence of many marketable fish species in the fishing grounds such as herrings, tuna,
barracuda, cavalla, anchovy, mackerel—which have many uses.

 Presence of large fishing grounds –the Atlantic Ocean which attracts fisheries investment on
large scale.

 Presence of various rivers from the interior which bring in mineral salts for the growth of
planktons and acting as breeding grounds for some fish species.

 Presence of large quantities of timber from the forests for construction of fishing vessels and
packaging boxes.

STEPS BEING TAKEN TO COMMERCIALIZE / DEVELOP FISHING IN WEST

AFRICA

 Formation of local cooperatives in order to raise more capital jointly.

 Introduction of modern fishing methods such as trawling, purse seining, motorized vessels to
increase the quantity and quality of output.

 Introduction of fish farming such as in Nigeria to increase fish stocks/ to diversify fish
sources.

 Introducing more marketable fish species to increase fish stocks and catch.

 Attracting foreign investors /companies to increase investment in the fishing sector.

 Investment in the fishing industry by the respective governments such as in Ghana some
vessels are operated by the state fishing corporation.

 Establishing more fish processing plants such as Dakar in Senegal, Abidjan in Ivory Coast,
and Novadhibou in Mauritania, to increase the quality of fish exports( by adding value).

 Encouraging the exportation of fish to widen the markets for example Ghana and Ivory Coast
export to neighboring countries.

 Developing the transport routes especially roads and railway lines to improve market
accessibility.
 Introducing better preservation methods such as the use of refrigerators/ Cold storage which
keep fish fresh for a long period of time.

 Educating people about the value of fish to increase the internal market for fish in African
countries.

 Training more staff in the management and control of the fishing grounds to check on over
fishing.

NORTH WEST AFRICAN FISHING GROUNDS

Fishing has increasingly become important to the economy and the waters off the coast of
morocco are rich in fish.

FISHING IN MOROCCO

Morocco is one of the major fishing nations in Africa and fishing is carried out in the North
Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea.

The major fishing centres/ports in morocco include

 Agadir.

 Safi.

 Casablanca.

The fish species include: sardines, tuna, mackerel, anchovies, and shell fish. Much of the fish is
processed –frozen or canned for export.

FACTORS FAVOURING FISHING IN MOROCCO

Physical

 The long indented coastline which favours fish breeding and port construction.

 Cold canary ocean currents which bring cold conditions which favour growth of
planktons, fish breeding and preservation.

 Relatively smooth ocean floor which favours deep sea fishing methods like trawling.

 Presence of a large number of commercial fish species like Tuna, sardines which attract
investors.
  Presence of the Mediterranean forests that provide timber for making boats used in
fishing.

 Extensive fishing grounds like Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea which offer a large fish
catch.

 Morocco is relatively dry which discourages crop cultivation hence people carryout
fishing as the best alternative.

Human factors

 Adequate capital from government and investors for investment for example buying
fishing materials.

 Skilled labour force to carryout fishing activities like processing and preservation.

 Well-developed transport routes especially roads to deliver fish to market centres.

 Wide and ready market for fish and fish products both at home and abroad.

 Supportive government policy which encourages fishing through provision of loans and
market research.

 Advanced technology involving the use of modern fishing methods like trawling, long
lining, purse seining.

 Relative political stability which allows fishing to go on without any interference.

CONTRIBUTION OF FISHING TO THE AFRICAN COUNTRIES (Positive effects)

 Source of employment opportunities to the fishermen hence improving on their standards

of living.

 Generation of government revenue through taxes imposed on fishing used to provide

social services.

 Development of transport network especially roads which facilitate transportation

 Provision of foreign exchange through the export of fish and its products which is used
for development.

 Diversification of economic activities hence reducing overdependence on few sectors of

the economy.

 Promotion of international relationship between African countries and other countries

hence ensuring political stability and trade cooperation.
  Promotion of tourism which brings in foreign exchange.

 Development of fishing ports and villages to towns which provide social services.

 Source of market for industrial products especially fishing equipment, refrigerators

 Provision of raw materials to the fish processing industries used to make fish products.

 Source of food to the people hence improving on their diet.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS / DISADVANTAGES OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY

 Over fishing due to indiscriminate fishing hence depletion of some fish species.

 Pollution of water due to oil spills from moving vessels leading to death of aquatic life.

 Indiscriminate fishing also leads to a reduction in the fish stocks.

 Fishing leads to conflicts among countries such as Japanese catching large quantities off
the coast of West Africa against the rights of such countries.

