energies
Article
Correlations for Convective Laminar Heat Transfer of Carreau
Fluid in Straight Tube Flow
Sun Kyoung Kim






Citation: Kim, S.K. Correlations for
Convective Laminar Heat Transfer of
Carreau Fluid in Straight Tube Flow.
Energies 2022, 15, 2368. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en15072368
Academic Editor: Mikhail Sheremet
Received: 7 February 2022
Accepted: 21 March 2022
Published: 24 March 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 2368. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072368
Department of Mechanical System Design Engineering, Seoul National University of Science and Technology,
Dasan Bldg. Room 234, 232 Gonreung-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul 01811, Korea; sunkkim@seoultech.ac.kr
Abstract: Correlations for the Nusselt number for the fully-developed laminar flow of Carreau fluids
through circular pipe subject to a uniform heat flux have been sought. Based on the mathematical
expression, the Nusselt number could be obtained by numerical integration. To evaluate the Nusselt
number for many conditions, an efficient integration method has been proposed. Using the obtained
Nusselt number for different material constants and flow conditions, an improved correlation method
has been proposed. The proposed correlation could reduce the maximum error from 3% to 0.9%.
Keywords: nusselt number; carreau fluid; laminar flow; circular tube; correlation
1. Introduction
The convective laminar fully-developed flow through a circular tube has been a basic
element in heat transfer engineering. Especially for non-Newtonian fluids, it requires
complicated analyses, even for laminar flows [1,2]. The convective heat transfer of non-
Newtonian fluids takes place in flows of blood, polymeric liquids, slurries, and so on. For
the uniform heat flux and temperature conditions, the heat transfer coefficient is constant
for a Newtonian and power-law fluid as long as the laminar condition is maintained.
However, for other non-Newtonian fluids, the heat transfer coefficient can vary along
with the flow condition. Especially in many polymer and slurry processes, temperature
variation is important to control the process conditions. In earlier studies, it has been
found that the Nusselt number increases from the Newtonian value to the power law value
for nonlinear shear-thinning models without truncation [3]. In this case, the transition
is a smooth ramping-up along with the shear rate [4]. However, with the truncation,
the Nusselt number changes over a wide range of shear rates, resulting in a nonlinear
curve with a rise and fall [5]. Although the power law model is still employed in heat
transfer analyses for complicated geometries [6,7] or physical circumstances [8], modern
heat transfer engineering requires more accurate Nusselt numbers.
To obtain a more accurate value of the Nusselt number for a given flow of complicated
non-Newtonian fluids, one can obtain the value by a numerical calculation, from tables
or graphs in existing works, or using an approximate formula. The Nusselt numbers for
various types of conduits have been numerically evaluated for different non-Newtonian
models. For example, tubes under the uniform heat flux [5] and uniform temperature [9],
slits under the uniform heat flux [10], and rectangular ducts under uniform heat flux and
temperature [11] have been investigated. A fully developed flow in tube is governed by a
nonlinear ordinary differential equation. Since no time marching is necessary, the numerical
procedure seems simple. However, it still requires iterations to resolve the nonlinearity.
Moreover, the value should be acquired when the mesh refinement no longer changes the
solution. In other words, mesh convergence should be achieved.
An approximate method using the apparent index was proposed for the tube flow
and the slit flow [5,12]. In this method, the results were verified by comparison with the
numerical results. The method was beneficially applied to various constitutive equations.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
 An approximate method using the apparent index was proposed for the tube flow
and the slit flow [5,12]. In this method, the results were verified by comparison with the
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 numerical results. The method was beneficially applied to various constitutive equations. 2 of 13
In particular, the results for the Carreau-Yasuda model [13], which is inclusive of the Cross
model [14] and the Carreau models [15], were presented in [5]. A further rheological ex-
planation
In particular, of those models
the results forcanthebe found in [16,17].
Carreau-Yasuda Although
