MODULE 2

TRANSFORMER CONFIGURATION 2

Lesson 1 Parallel Operation of Transformers

Lesson 2 Three Phase Transformers

Lesson 3 Other Types (Solenoid’s, toroid’s..etc)

Lesson 4 Introduction to Relays

Module 2
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MODULE 2

AC APPARATUS & DEVICES

 INTRODUCTION

This module covers the different theories, principles of operation and

applications of single-phase transformers, parallel operation of
transformers, autotransformers, three phase transformers,
instrument transformers, circuit breakers, power relays and other
selected equipment and devices currently used in the different field
of Electrical Engineering.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the module, the student should be able to:

1. Provide the students with the applied theories and principles of

transformers and other equipment and devices currently used in the
field as basic requirements of an electrical systems.

2. To develop the students’ analytical skills and logical thinking in

exploring recent technology and its transformer application

3. Solve problems relevant to the trends on Electrical Engineering Board

Exams in AC Apparatus & Devices.

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 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in this module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited
from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your
tutor or to the College of Engineering office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your tutor during
the face-to-face meeting. If not contact your tutor at the COE office.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

 Transformer Configuration 1

Lesson 1 Parallel Operation of Transformers

Transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another, without a change in frequency, through electromagnetic induction.
The energy transfer usually takes place with a change of voltage, and
current although this is not always necessary.

Parallel Operation of Transformers

3 Common reasons for parallel operation of transfomers.

1.) Frequently, growth of load on a transmission system requires that the

transformers already installed supply an output that is greater than
for which they are designed.

-one method for remedying the situation would be to replace the

transformers with units of greater capacity.The cost of making such
changes will in many cases will be greater than if the original
trnasformer is paralled with another to carry a portion of the total
load.

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2. If the amount of power to be transformed is greater than that which

can be built into one transformer, it is necessary to use two or more units
(transformers) in parallel.

3. Since spare units transformer are nearly always required to insure

continuity of service in case of damage, it is sometimes found desirable to
supply the load through two or more units and thereby to reduce the size of
the spare unit this procedure may reduce the total installed capacity.

Note: Referred to AC Machinery by puchtein, lloyd and conrad.

What are the requirements for successful operation of trnasformer in

parallel.

1. The volatage ratings should be identical, or the same transformation

ratios.

2. The connections shoul be made with due regard to polarity.

3. Equivalent impedances should divide in inverese portion to the

current ratings.

Also:

All the conditions which apply to the parallel operation of single-phase

transformers also apply to the parallel running of 3-phase transformers but
with the following additions:

1. The voltage ratio must refer to the terminal voltage of primary and
secondary. It is obvious that this ratio may not be equal to the ratio
of the number of turns per phase.

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For example, if V1, V2 are the primary and secondary terminal voltages,
V2 V
then for Y/∆ connection, the turn ratio is  3 2
 V1  V1
 
 3
2. The phase displacement between primary and secondary voltages
must be the same for all transformers which are to be connected for
parallel operation.
3. The phase sequence must be the same.

4. All three transformers in the 3-phase transformer bank will be of the

same construction either core or shell.

Note.

(i) In dealing with 3-phase transformers, calculations are made for one
phase only. The value of equivalent impedance used is the
equivalent impedance per phase referred to secondary.

(ii) In case the impedances of primary and secondary windings are given
separately, then primary impedance must be referred to
secondary by multiplying it with (transformation ratio)2.

(iii) For Y/∆ or ∆/Y transformers, it should be remembered that the

voltage ratios as given in the questions, refer to terminal voltages
and are quite different from turn ratio.

Example 1:

A load of 500 kVA at 0.8 power factor lagging is to be shared by two three
phase transformers A and B of equal ratings. If the equivalent delta
impedances as referred to secondary are (2 + j6) Ω for A and (2 + j5) Ω for
B, calculate the load supplied by each transformer.

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Example 2:

State (i) the essential and (ii) the desirable conditions to be satisfied so that
two 3-phase transformers may operate successfully in parallel.

A 2,000-kVA transformer (A) is connected in parallel with a 4,000 kVA

transformer (B) to supply a 3-phase load of 5,000 kVA at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Determine the kVA supplied by each transformer assuming equal no-load
voltages. The percentage voltage drops in the windings at their rated loads
are as follows:

Transformer A resistance 2%; reactance 8 %

Transformer B resistance 1.6%; reactance 3 %

Example 3:

A load of 1,400 kVA at 0.866 p.f. lagging is supplied by two 3-phase

transformers of 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA capacity operating in parallel. The
ratio of transformation is the same in both: 6,600/400 delta-star. If the
equivalent secondary impedances are (0.001 + j 0.003) Ω and (0.0028 +
j0.005) Ω per phase respectively, calculate the load and power factor of
each transformer.

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Example 4:

Two 3-phase transformers A and B having the same no-load line voltage ratio
3,300/400-V supply a load of 750 kVA at 0.707 lagging when operating in
parallel. The rating of A is 500 kVA, its resistance is 2% and reactance 3%.
The corresponding values for B are 250 kVA; 1.5% resistance and reactance
4% respectively. Assuming that both transformers have star-connected
secondary windings, calculate:

(a) the load supplied by each transformer,

(b) the power factor at which each transformer is working,
(c) the secondary line voltage of the parallel circuit.