 Attraction of labour from other activities such as crop farming and mining.

 Loss of life and property as a result of accidents due to capsizing of boats

 Development of urban centres with associated problems such as slum growth, theft, poor
sanitation and so on.

 Repatriation of profits by the foreign fishing companies and hence limited re-investment
in Africa’s fishing industry.

 Straining of the government budget due to financing of the fishing sector; hence limited
investment in other sectors.

 Results into regional imbalance in development in terms of infrastructure in that areas

around fishing ports are more developed than other areas.

 Depletion of forest resources during exploitation of timber for boat making.

STEPS BEING TAKEN TO IMPROVE ON THE FISHING INDUSTRY IN AFRICA.

 Formation of local cooperatives in order to raise more capital jointly to invest in the
fishing industry.

 Introducing modern fishing methods such as trawling, purse seining, motorized vessels to
increase the quantity and quality of output.
  Introducing fish farming such as in Nigeria to increase fish stocks and diversify fish
sources to ensure continuous supply of fish.

 Introducing more marketable fish species to increase fish stocks and catch.

 Attracting foreign investors /companies to increase investment in the fishing sector.

 Increasing investment in the fishing industry by the respective governments such as in

Ghana some vessels are operated by the state fishing corporation.

 Setting up more fish processing factories and plants to increase the quality of fish exports
(by adding value).

 Encouraging the exportation of fish to widen the markets for example Ghana and Ivory
Coast export to neighboring countries.

 Extension of the transport routes especially roads and railway lines in order to ease
transportation of fish to market centres.

 Introducing better preservation methods such as the use of refrigerators/ Cold storage
which keep fish fresh for a long period of time.

 Educating people about the value of fish to increase the internal market for fish in
African countries.

 Training more staff in the management and control of the fishing grounds to check on
over fishing.

MINING IN AFRICA

Mining refers to the extraction of minerals from the earth’s surface. Mining plays a very
important role in the economies of African countries such as Zambia, Nigeria, South Africa,
Algeria, Ghana and others.
The mining sector in Africa is largely under developed due to low level of technology, in-
sufficient capital and overreliance on other sectors especially agriculture for survival.
However, it is important to note that Africa has a variety of minerals of high commercial value
for example copper, gold, diamond, oil and so on. Many mining industries in Africa are owned
by foreign companies
MINING IN ZAMBIA

Mining is the most important economic activity in Zambia and the dominant mineral is copper.
Zambia’s deposits are found in a 50km wide belt extending from Ndola–Luanshya areas north
westwards to Bancroft. These deposits are continued into Zaire through Lubumbashi.

Mining started in 1909 in the old mines of Roan-Antelope, Nkana, Mufulira, and Chibuluma.
Copper mining is the largest customer of railway transport and power.

Other minerals in the Zambian copper belt include:

 Cobalt

 Gold and silver

 Zinc, manganese, and lead

NOTE: other copper producing countries in Africa include: Democratic Republic of Congo,
South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Morocco.

FACTORS FAVOURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF MINING IN ZAMBIA

1. Presence of extensive/large deposits of copper covering 50km wide and 110 km long, hence
economically viable to exploit for a long time.

2. Large deposits of copper near the surface makes it easy and cheap to mine.

3. Presence of high grade copper which is highly demanded on the world market.

4. Abundant supply of water from R.Kafue for cooling machines

5. Presence of cheap labour to work in mining sector provided by nationals.

6. Presence of skilled labour provided by foreign companies for high quality production in
refining and processing. Even local people have been trained.

7. Reliable power supply from Kariba dam used to run machines and for processing.

8. Presence of large sums of capital provided by the government and foreigners for purchasing
machinery and paying labour.

9. Large and ready market for copper within Zambia and outside countries like Japan,
Germany, Canada.

10. Well-developed transport network such as Tanzam railway, roads for easy transportation of
copper to processing and market centres.

11. High level of technology provided by foreign companies hence increasing efficiency.
12. Supportive/positive government policy towards the mining sector through providing tax
holidays, developing transport routes and investing in mining.

13. Relative political stability which has encouraged long term investment in the mining sector.

METHODS OF MINING COPPER

There are mainly two types of mining used:

 Open cast mining

 Underground mining
OPEN CAST MINING

This method is used when the copper ore is near the surface. The top soil is removed and the
copper ore is blasted using explosives. The copper ore is then crushed to reduce the size. It is
then loaded into trucks and taken to the processing plants.

Open cast mining exists at Kalengwa, Baluba, Bwana mkubwa, Nchanga mines.