model the approximate
[13], which is inclusive of results are
the Cross
close to those of the numerical method, significant bias can
model [14] and the Carreau models [15], were presented in [5]. A further rheological also be observed. Recently, it
has been shown that the Nusselt number under the uniform
explanation of those models can be found in [16,17]. Although the approximate results areheat flux condition (UHF)
can beto
close obtained
those offor thetube flow of method,
numerical the Carreau model only
significant biasbycannumerical integration
also be observed. withoutit
Recently,
any
has been shown that the Nusselt number under the uniform heat flux condition (UHF)was
numerical method such as the finite difference and finite element methods. This can
facilitated
be obtained byfor
a semi-analytical
tube flow of themethod Carreauinmodelthe shear
onlyrate domain. Using
by numerical this method,
integration withoutitany is
possible to quickly obtain the Nusselt numbers in many cases with
numerical method such as the finite difference and finite element methods. This was facili- different model con-
stants.
tated by a semi-analytical method in the shear rate domain. Using this method, it is possible
This work
to quickly obtainattempts to improve
the Nusselt numbers theinaccuracy
many casesof the
withexisting apparent
different model index method
constants.
[12] by This work attempts to improve the accuracy of the existing apparent index method has
introducing a modified functional form. Moreover, the semi-analytical method [12]
been employed atomodified
by introducing determine the coefficients
functional reliably. the
form. Moreover, Earlier, this method
semi-analytical was proposed
method has been
in [1] and applied
employed to the flow
to determine modeling ofreliably.
the coefficients polymer processing
Earlier, [18]. Later,
this method wasdescribed
proposedagain in [1]
in [19]
and and more
applied to therecently, it has been
flow modeling applied processing
of polymer to the evaluation of friction
[18]. Later, factors
described again[20]inand
[19]
heat transfer coefficients [5,12]. Although the demand for the correlations
and more recently, it has been applied to the evaluation of friction factors [20] and heat for the tube is
high, it is difficult to find correlations with improved accuracy.
transfer coefficients [5,12]. Although the demand for the correlations for the tube is high, it
In this to
is difficult work,
find the apparentwith
correlations indeximproved
method isaccuracy.
modified by correcting the shear rate and
the truncation
In this work, termthefollowing
apparent theindex
indexmethod
of the Carreau model.
is modified Moreover,the
by correcting to determine
shear rate andthe
model coefficients,
the truncation termthe semi-analytical
following the indexmethod has beenmodel.
of the Carreau employed insteadtoofdetermine
Moreover, the numeri- the
model
cal method coefficients,
for solvingthe asemi-analytical
differential equation.method This
has been
workemployed
utilizes aninstead of the
adaptive numerical
quadrature-
method
based for solving
integration a differential
method, which isequation.
describedThis worklater.
in detail utilizes
Thisan adaptive
allows quadrature-
reliable and fast
based integration method, which is described in detail later.
estimations of the Nusselt number for various cases. To validate the proposed method, This allows reliable and fast
estimations
the result is alsoof the Nusselt number
compared with that forinvarious cases. work.
the previous To validate the proposed method, the
result is also compared with that in the previous work.
2. Formulation
2. Formulation
2.1. Flow
2.1. Flow
Consider a fully-developed laminar flow through a circular tube shown in Figure 1.
Consider a fully-developed laminar flow through a circular tube shown in Figure 1. A
A velocity profile is expressed as 𝑢(𝑟) because of the fully developed condition,
velocity profile is expressed as u(r ) because of the fully developed condition, ∂u/∂x = 0.
𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑥 = 0. Moreover, the no-slip condition, 𝑢(𝑅) = 0, is imposed on the tube wall. The
Moreover, the no-slip condition, u( R) = 0, is imposed on the tube wall. The total flow rate,
total flow rate, Q, is specified.
Q, is specified.
uniform heat flux on the tube wall q′′s

tube wall no slip u ( R ) = 0 r=R

r u (r )
constant flow rate
Q
axis of symmetry x
steady fully developed laminar flow though a straight circular tube

tube wall

Figure
Figure1.1.Outline
Outlineof
ofthe
thefully-developed
fully-developedflow
flowsubject
subjectto
tothe
theuniform
uniformheat
heatflux
fluxin
inaacircular
circular tube.
tube.