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 Transformer Configuration 2

Lesson 2 Three Phase Transformers

Large scale generation of electric power is usually 3-phase at generated

voltages of 13.2 kV, 13.8kV or somewhat higher. Transmission is generally
accomplished at higher voltages of 115, 250, 500 and 750 kV for which
purpose 3-phase transformers are necessary to step up the generated
voltage to that of the transmission line. Next, at load centers, the
transmission voltages are reduced to distribution voltages of 6,600, 4,600
and 2,300 volts. Further, at most of the consumers, the distribution voltages
are still reduced to utilization voltages of 440, 220 or 110 volts. Years ago,
it was a common practice to use suitably interconnected three single-phase
transformers instead of a single 3-phase transformer. But these days, the
latter is gaining popularity because of improvement in design and
manufacture but principally because of better acquaintance of operating
men with the three-phase type. As compared to a bank of single-phase
transformers, the main advantages of a 3 phase transformer are that it
occupies less floor space for equal rating, weighs less, costs about 15% less
and further, that only one unit is to be handled and connected.

illustrative 3phase construction

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Like single-phase transformers, the three-phase transformers are also of the

core type or shell type. The basic principle of a 3-phase transformer is
illustrated in Fig.1 in which only primary windings have been shown
interconnected in star and put across 3- phase supply. The three cores are
120° apart and their empty legs are shown in contact with each other. The
center leg, formed by these three, carries the flux produced by the three
phase currents IR, IY and IB. As at any instant IR + IY + IB = 0, hence the sum
of three fluxes is also zero. Therefore, it will make no difference if the
common leg is removed. In that case any two legs will act as the return for
the third just as in a 3-phase system any two conductors act as the return
for the current in the third conductor. This improved design is shown in Fig.
2 (a) where dotted rectangles indicate the three windings and numbers in
the cores and yokes represent the directions and magnitudes of fluxes at a
particular instant. It will be seen that at any instant, the amount of ‘up’
flux in any leg is equal to the sum of ‘down’ fluxes in the other two legs.
The core type transformers are usually wound with circular cylindrical coils.

In a similar way, three single-phase shell type transformers can be combined

together to form a 3- phase shell type unit as shown in Fig.2(b). But some
saving in iron can be achieved in constructing a single 3-phase transformer
as shown in Fig.3. It does not differ from three single-phase transformers
put side by side. Saving in iron is due to the joint use of the magnetic paths
between the coils. The three phases, in this case, are more independent
than they are in the core type transformers, because each phase has a
magnetic circuit independent of the other.

Figure 1

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Figure 2-a

Figure 2-b

Figure 3

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One main drawback in a 3-phase transformer is that if any one phase

becomes disabled, then the whole transformer has to be ordinarily removed
from service for repairs (the shell type may be operated open ∆ or Vee but
this is not always feasible). However, in the case of a 3-phase bank of
single-phase transformers, if one transformer goes out of order, the system
can still be run open-∆ at reduced capacity or the faulty transformer can be
readily replaced by a single spare.

illustrative figure 3phase 1 & 1phase

Three-phase Transformer Connections

There are various methods available for transforming 3-phase voltages to

higher or lower 3-phase voltages i.e. for handling a considerable amount of
power. The most common connections are:
(i) Y − Y (ii) ∆ − ∆ (iii) Y − ∆ (iv) ∆ − Y (v) open-delta or V − V (vi) Scott
connection or T − T connection.

Star/Star or Y/Y Connection

This connection is most economical for small, high-voltage transformers

because the number of turns/phase and the amount of insulation required is
minimum (as phase voltage is only 1/ 3 of line voltage). In Fig.4 a bank of 3
transformers connected in Y on both the primary and the secondary sides is
shown. The ratio of line voltages on the primary and secondary sides is the

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same as the transformation ratio of each transformer. However, there is a

phase shift of 30° between the phase voltages and line voltages both on the
primary and secondary sides. Of course, line voltages on both sides as well
as primary voltages are respectively in phase with each other

illustrative figure delta & wye configuration

Figure 4

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This connection works satisfactorily only if the load is balanced.

With the unbalanced load to the neutral, the neutral point shifts thereby
making the three line-to-neutral (i.e. phase) voltages unequal. The effect of
unbalanced loads can be illustrated by placing a single load between phase
(or coil) a and the neutral on the secondary side. The power to the load has
to be supplied by primary phase (or coil) A. This primary coil A cannot
supply the required power because it is in series with primaries B and C
whose secondaries are open. Under these conditions, the primary coils B and
C act as very high impedances so that primary coil A can obtain but very
little current through them from the line. Hence, secondary coil a cannot
supply any appreciable power. In fact, a very low resistance approaching a
short-circuit may be connected between point a and the neutral and only a
very small amount of current will flow. This, as said above, is due to the
reduction of voltage Ean because of neutral shift. In other words, under
short-circuit conditions, the neutral is pulled too much towards coil a. This
reduces Ean but increases Ebn and Ecn (however line voltage EAB, EBC and
ECA are unaffected).
On the primary side, EAN will be practically reduced to zero whereas E BN
and ECN will rise to nearly full primary line voltage. This difficulty of
shifting (or floating) neutral can be obviated by connecting the primary
neutral (shown dotted in the figure) back to the generator so that primary
coil A can take its required power from between its line and the neutral. It
should be noted that if a single phase load is connected between the lines a
and b, there will be a similar but less pronounced neutral shift which results
in an overvoltage on one or more transformers.