Shaft/ underground mining

This method is used when the minerals are found deep underneath.

Vertical shafts are dug into the ground to appropriate levels. From these, horizontal tunnels
leading to the ore body are constructed. Supporters are provided from the roof to the floor of the
tunnels. The copper ore is then blasted using explosives causing shattering. The ores are crushed
and loaded on small wagons and taken to the vertical shaft, and lifted to the surface, and taken to
processing plants.

Underground mines exist at Nchanga, Konkola, Mindola (Ndola), Mufulira, Chibuluma.

Uses of copper

 Copper is used in the manufacture of household utensils like spoons, forks, saucepans and
others.

 Making wires for electrical equipment

 Minting of coins used as money.

 Making military weapons especially bullets.

 Making machinery bearings

 Good alloy with zinc to form brass.

Export routes

 Tanzam /Tanzam railway –most of the copper is transported by railway to the port of dare s
salaam for export.

 Railway to Lobito port in Angola.

 A combination of road and railway through Malawi to port Nacala in Mozambique.

The Zambian copper is exported mainly to United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, and Canada.

PROBLEMS FACING THE MINING INDUSTRY IN ZAMBIA

 Exhaustion of copper in some mines leading to their closure.

 Fluctuation of copper prices on the world market which discourages continuous mining.

 Accidents occur during mineral exploitation leading to loss of life such as due to falling
rocks.

 Limited power supply for the mines and this has resulted into importation of coal from
Zimbabwe.

 Landlockedness of Zambia with no direct and easy access to the sea which increases
transport costs.

 Increasing costs of mining due to increasing depth of the copper bearing rocks
(seams/layers).

 Profit repatriation by the foreign owned companies (such as Anglo-American company)

resulting into loss of revenue.

 Stiff competition for market with other countries producing copper such as USA, DRC,
and South Africa which limits the market for Zambian copper.

 Limited labour supply to work in the mines and the poor working conditions there which
limits copper production.

 Political instability from neighboring countries like Angola and DRC which limits
exploitation and exportation.
  Low levels of technology and use of depreciated machinery in some areas, which limits
efficiency in mining sector.

 Low wages paid to workers which often leads to strikes.

SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

 Opening up alternative routes for copper exports.

 Construction of HEP stations to produce more power and reduce importation of coal

 Building strong political relations with the neighbors for easy exportation of copper.

 Opening up new mines where some are exhausted.

 Market research is being done to widen market for copper and its products.

 Hiring labor from the neighboring counties such as Angola, DRC, and Malawi to work in the
mines.

 Replacement of the old and outdated machinery with new modern machinery to increase
production.

 Emphasize processing of mineral ores into manufactured goods to minimize the effects of
price fluctuations on the world market.

 Supporting tunnels to prevent collapsing.

 Improving on the working conditions of the workers especially better payment to reduce strik

EFFECTS OF COPPER MINING ON THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMMENT.

 Pollution of the environment in form of noise, dust from the mines and the discharge of toxic
wastes from the copper refineries.

 Destruction of vegetation where minerals are being extracted leading to soil erosion.

 Destruction of the soil structure.

 Stagnant water in the hollows/depressions created hence breeding of disease causing vectors.

 Creation of pits and hollows hence destruction/disfiguring of the landscape.

 Destruction of the natural habitat for wild life due to deforestation.

STEPS BEING TAKEN TO SOLVE THE ABOVE PROBLEMS

  Environmental laws /standards put up to control pollution of the environment.

 Emphasizing reforestation and afforestation programmes to reduce vegetation depletion.

 Refilling of the mining pits/hollows to avoid stagnant water and possible accidents.

 Spraying with chemicals to kill disease causing vectors and medical treatment of the affected
people.

 Resettling /re-location of the displaced people elsewhere.

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE MINERS WHEN EXTRACTING COPPER

 Suffocation due to too much dust leading to diseases such as lung cancer

 Flooding of the mines at times which affects their work

 High underground temperatures (too much heat) unfavorable for workers.

 Accidents caused by collapse of mines leading to loss of life.

 Noise pollution during mining affecting their health.

 There are too many tunnels that sometimes the miners get lost. This is compounded by
darkness of the mines which affects their work.

PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM OVER DEPENDENCE ON ONE DOMINANT

EXPORT COMMODITY (COPPER) IN ZAMBIA

 Price fluctuation on the world market which greatly affects the economy by leading to
uncertain incomes.

 Restrictive international commodity quotas which reduces the available market.

 Over exploitation leading to quick exhaustion of the copper.