2.2.Temperature
2.2. Temperature
Inthis
In thissection,
section,the
theexpressions
expressionsfor
forthethevelocity
velocityand
andthe
theflow
flowrate
rateare
arederived
derivedbased
basedonon
theshear
the shearrate
rateinstead
insteadofofthe
theposition
positionvariable
variable[21].
[21].The
Thecore
coreflow
flowrate
rateisisdefined
definedhere,
here,and
and
itsmathematical
its mathematicalformformisisderived
derivedusing
usingthe theexpressions
expressions for
for the
the velocity
velocity and
and the
the flow
flow rate.
rate.
The energy equation for temperature field, T (r ), in the fully developed laminar regime
without heat generation is of the form [21]
 
dTm 1 d dT
ρc p u(r ) = kr (1)
dx r dr dr
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 3 of 13

where Tm , ρ, c p , and k are the mean temperature, density, heat capacity, and thermal
00
conductivity, respectively. The energy balance under the uniform wall heat flux of qs ,
00
dTm 2qs
shown in Figure 1, gives dx = ρc p um R .

2.3. Nusselt Number

Let us introduce the core flow rate, qc (r ), which is given by
Z r
qc (r ) = 2π ru(r )dr (2)
0

Note that the total flow rate can be described using the above expression as Q = qc ( R).
00
q q (r )
Taking constant ρ, c p and k, integration of Equation (1) from 0 to r gives dT s c
dr = kum πR r .
00 R R q (r )
q
Then, integration from r to R gives T (r, x ) − Ts ( x ) = kumsπR r c r dr, where Ts ( x )
is the surface temperature given by T ( R, x ). The mean temperature of a fully-developed
RR RR
flow is defined as Tm ( x ) − Ts ( x ) = 0 T (r, x )ru(r )dr/ 0 u(r )rdr. With integration by parts
00 R R q c (r )2
qs
followed by suitable arrangements yields Tm ( x ) − Ts ( x ) = kum πRQ r r dr. With the def-
00
inition of heat transfer coefficient, h = qs /[ Tm ( x ) − Ts ( x )], it is obtained as
R R q (r )2
h = kQ2 / R r c r dr where the flow rate is given by Q = qc ( R). Then, the Nus-
selt number is expressed as [22]
" # −1
q c (r )2
Z R
h(2R) 1
Nu ≡ = dr (3)
k 2Q2 0 r

Once qc (r ) is obtained, the Nusselt number can be evaluated right away by integration.
Note that viscous heating is ignored in Equation (3) and refer to previous work for the
Brinkman number [10,23].

2.4. Evaluation of the Core Flow Rate

To evaluate the Nusselt number by Equation (3), the core flow rate should be eval-
uated for the corresponding constitutive equation. Integration in Equation (2) can be
analytically available when u(r ) is in a simple form as in the Newtonian or power law
fluid. For a Newtonian
fluid with a mean velocity of um , the velocity is well-known as
u N (r ) = 2um 1 − r2 /R2 , then the core flow rate is obtained as

1 r2
 
qc,N (r ) = 2πum r2 1 − (4)
2 R2

Note that Q = qc ( R) = πR2 um is and should be obtained for any constitutive model.
.
. n −1
Consider a power law fluid with η p γ = K γ , where K is the consistency and n is the
index. This is a basic viscosity model that expresses the shear thinning in which
 the viscosity

−1
3 + n −1 r 1+ n
decreases as the shear rate increases. Here, the velocity is u p (r ) = u
1 + n −1 m
1− −1 is
R1+ n
obtained. Then, the core flow rate is
−1
!
um πr2 r 1+ n
qc,p (r ) = 3n + 1 − 2n −1 (5)
n+1 R 1+ n