Another advantage of stabilizing the primary neutral by connecting it to

neutral of the generator is that it eliminates distortion in the secondary
phase voltages. This is explained as follows. For delivering a sine wave of
voltage, it is necessary to have a sine wave of flux in the core, but on
account of the characteristics of iron, a sine wave of flux requires a third
harmonic component in the exciting current. As the frequency of this
component is thrice the frequency of the circuit, at any given instant, it
tends to flow either towards or away from the neutral point in all the three
transformers. If the primary neutral is isolated, the triple frequency current
cannot flow. Hence, the flux in the core cannot be a sine wave and so the
voltages are distorted. But if the primary neutral is earthed i.e. joined to
the generator neutral, then this provides a path for the triple-frequency
currents and e.m.f.’s. and the difficulty is overcome. Another way of
avoiding this trouble of oscillating neutral is to provide each of the
transformers with a third or tertiary winding of relatively low kVA rating.
This tertiary winding is connected in ∆ and provides a circuit in which the

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triple-frequency component of the magnetizing current can flow (with an

isolated neutral, it could not). In that case, a sine wave of voltage applied
to the primary will result in a sine wave of phase voltage in the secondary.

As said above, the advantage of this connection is that insulation is stressed

only to the extent of line to neutral voltage i.e. 58% of the line voltage

Delta-Delta or Delta-Delta or ∆ − ∆ Connection

This connection is economical for large, low-voltage transformers in which

insulation problem is not so urgent, because it increases the number of
turns/phase. The transformer connections and voltage triangles are shown
in Fig.5. The ratio of transformation between primary and secondary line
voltage is exactly the same as that of each transformer. Further, the
secondary voltage triangle abc occupies the same relative position as the
primary voltage triangle ABC.

i.e. there is no angular displacement between the two. Moreover, there is

no internal phase shift between phase and line voltages on either side as
was the case in Y − Y connection. This connection has the following
advantages:

1. As explained above, in order that the output voltage be sinusoidal, it is

necessary that the magnetizing current of the transformer must contain a
third harmonic component. In this case, the third harmonic component of
the magnetizing current can flow in the ∆-connected transformer primaries
without flowing in the line wires. The three phases are 120° apart which is 3
× 120 = 360° with respect to the third harmonic, hence it merely circulates
in the ∆. Therefore, the flux is sinusoidal which results in sinusoidal
voltages.

2. No difficulty is experienced from unbalanced loading as was the case in Y

− Y connection. The three-phase voltages remain practically constant
regardless of load imbalance.

3. An added advantage of this connection is that if one transformer becomes

disabled, the system can continue to operate in open-delta or in V − V
although with reduced available capacity. The reduced capacity is 58%.

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Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7

Wye/Delta or Y/∆ Connection

The main use of this connection is at the substation end of the transmission
line where the voltage is to be stepped down. The primary winding is Y-
connected with grounded neutral as shown in Fig.6. The ratio between the
1
secondary and primary line voltage is times the transformation ratio of
3
each transformer. There is a 30° shift between the primary and secondary
line voltages which means that a Y − ∆ transformer bank cannot be
paralleled with either a Y − Y or a ∆ − ∆ bank. Also, third harmonic currents
flows in the ∆ to provide a sinusoidal flux.

Delta/Wye or ∆/Y Connection

This connection is generally employed where it is necessary to step up the

voltage as for example, at the beginning of high tension transmission
system. The connection is shown in Fig.7. The neutral of the secondary is
grounded for providing 3-phase 4-wire service. In recent years, this
connection has gained considerable popularity because it can be used to
serve both the 3-phase power equipment and single-phase lighting circuits.
This connection is not open to the objection of a floating neutral and
voltage distortion because the existence of a ∆-connection allows a path for
the third-harmonic currents. It would be observed that the primary and
secondary line voltages and line currents are out of phase with each other
by 30°. Because of this 30° shift, it is impossible to parallel such a bank
with a ∆ − ∆ or Y − Y bank of transformers even though the voltage ratios

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are correctly adjusted. The ratio of secondary to primary voltage is 3

times the transformation ratio of each transformer.

Example 1

A 3-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a delta-connected primary and star-

connected secondary, the line voltages being 22,000 V and 400 V
respectively. The secondary has a star connected balanced load at 0.8
power factor lagging. The line current on the primary side is 5 A. Determine
the current in each coil of the primary and in each secondary line. What is
the output of the transformer in kW ?

∆/Y is shown in the figure :

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Example 2

A 500-kVA, 3-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a voltage ratio (line voltages) of

33/11-kV and is delta/star connected. The resistances per phase are: high
voltage 35 Ω, low voltage 0.876 Ω and the iron loss is 3050 W. Calculate the
value of efficiency at full-load and one-half of full load respectively (a) at
unity p.f. and (b) 0.8 p.f.

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Example 3

A 120-kVA, 6,000/400-V, Y/Y 3-phase, 50-Hz transformer has an iron loss of

1,600 W. The maximum efficiency occurs at 3/4 full load.
Find the efficiencies of the transformer at
(i) full-load at 0.8 power factor
(ii) half-load at unity power factor
(iii) the maximum efficiency.

Example 4

A 3-phase, 6,600/415-V, 2,000-kVA transformer has a per unit resistance of

0.02 and a per unit leakage reactance of 0.1. Calculate the Cu loss and
regulation at full-load 0.8 p.f. lag.

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Example 5

A 100-kVA, 3-phase, 50-Hz 3,300/400 V transformer is ∆-connected on the

h.v. side and Y-connected on the l.v. side. The resistance of the h.v.
winding is 3.5 Ω per phase and that of the l.v. winding 0.02 Ω per phase.
Calculate the iron losses of the transformer at normal voltage and frequency
if its full-load efficiency be 95.8% at 0.8 p.f. (lag).