 Neglect of other sectors of the economy like agriculture since labour and funds are diverted
to copper mining.

 The closure of some mines leading to the problems of unemployment.

 Stiff competition from other producing countries leading to narrow market

 Competition from synthetic substitutes which also reduces the demand for copper.

 Large scale exploitation of copper leads to environmental degradation and pollution

CONTRIBUTION OF COPPER MINING TO THE ECONOMY OF ZAMBIA

  Source of employment opportunities to the miners hence improving on their standards of
living.

 Generation of government revenue through taxes imposed on mining used to provide

social services.

 Development of transport network especially roads and railways like Tanzam railway
which facilitate transportation of minerals.

 Provision of foreign exchange through the export of copper and its products which is
used for development.

 Diversification of economic activities hence reducing overdependence on few sectors of

the economy.

 Promotion of international relationship Zambia and other importing countries hence

ensuring political stability and promoting international trade.

 Promotion of tourism which brings in foreign exchange.

 Development towns like Ndola, Mufulira which provide social services.

 Source of market for industrial products for example machines

 Provision of raw materials for copper refineries used for processing.

 Provision of potential market for agricultural products by the copper miners hence
enhancing agricultural development.

MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa is gifted /blessed with plenty of mineral resources and the country has the most
developed mining sector in Africa. Minerals mined in South Africa include: gold, diamonds,
coal, iron ore, tin, manganese, platinum, uranium, chromium, phosphates, copper, asbestos,
limestone, zinc, and nickel among others.

Gold mining

Gold is a heavy, fairly soft yellow metal and easily molded. It is greatly valued by man since it is
the world’s money (international currency). South Africa has the world’s largest known reserves
of gold. Gold mining takes place on the Rand (Witwatersrand) covering parts of the Orange Free
State and Transvaal.

The main gold fields of the Rand include:

 Johannesburg

 Springs

 Krugersdorp

 Klerksdorp

 Vierfontein

 Odendalsrus

Gold mining started in 1886 and many people came in to dig/exploit this precious metal and
eventually big companies.

A sketch map showing the gold fields of South Africa

Method of gold mining in South Africa

Gold mining in South Africa is similar to copper mining in Zambia (using the underground /
shaft method). The rocks which contain gold are called reefs.

NB: The minerals which occur with gold include: uranium and silver.

Other African countries with significant gold deposits include: Ghana, Zimbabwe, and
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

Conditions which have favoured gold mining in South Africa

1. Presence of large gold reserves /deposits which encourage investment in the mining
sector/making mining economically viable.

2. High quality of the gold mines, with gold being a very precious metal used as international
currency encourages mining investment.

3. Presence of cheap labour to work in the mines provided by local people and migrants from
neighboring countries.

4. Presence of skilled labour to carry out extraction and processing provided by foreigners and
locally trained people.

5. Presence of sufficient/adequate capital to invest in the mining sector provided by foreign and
local companies.

6. Presence of a ready market for gold both locally and internationally.

7. Availability of enough power supply for mining and processing such as hydro electricity,
coal and oil.

8. High level of technology used by mining companies such as use of caterpillars, shaft
/underground mining to increase production.

9. Efficient transport and communication system such roads and railway to transport gold to
processing centres and markets.

10. Positive/supportive government policy such as encouraging local and foreign investors,
controlling the mining activities.

11. Increased research to discover more valuable gold fields and advancing the mining
technology.

12. Political stability of South Africa which encourages many investors in mineral exploration,
extraction and processing.

Uses of gold

 Mainly used in jewelry industry.

 Used in gold craft industries

 Internationally used as money and hence a medium/standard of exchange.

Diamond mining

Diamonds are formed beneath the ground by great heat of volcanic activity and occur in rocks
called kimberlite.

The leading producers of diamonds in Africa include: DRC, South Africa, Botswana, Ghana,
Namibia, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, and Angola.

In South Africa diamond has the greatest deposits in Kimberley and Hope town in the Rand.
Other mines include: the premier mine near Pretoria, Bultfontein, Jagersfontein, and
Koffiefontein.

Most industries connected with diamonds are found in Johannesburg—with most of the diamond
cutting factories plus diamond research centre.

Note: diamonds are a hard material, form of carbon and look like pieces of ice. When cut they
glitter and shine beautifully. But they are difficult to find , mine and recover from parent rock.