Note that the power law model assumes that the shear thinning takes place over the
entire range of the shear rate. In many non-Newtonian fluids such as polymeric liquids,
shear thinning occurs at a certain shear rate and weakens at a higher shear rate, as shown
in Figure 2. To describe this, a more complicated model is required. However, it is not
simple to obtain the core flow rate for complicated models such as the Carreau and Cross.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 4 of 13

In this case, the evaluation of the core flow rate can be circumvented via the shear stress,
In this case, the evaluation of the core flow rate can be circumvented via the shear stress,
𝜏 and the shear rate, 𝛾. . In tubes, using 𝜏(𝑟) = 𝜏 and 𝛾(𝑟)
. = − , the space variable r
τ and the shear rate, γ. In tubes, using τ (r ) = τw Rr and γ(r ) = − ∂u ∂r , the space variable r
and can be rewritten again with 𝜏 .
and 𝛾.
and the velocity u can be rewritten again with τ and γ. Note thatthat
the velocity u Note τw is𝜏theiswall
the shear
wall shear
stress
stress corresponding to the wall shear.
rate 𝛾 . Then, by integration by parts
corresponding to the wall shear rate γw . Then, by integration by parts of Equation of Equation
(2), the
(2),
corethe core
flow flow
rate canrate can be expressed
be expressed as [21,24],
as [21,24],

η0
n1 ( γa ;η∞ ,η0 , λ , n ) − 1
viscosity

instantaneous slope at γa

η ( γ ) = η∞ +
(η0 − η∞ )
1− n

(1 + λ γ )2 2 2

η p ( γ ) = K γ n−1 d ln η p
n −1 =
d ln γ

γa
shear rate
Figure 2.
Figure The Carreau
2. The Carreau viscosity
viscosity model
model and
and concept of nn11..
concept of

πR3 τ (r) .
Z
qc (r ) = πu(r )r2 + 3 ( ) γ(r )τ 2 dτ (6)
𝑞 (𝑟) = 𝜋𝑢(𝑟)𝑟 + τw 0𝛾(𝑟)𝜏 𝑑𝜏 (6)
For the
For the Carreau
Carreau fluid,
fluid, the
the viscosity
viscosity is
is of
of the
the form
form

.

 n −1
2.2

+ (η−0 𝜂− η)(1
∞ (𝜂 ∞ ) +1𝜆+𝛾λ )γ
2
𝜂(𝛾)
η γ= = 𝜂 η+ (7)
(7)
where 𝜂 , 𝜂 and 𝜂 are the viscosity at the infinite shear rate, the zero-shear viscosity,
where η , η0 and η0 are the viscosity at the infinite
shear rate, the zero-shear viscosity, and
and the ∞time constant, respectively. Figure 2 shows . 𝜂(𝛾) along . with 𝛾 together.
with
the time constant, respectively. Figure 2 shows η γ along with γ together with η p γ with
𝜂 (𝛾) with the same n.
the same n.
The Carreau model accommodates the zero-shear viscosity and truncates the viscos-
The Carreau model accommodates the zero-shear viscosity and truncates the viscosity
ity at the large. 𝛾. Without the truncation term, 𝜂(𝛾) .
converges to 𝜂.
(𝛾) with the same n
at the large γ. Without the truncation term, η γ converges to η p γ with the same n as
as. 𝛾 increases. Then, using the constitutive equation of the generalized Newtonian fluid,
γ increases. Then, using the constitutive equation of the generalized Newtonian fluid,
𝜏 = 𝜂𝛾,. the core flow rate of the Carreau fluid is obtained as
τ = η γ, the core flow rate of the Carreau fluid is obtained as
𝜋𝜏(𝛾) 𝑅
𝑞 , (𝛾) = ×
.𝜏
(1 +πτ𝑛)𝜆
. 2
( γ ) R3
qc,C γ = τ3 (1+n)λ2 ×
⎡(𝜂  − 𝜂 ) (𝑛𝜆 w𝛾− 1)(1 + 𝜆 𝛾 ) − .(𝑛𝜆 n𝛾 −1 −  1)(1 +. 𝜆 𝛾  ) ⎤  n −1  
⎢ 2 .2 2 2 2 2 2 ⎥ 2 .2 2
⎢  (η0 − η∞ ) nλ γw − 1 1 + λ γw − nλ γ − 1 1 +⎥ λ γ
(1 + 𝑛)