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 Transformer Configuration 2

Lesson 3 Other Types, (Solenoids, toroids..etc)

Coils are not a very common component in electronic circuits, however

when they are used, they need to be understood. They are encountered in
oscillators, radio-receivers, transmitter and similar devices containing
oscillatory circuits. In amateur devices, coils can be made by winding one or
more layers of insulated copper wire onto a former such as PVC, cardboard,
etc. Factory-made coils come in different shapes and sizes, but the common
feature for all is an insulated body with turns of copper wire.

The basic characteristic of every coil is its inductance. Inductance is

measured in Henry (H), but more common are millihenry (mH)
and microhenry (µH) as one Henry is quite a high inductance value. As a
reminder:

1H = 1000mH = 106 µH.

Coil inductance is marked by XL, and can be calculated using the following
formula:

where f represents the frequency of the voltage in Hz and the L represents

the coil inductance in H.

For example, if f equals 684 kHz, while L=0.6 mH, coil impedance will be:

The same coil would have three times higher impedance at three times
higher frequency. As can be seen from the formula above, coil impedance is
in direct proportion to frequency, so that coils, as well as capacitors, are
used in circuits for filtering at specified frequencies. Note that coil
impedance equals zero for DC (f=0).

Several coils are shown on the figures 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4.

The simplest coil is a single-layer air core coil. It is made on a cylindrical

insulator (PVC, cardboard, etc.), as shown in figure 3.1. In the figure 3.1a,
turns have space left between them, while the common practice is to wind

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the wire with no space between turns. To prevent the coil unwinding, the
ends should be put through small holes as shown in the figure.

Figure 3.1b shows how the coil is made. If the coil needs 120 turns with a
tapping on the thirtieth turn, there are two coils L1 with 30 turns and L2
with 90 turns. When the end of the first and the beginning of the second coil
are soldered, we get a "tapping."

A multilayered coil is shown in figure 3.2a. The inside of the plastic former
has a screw-thread, so that the ferromagnetic core in the shape of a small
screw can be inserted. Screwing the core moves it along the axis and into
the center of the coil to increase the inductance. In this manner, fine
changes to the inductance can be made.

Figure 3.2b shows a high-frequency transformer. As can be seen, these are

two coils are coupled by magnetic induction on a shared body. When the
coils are required to have exact inductance values, each coil has a
ferromagnetic core that can be adjusted along the coil axis.

At very high frequencies (above 50MHz) coil inductance is small, so coils

need only a few turns. These coils are made of thick copper wire (approx.

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0.5mm) with no coil body, as shown on the figure 3.3a. Their inductance can
be adjusted by physically stretching or squeezing the turns together.

Figure 3.3b shows a metal casing containing two coils, with the schematic
on the right. The parallel connection of the first coil and capacitor C forms
an oscillatory circuit. The second coil is used for transferring the signal to
the next stage. This is used in radio-receivers and similar devices. The metal
casing serves as a screen to prevent external signals affecting the coils. For
the casing to be effective, it must be earthed.

Fig 3.4 shows a "pot core" inductor. The core is made in two halves and are
glued together. The core is made of ferromagnetic material, commonly
called "ferrite." These inductors are used at frequencies up to 100kHz.
Adjustment of the inductance can be made by the brass or steel screw in
the center of the coil.

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Other types of transformers…

For electronic devices to function it is necessary to have a DC power supply.

Batteries and rechargeable cells can fulfill the role, but a much more
efficient way is to use a POWER SUPPLY. The basic component of a power
supply is a transformer to transform the 220V "mains" to a lower value, say
12V. A common type of transformer has one primary winding which connects
to the 220V and one (or several) secondary windings for the lower voltages.
Most commonly, cores are made of E and I laminations, but some are made
of ferromagnetic material. There are also iron core transformers used for
higher frequencies. Various types of transformers are shown on the picture
below.

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Toroidal inductors and transformers

are inductors and transformers which use magnetic cores with
a toroidal (ring or donut) shape. They are passive electronic components,
consisting of a circular ring or donut shaped magnetic
core of ferromagnetic material such as laminated iron, iron powder,
or ferrite, around which wire is wound.
Although in the past, closed-core inductors and transformers often used
cores with a square shape, the use of toroidal-shaped cores has increased
greatly because of their superior electrical performance. The advantage of
the toroidal shape is that, due to its symmetry, the amount of magnetic
flux that escapes outside the core (leakage flux) is low, therefore it is more
efficient and thus radiates less electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Toroidal inductors and transformers are used in a wide range of electronic
circuits: power supplies, inverters, and amplifiers, which in turn are used in
the vast majority of electrical equipment: TVs, radios, computers,
and audio systems.

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
Three Phase Transformers

Coordinate system. The Z axis is the nominal axis of symmetry. The X axis
chosen arbitrarily to line up with the starting point of the winding. ρ is
called the radial direction. θ is called the circumferential direction.

A toroidally shaped inductor and definition of the cylindrical coordinate

system used for this section. Caption Cylindrical coordinates are used. The Z
axis is the nominal axis of symmetry. The X axis chosen arbitrarily to line up
with the starting point of the winding. ρ is called the radial direction. θ is
called the circumferential direction.

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 Transformer Configuration 2

Lesson 4 Introduction to Relays

Relays are compact analog, digital, and numerical devices that are
connected throughout the power system to detect intolerable or unwanted
conditions within an assigned area. They are, in effect, a form of active
insurance designed to maintain a high degree of service continuity and limit
equipment damage. They are “Silent Sentinels”.