Method of diamond mining

Diamond mining is done using:

 Open-cast mining

 Shaft/underground mining

South Africa also has alluvial deposits. These are found along the Vaal—Hartz—Orange valleys,
in stream beds, dried up river courses and on river terraces. It is believed that these deposits were
removed from their original pipes many years ago by riverine and rain-wash erosion and hence
deposited. Such deposits are also located along the coastal margins in marine sands and gravels
between Fort Nolloth and Walvis Bay.

Such alluvial diamonds are mined using a method called placer or alluvial mining. In this
method a steel dredge or a gravel pump is used to dig up the alluvial deposits (waterlogged
alluvium). The alluvium is mixed with a great deal of water. The mixture is rotated and in the
process the lighter particles (sand, mud, dust) are washed off, leaving the heavier ores (diamonds
settled down.

A sketch map showing the diamond fields of south Africa

Uses of diamonds

 Used in making jewelry

 Making industrial equipment like drill bits and abrasive drilling wheels.

 Cutting tools in industries

 White sparkling diamonds are cut into pyramidal gems.

Coal mining

Coal is a major industrial mineral especially for iron and steel industries. It is also used to
generate electricity alongside other sources of power. Southern Transvaal is the leading coal
producing state in South Africa. Huge deposits occur at Witbank and Vereeniging.

Iron ore mining

Iron is possibly the most useful metal. In South Africa large deposits occur in Pretoria,
Middleburg, Waterburg, Vryburg and north western Cape.

Problems facing the mining sector in South Africa

1. Shortage of labour to work in the mines and related industries.

2. Shortage of water needed in processing of minerals especially in the Rand.

3. Price fluctuations of minerals on the world market leading to uncertain incomes.

4. Competition with other mineral producing countries like Ghana, DRC producing gold.

5. Long routes to the coast which increases the transport costs.

6. Labour unrest which often leads to strikes and hence affecting production. This is due to poor
working conditions and racial segregation.

7. Accidents occur during mining leading to loss of life such as due to falling rocks.

8. Suffocation due to lack of fresh air and flooding of the mines.

9. High costs of mining due to increasing depth of the mines.

10. Exhaustion of some high grade mineral deposits due to over exploitation.

Solutions to the problems facing the mining sector in South Africa

1. Recruiting labour from neighboring countries such as Swaziland, and Mozambique to

minimize labour shortage.

2. Construction of dams to trap water such as Vaal dam and Vaal Barrage on Vaal River.
Underground sources are also tapped to minimize water shortage.

3. Carrying out market research in order to expand market for the minerals.

4. Emphasis on processing the minerals into finished goods to minimize the effects of price
fluctuations on the world market.

5. Controlling production to reduce price fluctuations.

6. Abolition of apartheid which has reduced racial segregation and labour unrest.

7. Emphasis on production of high value minerals such as gold and diamonds to offset the high
costs of mining.

8. Pumping fresh air into the mines to reduce suffocation and tunnels are supported to prevent
collapsing.

Mining in Nigeria

Nigeria is the largest producer of oil south of the Sahara. Oil mining started in 1937, but
commercial production started in 1956. Large scale oil fields / deposits exist in the Niger delta
and offshore in the ocean. Refineries exist at Port Harcourt, Warri, and Kaduna.
In Nigeria many companies both domestic and foreign are engaged in the oil industry such as
shell—BP, Gulf, Mobil, Texaco, Nigerian national oil corporation. Most foreign companies
originate from Britain, USA, France, Italy, Japan, and Germany.

Apart from oil/ petroleum, Nigeria produces natural gas, a cheap clean industrial fuel. Other
important minerals in Nigeria include:

 Iron ore at Enugu and Itakpe near Lakoja

 Coal mined at Lafia and Enugu supplying power

 Tin in Baunchi on Jos plateau

A sketch map showing the distribution of minerals in Nigeria

Note: other countries producing oil in Africa include: Libya, Algeria, Egypt, Angola, Namibia,
Ivory Coast, Sudan, among others.

Process of oil drilling

 The basic equipment for oil drilling is a derrick—which is a steel tower about 40m high.

 Exploration /prospecting/survey of the oil is done and installing of the derricks/oil rigs
follows.

 The derrick carries a drill stem on which steel drilling pipes are screwed /attached, having a
drilling bit. The drilling bit is used to drill into/cut through the rock strata/layers to reach the
oil well below.

 Lubricating mud is pumped into drilling pipe to lubricate the bit and to bring up rock
samples.

 Once the bit reaches the oil stratum/layer, crude oil rushes out by natural pressure or pumped
out to the surface using oil pumps if natural pressure is weak.

 The oil is then transported through pipes, fuel tankers, trucks to the refinery.

Illustration

Transportation of oil

(a) Pipe lines

This is the cheapest and most efficient way of transporting oil. The initial cost in laying the
pipes is high but cheap in the longrun and simple to operate and maintain.
(b) Tankers

These are special cargo vessels designed to carry oil only.

(c) Oil trucks

These are more used for important delivery of the refined oil.
Marketing of oil

Oil from African countries (like Nigeria) is exported to countries like USA, United Kingdom,
Italy, France, Germany and Belgium. Nigeria became a member of OPEC (Organization of
petroleum exporting countries) in the late 1970s.

Uses of oil/ petroleum

1. Providing fuel for transport vehicles, airplanes, ships, railway transport

2. Used to generate thermal electricity used in industries, homes, and institutions

3. Oil is a lubricant in vehicles, machinery and other appliances (Greece, engine oil)

4. Used in making plastics, fertilizers, insecticides, drugs, perfumes, detergents, acids, synthetic
rubber and fibres

5. Making tar (Asphalt),

6. Making gases , and spirits

Problems of over depending on crude oil as an export

1. Price fluctuations leading to unstable incomes

2. Over exploitation of crude oil leading to quick exhaustion

3. Closure of some mines leading to problems of unemployment.

4. Over production leading to a fall in prices and low incomes

5. Competition from other producing countries leading to narrow market

6. Restrictive international commodity quotas reduce market hence low export earnings

7. Neglect of other sectors hence limited resource base

8. Competition from alternative sources of energy which limit income/ market

9. Large scale exploitation leads to environmental degradation

*Factors which have favoured the development of the mining sector in Nigeria
1. Presence of large reserves of minerals in the country. For example large reserves of oil at
Oloibiri, port Harcourt and offshore deposits.

2. Presence of adequate capital to invest in the mining sector such as oil drilling, oil refining—
provided by local and foreign investors.

3. Presence of skilled manpower to work in the mining sector, brought in by the foreign
companies and those trained locally such as engineers , geologists

4. High level/improved technology employed in mining such as oil drilling pipe technology and
refining technology.

5. Presence of a large market, both domestic and foreign. Nigeria mainly exports oil to USA,
United Kingdom, Italy, France and the rest of Africa.

6. Efficient transport system. Nigeria is not landlocked and is lucky to have oil reserves at the
coast which minimizes the transport costs to export markets.

7. Large quantities of power in form of hydro-electric power at Kainji dam on Niger River, oil
and natural gas to support the mining industry.

8. The setting up of processing industries such as the port Harcourt refinery, at Warri, and
Kaduna, to increase the quality of output.

9. Positive/ supportive government policy such as encouraging many companies to invest in the
mining sector.

10. Nigeria is also strategically located reasonably close to the markets in Western Europe, USA
and South America.

Problems resulting from oil mining (negative effects of mining sector)

1. Pollution of the environment, involving water, air and noise pollution from the mines and
processing industries.

2. Results into underdevelopment of rural areas. Distant people have been attracted to the
mining areas, hence neglecting rural activities like agriculture.

3. Dereliction of land, disfiguring of the landscape where mining has taken place. After
exhaustion of minerals, wasteland is left behind.

4. Profit repatriation by the foreign—owned companies such as shell, Texaco. These send
profits back to their home countries.

5. Resulted into income inequalities. High wages are paid to workers in the sector unlike other
sectors.
6. Results into regional imbalance in development, in terms of infrastructure. Mining zones are
more developed than other areas.

7. Urban—related problems such as unemployment, high crime rate, slum growth, among
others.

8. Results into destruction of vegetation when clearing mining sites which has damaged the
landscape and water sources.

9. Displacement of people from areas where minerals (oil wells) were discovered.

INDUSTRIALIZATION IN AFRICA

Industry involves transforming raw materials into finished or semi-finished goods. Industries are
either heavy or light industries.

Many African countries have established industries which are at different stages of development.
South Africa is the most industrialized country on the continent. Others are: Egypt, Nigeria,
Zimbabwe, Morocco, Ghana and Angola.

Industry in South Africa

Rapid industrialization has taken place in South Africa and the country is a major exporter of
industrial goods.