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS

1. Protective Relays
2. Monitoring Relays
3. Reclosing Relays
4. Regulating Relays
5. Auxiliary Relays
6. Synchronizing Relays

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS

1. PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Detect defective lines, defective apparatus, or other dangerous or
intolerable conditions. These relays generally trip one or more circuit
breakers, but may also be used to sound an alarm

2. VERIFICATION OR MONITORING RELAYS

One whose functions is to verify power system conditions with respect
to prescribed limits and to initiate or permit automatic functions other than
opening a circuit breaker during fault conditions. These relays includes fault
detectors, alarm units, channel-monitoring relays, synchronism verification,
and network phasing.

3. RECLOSING RELAYS
Establish reclosing sequence for a circuit breaker following tripping
by protective relays.

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4. REGULATING RELAYS
Are activated when an operating parameter deviates from
predetermined limits. Regulating relays function through supplementary
equipment to restore the quantity to the prescribed limits.
Ex: OFR, UFR (Under or Over Frequency Relay)

5.AUXILLARY RELAYS
Operates in response to the opening or closing of the operating circuit
to supplement or assist another relay or device. These include timers,
contacts-multiplier relays, sealing units, isolating relays, lockout relays,
closing relays and trip relays.

6.SYNCHRONIZING RELAYS
Assure that proper conditions exist for interconnecting two sections
of a power system.
Ex: Synchro check relay

THREE MEMBERS OF PROTECTION

• SENSOR - Feeds system information to the relay

• Ex: CT, PT
• RELAY – makes a decision as to the need for action
• Ex: OCR, Distance/Differential/Voltage relays
• SWITCHING OR CONTROLLING DEVICE – physically isolates or control
the problem
• Ex: Circuit Breaker

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1) Master Element is the initiating device, such as a control switch, voltage

relay, float switch, etc., which serves either directly or through such
permissive devices as protective and time -delay relays to place an
equipment in or out of operation.

2) Time Delay Starting or Closing Relay is a device that functions to give a

desired amount of time delay before or after any point of operation in
switching sequence or protective relay system, except as specifically
provided by service function 48, 62, and 79.

3) Checking or Interlocking Relay is a relay that operates in response to the

position of a number of other devices (or to a number of predetermined
conditions) in an equipment, to allow an operating sequence to proceed, or
to stop, or to provide a check of the position of these devices or of these
conditions for any purpose.

4) Master Contactor is a device generally controlled by device function 1or

the equivalent and the required permissive and protective devices, that
serves to make and break the necessary control circuits to place an
equipment into operation under the desired conditions and to take it out of
operation under other or abnormal conditions.

5) Stopping Device is a control device used primarily to shut down an

equipment and hold it out of operation. (This device may be manually or
electrically actuated, but excludes the function of electrical lockout [see
device function 86] on abnormal conditions.)

6) Starting Circuit Breaker is a device whose principal function is to connect

a machine to its source of starting voltage.

7) Anode Circuit Breaker is a device used in the anode circuits of a power

rectifier for the primary purpose of interrupting the rectifier circuit if an
arc-back should occur.

8) Control Power Disconnecting Device is a disconnecting device, such as a

knife switch, circuit breaker, or pull-out fuse block, used for the purpose of
respectively connecting and disconnecting the source of control power to
and from the control bus or equipment. Note: control power is considered to
include auxiliary power which supplies such apparatus as small motors and
heaters.

9) Reversing Device is a device that is used for the purpose of reversing a

machine field or for performing any other reversing functions.

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10) Unit Sequence Switch is a switch that is used to change the sequence in
which units may be placed in and out of service in multiple-unit equipment

11) Reserved for Future Application (USBR assigned - Control Power

Transformer).

12) Over-Speed Device is usually a direct-connected speed switch which

functions on machine over-speed.

13) Synchronous-Speed Device is a device such as a centrifugal switch, a

slip-frequency relay, a voltage relay, and undercurrent relay, or any type of
device that operates at approximately the synchronous speed of a machine.

14) Under-Speed Device is a device that functions when the speed of a

machine fall below a pre -determined value.

15) Speed or Frequency Matching Device is a device that functions to match

and hold the speed or frequency of a machine or of a system equal to, or
approximately equal to, that of another machine, source, or system.

16) Reserved for Future Application (USBR assigned - Battery Charging

Device).

17) Shunting or Discharge Switch is a switch that serves to open or to close a

shunting circuit around any piece of apparatus (except a resistor, such as a
machine field, a machine armature, a capacitor, or a reactor). Note: This
excludes devices that perform such shunting operations as may be necessary
in the process of starting a machine by devices 6 or 42, or their equivalent,
and also excludes device function 73 that serves for the switching of
resistors.

18) Accelerating or Decelerating Device is a device that is used to close or

to cause the closing of circuits which are used to increase or decrease the
speed of a machine.

19) Starting-to-Running Transition Contactor is a device that operates to

initiate or cause the automatic transfer of a machine from the starting to
the running power connection.

20) Valve is one used in a vacuum, air, gas, oil, or similar line, when it is
electrically operated or has electrical accessories such as auxiliary switches.

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21) Distance Relay is a relay that functions when the circuit admittance,
impedance, or reactance increases or decreases beyond predetermined
limits.

22) Equalizer Circuit Breaker is a breaker that serves to control or to make

and break the equalizer or the current-balancing connections for a machine
field, or for regulating equipment in a multiple -unit installation.

23) Temperature Control Device is a device that function to raise or lower

the temperature of a machine or other apparatus, or of any medium, when
its temperature falls below, or rises above, a predetermined value. Note: An
example is a thermostat that switches on a space heater in a switchgear
assembly when the temperature falls to a desired value as distinguished
from a device that is used to provide automatic temperature regulation
between close limits and would be designated as device function 90T.