Distribution of industries

The heart of South African industry today lies on the Rand (Witwatersrand) and Johannesburg is
the heart of the Rand. Specifically the major industrial centres of the Rand are:

1) Johannesburg

The major industries include: iron and steel, manufacture of railway wagons, mining
machinery, vehicles, farm machinery, textiles, electricals, chemical, furniture, and cement.
2) Pretoria

This is the administrative capital of the country. The industries include: iron and steel, glass,
cement, cables, motor engineering etc
3) Vereeniging and Vanderbijl park

This is a major coal mining, engineering, and iron and steel centre. There is also tin plate
industry, manufacture of alloys.
4) Germiston

This town is a home of the Rand’s gold refinery. It produces metal goods, chemical, textiles
and foods.
5) Springs
 The main industries are: gold and coal mining, mining machinery, food processing, electrical
goods, bicycles, printing machinery, glass ware , paper etc

Apart from the Rand, other industrial zones of South Africa include:
a) Cape town

Major industries include: food processing, textiles, vehicle assembly, chemicals, leather,
printing, paper.
b) Port Elizabeth

Industries include: food processing, vehicle assembly, tyre manufacture.

c) East London

Industries include: soft drinks, furniture, building materials, textiles, vehicle assembly.
d) Durban

Industries include: ship building, oil refinery, soap manufacture, textiles, light engineering
etc

Factors which have favoured industrial development in South Africa

1. Availability of a wide variety /large quantities of raw materials used in industries to make
goods such as mineral resources, water resources, forest resources and agricultural resources.

2. Availability of various sources of power to run industrial machinery in form of coal, HEP
from Vaal dam.

3. Availability of strong capital base/ adequate capital to invest in industrial development

provided by the government and private investors.

4. Presence of skilled and unskilled labour to work in industries. The unskilled labour is
provided by the blacks and migrants from neighboring countries.

5. Well developed transport system by road, railway, water and air to transport/move inputs and
finished goods.

6. Presence of a ready/large market for produced goods, both domestic and foreign.

7. Availability of vast land for industrial establishment and expansion.

8. Supportive/positive government policies to promote home production instead of importation/

carrying out market research/encouraging investors etc.
9. High level of technology employed to improve the quality of output copied from Japan,
Europe and North America.

10. High industrial research such as on engineering technology and industrial products; to
improve the quality and quantity of output.

11. Internal competition between and among industries in South Africa; which leads to high
quality production.

Problems facing industrial development in South Africa

1. Shortage of water for industrial use especially in and near the Rand.

2. Artificial raw material shortages due to strikes leading to low output.

3. Racial segregation causing industrial strikes/riots which affect production.

4. Competition from other industrial countries which affects the exports markets for output.

5. Competition from imported industrial goods which affects the local market for the industries.

6. Inadequate supply of hydro electric power for industries which limits production.

7. Environmental pollution which affects the quality of production.

8. Dominance of foreign investors who repatriate the profits instead of investing back in the
industrial sector.

9. Fluctuations in labour supply due to migrant nature of labour which also affects industrial
production.

10. Shortage of land for industrial expansion in the highly industrialized zones.

11. High taxes imposed on industrial output and industries.

Steps taken to solve the above problems

1. Importation of raw materials to minimize domestic shortages.

2. Use of raw material saving technology such as recycling of waste material to minimize raw
material shortages.

3. Establishment of related industries which use other industrial bi-products as inputs.

4. Government efforts of sensitization to fight racial segregation to minimize industrial unrest.

5. Protection of local industries from foreign competition by levying higher taxes on similar
goods from abroad.
6. Regional cooperation to expand the markets such as south is a member of COMESA.

7. Diversification of energy sources such as nuclear energy and HEP replacing coal to increase
energy supply.

8. Treatment of industrial wastes to reduce environmental pollution.

9. Anti-pollution laws / legislation to control pollution.

10. Adopting automation of industrial activities / more use of machines to minimize labour
shortage.

11. Carrying out market research and advertising to expand market for output.

Industry in Egypt

Egypt is the second most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa; and most of the
industries are found in Lower Egypt.

The building of the Aswan dam provided power for expansion in industrial production. This has
saved the cost of importing manufactured goods.

Major industrial centres

1) Cairo

The major industries include: oil refinery, textiles, electrical engineering, iron and steel,
petro-chemical, cement, food processing, sugar refining and drinks.
2) Alexandria

This is the second after Cairo city. Industries include: oil refinery, textiles, salt industry,
chemicals, ship building and repair, food processing.

Other industrial centres apart from Cairo and Alexandria include:

 Helwan—with iron and steel industry expanded due to iron ore from Aswan and Bahariya
oasis; textiles due to cotton growing along the Nile valley.

 Port Saidi, Giza, El Mahalla el Kubra, tenth of Ramadan, Ismailiya, Kafra and El Mansura.

Factors which have influenced the distribution/location of industries in Egypt

1. Ready /large supply of raw materials to use. Industries are located where there is ready
supply of raw materials such as cotton in the Nile delta, oil refinery at Cairo and Alexandria.

2. Availability of large quantities of power to run the machines in industries. For example hydro
electric power at Aswan and oil refining at Alexandria.
3. Presence of ready/steady water supply to use as a raw material or for cooling machines. For
example from the Nile River water for use in the delta region and along the Mediterranean
coast.

4. Presence of skilled and unskilled labour to work in the industries for example Cairo and
Alexandria which are highly populated.

5. Availability of efficient/ improved transport network to transport raw materials and finished
goods such as road and railway in the Nile delta region.

6. Presence of a large local market in the highly populated areas such as Cairo, Alexandria,
Ismailiya, and Port Said has attracted industries.

7. Availability of adequate capital for industrial investment. Many investors in industries prefer
the major urban centres where capital for industrial investment is easily obtained.

8. Industrial inertia—many industries located where others exist, hence concentration of

primary and secondary industries in Alexandria and Ismailiya.

9. Political stability. Areas which are politically stable attract many industries such as in Cairo.

10. Availability of large / extensive land to set up industries. Many industries are located where
there is available land for expansion.

11. Supportive government policy towards industrial development. The government has set aside
several industrial sites in the major urban centres.

Problems resulting from the establishment of industries in Egypt

1. High rate of profit repatriation due to foreign ownership of many industries.

2. Over exploitation of resources such as minerals leading to quick depletion/ exhaustion.

3. Results into environmental pollution through dumping wastes and emission of gases.

4. Growth of slums due to shortage of accommodation for the many industrial workers.

5. Traffic congestion has resulted in the industrial towns, hence unnecessary delays.

6. Results into high level of unemployment in towns due to high rural urban migration and use
of capital intensive technology.

7. Results into regional imbalance in development in terms of infrastructure.

8. Destruction of natural vegetation and swamp reclamation when clearing industrial sites.

9. Displacement of people to provide room for industrial establishment.

10. Reduces land for other activities like farming.

11. Destruction of the ozone layer, leading to global warming.

Problems facing the industrial sector in Egypt

1. Competition from imported goods and for external markets with other industrialized
countries producing relatively cheaper goods.

2. Limited/inadequate raw materials for industrial development such as few minerals of

importance.

3. Limited capital to invest in industrial development.

4. Repatriation of profits by foreign companies which own some industries.

5. High cost of imported raw materials which affects industrial production.

6. Insecurity caused by Islamic fundamentalists and the recent change of / power struggle
government which affected industrial production.

7. Limited land area for industrial expansion in the industrialized cities.

8. Environmental pollution which affects the quality of output.

9. Limited water supply for industrial use in many parts of Egypt which limits production.

General factors limiting industrial development in Africa

1. Inadequate capital to set up large scale industries.

2. Limited skilled labour to operate especially the large scale industries.

3. Limited market domestically due to the low incomes of the people.

4. Low levels of technology leading to industrial inefficiency.

5. Landlockedness of many countries and hence high transport costs and delays.

6. Underdeveloped transport routes connecting industries and market centres.

7. Competition from well developed industrial countries in the export markets.

8. Political instability limiting investment in industries such as DRC, Liberia, and Somalia.

9. Limited industrial research and hence limited quality improvement of output.

10. Insufficient power supply to run industrial machinery.

11. Limited/inadequate basic raw materials for industries, hence limiting the quantity of output.

12. High taxes imposed on industries, hence increased cost of production.

Strategies to encourage industrial development in Africa

1. Attraction of foreign investors to raise capital and upgrade industrial production.

2. Training more local manpower to increase the quality and quantity of industrial output.

3. Formation/ strengthening of regional integrations/organizations to expand market for

industrial output.

4. Carrying out research to develop technology and increase efficiency in production.

5. Improving transport network for easy delivery of raw materials and output.

6. Carrying out market research to widen the external market for output.

7. Protection of some local industries from foreign competition by levying high taxes on similar
imported goods.

8. Diversifying the sources of energy such as use of H.E.P, oil, and nuclear energy for
industries.

9. Importation of some raw materials to supplement the limited domestic resources.

10. Diversification of the industrial sector to avoid over reliance on a few industrial products for
exports.

11. Adopting raw material saving techniques such as recycling of scrap items.

12. Automation of industrial activities/ increase mechanization to minimize labour shortage.

13. Restoring peace and stability in various parts of the respective countries to increase
confidence among industrialists.