24) Reserved for future Application. (USBR assigned - bus tie circuit
breaker, contactor, or switch.)

25) Synchronizing or Synchronism-Check Device is a device that operates

when two a-c circuits are within the desired limits of frequency, phase
angle, or voltage, to permit or to cause the paralleling of these two circuits

26) Apparatus Thermal Device is a device that functions when the

temperature of the shunt field or the amortisseur winding of a machine, or
that of a load limiting or load shifting resistor or of a liquid or other
medium, exceeds a predetermined value: or if the temperature of the
protected apparatus, such as a power rectifier, or of any medium decrease
below a predetermined value.

27) Undervoltage Relay is a relay that functions on a given value of under-

voltage.
28) Flame Detector is a device that monitors the presence of the pilot or
main flame of such apparatus as a gas turbine or a steam boiler.

29) Isolating Contactor is a device that is used expressly for disconnecting

one circuit from another for the purposes of emergency operation,
maintenance, or test.

30) Annunciator Relay is a non-automatically reset device that gives a

number of separate visual indications of the functions of protective devices,
and which may also be arranged to perform a lockout function.

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31) Separate Excitation Device is a device that connects a circuit, such as

the shunt field of a synchronous converter, to a source of separate
excitation during the starting sequence; or one that energizes the excitation
and ignition circuits of a power rectifier.

32) Directional Power Relay is a device that functions on a desired value of

power flow in a given direction or upon reverse power resulting from
arcback in the anode or cathode circuits of a power rectifier.

33) Position Switch is a switch that makes or breaks contact when the main
device or piece of apparatus which has no device function number reaches a
given position.

34) Master Sequence Device is a device such as a motor-operated multi-

contact switch, or the equivalent, or programming device, such as a
computer, that establishes or determines the operating sequence of the
major devices in a equipment during starting and stopping or during other
sequential switch operations.

35) Brush-Operating or Slipping Short-Circuiting Device is a device for

raising, lowering, or shifting the brushes of a machine, or for short-
circuiting its slip rings, or for engaging or disengaging the contacts of a
mechanical rectifier.

36) Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Device is a device that operates, or

permits the operation of, another device on a predetermined polarity only,
or verifies the presence of a polarizing voltage in an equipment.

37) Undercurrent or Underpower Relay is a relay that function when the

current or power flow decreases below a predetermined value.

38) Bearing Protective Device is a device that functions on excessive bearing

temperature, or on another abnormal mechanical conditions associated with
the bearing, such as undue wear, which may eventually result in excessive
bearing temperature.

39) Mechanical Condition Monitor is a device that functions upon the

occurrence of an abnormal mechanical condition (except that associated
with bearing as covered under device function 38), such as excessive
vibration, eccentricity, expansion shock, tilting, or seal failure.

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40) Field Relay is a relay that functions on a given or abnormally low value
or failure of a machine field current, or on excessive value of the reactive
component of armature current in an a-c machine indicating abnormally low
field excitation.

41) Field Circuit Breaker is a device that functions to apply or remove the
field excitation of a machine.

42) Running Circuit Breaker is a device whose principal function is to

connect a machine to its source of running or operation voltage. This
function may also be used for a device, such as a contactor, that is used in
series with a circuit breaker or other field protecting means, primarily for
frequent opening and closing of the breaker.

43) Manual Transfer or Selector Device is a manually operated device that

transfers the control circuits in order to modify the plan of operation of the
switching equipment or of some of the devices.

44) Unit Sequence Starting Relay is a relay that function to start the next
available unit in a multiple-unit equipment upon the failure or non-
availability of the normally preceding unit.

45) Atmospheric Condition Monitor is a device, that functions upon the

occurrence of an abnormal atmospheric condition, such as damaging fumes,
explosive mixtures, smoke or fire.

46) Reverse Phase or Phase Balance Current Relay is a relay that functions
when the polyphase currents are of reverse-phase sequence, or when the
polyphase currents are unbalanced or contain negative phase-sequence
components above a given amount.

47) Phase-Sequence Voltage Relay is a relay that function upon a

predetermined value of polyphase voltage in the desired phase sequence.
48) Incomplete Sequence Relay is a relay that generally returns the
equipment to the normal, or off, position and locks it out if the normal
starting, operating, or stopping sequence is not properly completed within a
predetermined time. If the device is used for alarm purposes only, it should
preferably be designated as 48A (alarm).

49) Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay is a relay that functions when the
temperature of a machine armature or other load-carrying winding or
element of a machine or the temperature of a power rectifier or power

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transformer (including a power rectifier transformer) exceeds a

predetermined value.

50) Instantaneous Overcurrent or Rate -of-Rise Relay is a relay that

functions instantaneously on an excessive value of current or on an
excessive rate of current rise, thus indicating a fault in the apparatus or
circuit being protected.

51) A-C Time Overcurrent Relay is a relay with either a definite or inverse
time characteristic that functions when the current in an a-c circuit exceed
a predetermined value.

52) A-C Circuit Breaker is a device that is used to close and interrupt an a-c
power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this circuit under fault
of emergency conditions.

53) Exciter or D-C Generator Relay is a relay that forces the d-c machine
field excitation to build up during starting or which functions when the
machine voltage has been built up to a given value.

54) High-Speed D-C Circuit Breaker is a circuit breaker which starts to

reduce the current in the main circuit in 0.01 second or less, after the
occurrence of the d-c overcurrent or the excessive rate of current rise.

55) Power Factor Relay is a relay that operates when the power factor in an
a-c circuit rises above or falls below a predetermined value.

56) Field Application Relay is a relay that automatically controls the

application of the field excitation to an a-c motor at some predetermined
point in the slip cycle.

57) Short-Circuiting or Grounding Device is a primary circuit switching

device that functions to short-circuit or to ground a circuit in response to
automatic or manual means.
58) Rectification Failure Relay is a device that functions if one or mote
anodes of a power rectifier fail to fire, or to detect and arc-back or on
failure of a diode to conduct or lock properly.

59) Overvoltage Relay is a relay that functions on a given value of over-

voltage.

60) Voltage or Current Balance Relay is a relay that operates on a given

difference in voltage, or current input or output, or two circuits.

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61) Reserved for Future Application.

62) Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay is a time-delay relay that serves

in conjunction with the device that initiates the shutdown, stopping, or
opening operation in an automatic sequence or protective relay system.

63) Liquid or Gas Pressure or Vacuum Relay is a relay that operates on given
values of liquid or gas pressure or on given rates of change of these values.

64) Ground Protective Relay is a relay that functions on failure of the

insulation of a machine, transformer, or of other apparatus to ground, or on
flashover of a d-c machine to ground. Note: This function is assigned only to
a relay that detects the flow of current from the frame of a machine or
enclosing case or structure of piece of apparatus to ground, or detects a
ground on a normally ungrounded winding or circuit. It is not applied to a
device connected in the secondary circuit of current transformer, in the
secondary neutral of current transformers, connected in the power circuit of
a normally grounded system.

65) Governor is the assembly of fluid, electrical, or mechanical control

equipment used for regulating the flow of water, steam, or other medium to
the prime mover for such purposes a starting, holding speed or load, or
stopping.

66) Notching or Jogging Device is a device that functions to allow only a

specified number of operations of a given device or equipment, or a
specified number of successive operations within a given time of each other.
It is also a device that functions to energize a circuit periodically or for
fractions of specified time intervals, or that is used to permit intermittent
acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds for mechanical
positioning.

67) A-C Directional Overcurrent Relay is a relay that functions on a desired

value of a-c over-current flowing in a predetermined direction.

68) Blocking Relay is a relay that initiates a pilot signal for blocking of
tripping on external faults in a transmission line or in other apparatus under
predetermined condition, or cooperates with other devices to block tripping
or to block re-closing on an out-of-step condition or on power savings.

69) Permissive Control Device is generally a two-position, manually-

operated switch that, in one position, permits the closing of a circuit

EE 145 AC APP. & DEVICES Module 2

 35

breaker, or the placing of an equipment into operation, an in the other

position prevents the circuit breaker or the equipment from being operated.

70) Rheostat is a variable resistance device used in an electric circuit, which

is electrically operated or has other electrical accessories, such an auxiliary,
position, or limit switches.

71) Liquid or Gas-Level Relay is a relay that operates on given values of

liquid or gas level or on given rates of change of these values.

72) D-C Circuit Breaker is a circuit breaker that is used to close and
interrupt a d-c power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this
circuit under fault or emergency conditions.

73) Load-Resistor Contactor is a contactor that is used to shunt or insert a

step of load limiting, shifting, or indicating resistance in a power circuit, or
to switch a space heater in circuit, or to switch a light or regenerative load
resistor, a power rectifier, or other machine in and out of circuit.

74) Alarm Relay is a relay other than an annunciator, as covered under

device function 30, that is used to operate, or to operate in connection
with, a visual or audible alarm.

75) Position Changing Mechanism is a mechanism that is used for moving a

main device from one position to another in an equipment: as for example,
shifting a removable circuit breaker unit to and from the connected,
disconnected, and test positions.

76) D-C Overcurrent Relay is a relay that function when the current in a d-c
circuit exceeds a given value.

77) Pulse Transmitter is used to generate and transmit pulses over a

telemetering or pilot-wire circuit to the remote indicating or receiving
device.

78) Phase-Angle Measuring or Out-Of-Step Protective Relay is a relay that

functions at a pre-determined phase angle between two voltages or
between two currents or between a voltage and current.

79) A-C Reclosing Relay is a relay that controls the automatic reclosing and
locking out of an a-c circuit interrupter.

EE 145 AC APP. & DEVICES Module 2

 36

80) Liquid or Gas Flow Relay is a relay that operates on given values of
liquid or gas flow or on given rates of change of these values.

81) Frequency Relay is a relay that functions on a predetermined value of

frequency (either under or over or on normal system frequency) or rate of
change of frequency.

82) D-C Reclosing Relay is a relay that controls the automatic closing and re-
closing of a d-c circuit interrupter, generally in response to load circuit
conditions.

83) Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay is a relay that operates to

select automatically between certain sources or conditions in a equipment,
or performs a transfer operation automatically.

84) Operating Mechanism is the complete electrical mechanism or

servomechanism, including the operating motor, solenoids, position
switches, etc., for a tap changer, induction regulator, or any similar piece
of apparatus which otherwise has no device function number.

85) Carrier or Pilot-Wire Receiver Relay is a relay that is operated or

restrained by a signal used in connection with carrier-current or d-c pilot-
wire fault directional relaying.

86) Locking-Out Relay is an electrically operated hand, or electrically reset

relay or device that functions to shut down or hold an equipment out of
service, or both, upon the occurrence of abnormal conditions.

87) Differential Protective Relay is a protective relay that functions on a

percentage or phase angle or other quantitative difference of two currents
or of some other electrical quantities.
88) Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator is one used for operating auxiliary
equipment, such as pumps, blowers, exciters, rotating magnetic amplifiers,
etc.

89) Line Switch is a switch used as a disconnecting, load-interrupter, or

isolating switch in an a-c or d-c power circuit, when this device is
electrically operated or has electrical accessories, such as an auxiliary
switch, magnetic lock, etc.

90) Regulating Device is a device that functions to regulate a quantity, or

quantities, such as voltage, current power, speed, frequency, temperature,

EE 145 AC APP. & DEVICES Module 2

 37

and load at a certain value or between certain (generally close) limits for
machines, tie lines, or other apparatus.

91) Voltage Directional Relay is a device which operates when the voltage
across an open circuit breaker or contactor exceeds a given value in a given
direction.

92) Voltage and Power Directional Relay is a relay that permits or causes the
connection of two circuits when the voltage difference between them
exceed a given value in a predetermined direction and causes these two
circuits to be disconnected from each other when the power flowing
between them exceeds a given value in the opposite direction.

93) Field-Changing Contactor is a contactor that functions to increase or

decrease, in one step, the value of field excitation on a machine.

94) Tripping or Trip-Free Relay is a relay that function to trip a circuit

breaker, contactor or equipment, or to permit immediate tripping by other
devices; or to prevent immediate re -closure of a circuit interrupter if it
should open automatically even though its closing circuit is maintained
closed.

95*) (USBR assigned - Closing Relay or Contactor)

96*)
97*)
98*) (USBR assigned - Loss of Excitation Relay)
99*) (USBR assigned - Arc Detector)

* Used only for specific applications in individual installations where none of

the assigned numbered functions from 1 to 94 are suitable.
Auxiliary Devices - These letters denote separate auxiliary devices, such as:

C Closing Relay or Contactor

CL Auxiliary Relay, Closed (energized when main device is in closed
position).
CS Control Switch
D “Down” Position Switch or Relay
L Lowering Relay

EE 145 AC APP. & DEVICES Module 2

 38

1..Opening Relay
OP Auxiliary Relay, Open (energized when main device is in open position).
PB Push Button
R Raising Relay
U “Up” Position Switch or Relay
X Auxiliary Relay
Y Auxiliary Relay
Z Auxiliary Relay

Note:
In the control of a circuit breaker with an X-Y Relay Control Scheme, the X
relay is the device whose main contacts are used to energized the closing
coil or the device which in some other manner, such as by the release of
stored energy, causes the breaker to close. The contacts of the Y relay
provide the anti-pump feature for the circuit breaker.

 MODULE SUMMARY

In Module 2 for transformer configuration 2 there are 4 lessons

discussed to broaden the knowledge of our students containing the different
learning aspects. Lesson 1 is parallel operation of transformer that
configures the different conditions on load sharing of transformer
withstanding the transformer name plating, which means there are
limitations to this conditions not on a long time condition but for initial
remedy to the maximize the load of a certain design. Lesson 2 is three-
phase transformer that deals on single-phase banking of transformer to
three-phase transformer with different connection that fits to most likely
design preferences and a transformer three-phase that consolidate as a
whole design into all-in-one design. Lesson 3 is just an additional
consolidation of other application of the design of transformer that is in a
smaller scale level but has the same principle and construction. Solenoids,
toroid design usually apply on lesson 4 which is the introduction to relays
depending also on its function or application whether on protection,
verification or commonly called monitoring relays, some are used for closing
or reclosing relays, others are for regulating relays, and some are commonly
for add-ons to the standard function as auxiliary relays and for the
generation side is a function of synchronization relays that a certain
procedure or step-by-step protocol on the operation must be considered in
which a detailed discussion will later on be discussed on Electrical
Equipment & Maintenance subject

EE 145 AC APP. & DEVICES Module 2

 39

Congratulations! You have just studied Module 2. now you are ready
to evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering
the summative test. Good Luck!!!

 SUMMATIVE TEST

1. What are the different types of relays and their specific

function?

2. State individually the conditions in paralleling a transformer,

when is it necessary to parallel a transformer?

3. When is the condition and necessary to connect an open-delta


connection of a transformer?

SUMMATIVE TEST
4. Two transformers are connected in parallel to support a
common load of 175KVA. Transformer A is rated 100KVA with
equivalent impedance of 9.6 ohms while transformer B is rated
75 KVA with equivalent impedance of 12.5 ohms. Find the KVA
load of each transformer. (76.02KVA)

5. Two single-phase transformers in an open-delta bank served a

three-phase balanced load of 43.3 KVA.

a.) What should be the KVA rating of each transformer?

b.) If a third transformer is added for delta operation, what is
the rated capacity of the bank?
c.) What is the percent increase in load does this represent?

EE 145 AC APP. & DEVICES Module 2

 40

Referencess:

1. Books: Electrical Technology by B.L. Theraja

2. Power Plant Engineering by A.K. Raja, Amit Prakash Srivastava, Manish
Dwivedi
Published by, New Age International Limited Publishers, 1 st Ed.
3. V. Ganapathy,” Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators:
Design,
Applications, and Calculations” published by: Marcel Dekker,
Inc,latest edition 2015.
4. M.M. EI-Wakil” “Power Plant Technology published by: McGraw
Hill,1st Ed.
5. Electrical Power Systems,by New Age International, Pvt.Ltd
Publishers 2020
6. Principles of Power system by V.K. Mehta.pd
7. I S 2026-1977-Specification for Power Transformer.
8. BEE CODE Transformer-latest edition
9. ). Electrical Machines (J.B. Gupta),latest edition

10. Online Resources: Google and e-books downloadable on net.

EE 145 AC APP. & DEVICES Module 2