⎢ 
+𝜂 (𝜆(1𝛾+n)− 𝜆λ2𝛾γ ) − λ2 γ
 .
2 . 2
 ⎥ 
⎣ 2 + η∞ 2 w ⎦
2
⎡ (𝜂 − 𝜂 3 ) ) 2 ++
! 2!
⎤
n(𝑛(3𝑛
3n −−1)1)𝛾 γ λ4𝜆 − 2
3 ( n −(1) .4
⎢ (3𝑛 ( η0 − η ∞ ) (1 . 2+ 𝛾
2 𝜆
2 ) 3 3 − 33 ⎥  (8)
(3n+ +11)(3𝑛
)(3n−1)− 1)
(1 + γ λ ) .2
⎢ −(−(𝑛n −−1)1)𝛾
γ λ2𝜆 ⎥ (8)
⎢ 𝜂 ∞(𝜂 0 − ∞ 𝜂 ) 1 + n(2n + 1)γ λ4 − (n − 1)γ λ2 1 + γ λ2
 n −1 ⎥ 
 2 . . .

 η ( η − η ) 4 2 2 
πR3 ⎢ ++ 2n(n+1)
+𝜋𝑅 (1 + 𝑛(2𝑛 + 1)𝛾 𝜆 − (𝑛 − 1)𝛾 𝜆 )(1 + 𝛾 𝜆 ) ⎥

+ λ4 τw3 ⎢ 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1)

𝜆 𝜏  + η∞2 (η0 −η∞ ) 2 + (n + 2)(n + 1)γ. 4 λ4 − (n − 1)γ. 2 λ2 1 + γ. 2 λ2 2 ⎥ 
   n −1 

⎢ 𝜂 (𝜂 − 𝜂 ) ⎥
 (n+1)(n+3)
⎢+ (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 3) (2 + 3 (𝑛. 4+ 2)(𝑛 + 1)𝛾2 𝜆 − (𝑛 − 1)𝛾 2𝜆 )(1 + 𝛾 𝜆 ) ⎥ 
0 − η∞ ) η∞
⎢ + η4∞ γ λ4 − (η2n ( n +1)
− 2((nη+0 − η∞ ) η∞
1)(n+3) ⎥
⎢ 𝜂 (𝜂 −𝜂 ) 𝜂 2(𝜂 − 𝜂 )𝜂 ⎥
+ 𝛾 𝜆 − −
for n 6=⎣ 13 4 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1) (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 3) ⎦
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 5 of 13

. .
where the wall shear rate is given by γw = γ( R). Similar integrations based on the shear
rate are found in [21,22,24].

2.5. Evaluation of the Nusselt Number

The Nusselt number can be easily evaluated for the Newtonian fluid by substituting
Equation (4) in Equation (3).
48
Nu N = (9)
11
Similarly, for the power law fluid, the Nusselt number is obtained by substituting
Equation (5) in Equation (3) gives

8(5n + 1)(3n + 1)
Nu p (n) = (10)
31n2 + 12n + 1
It is notified here that Equation (10) will be used to evaluate the Nusselt number of
the Carreau model by substituting the apparent power law index.
It is not simple to evaluate Nu for a complex model like the Carreau model. Please,
read this paragraph carefully. It should be emphasized that integration can be achieved by
.
changing the integral variable in Equation (3) from r to γ via τ.
Moreover,
the identities,
. .
. . . .
r = ( R/τw )τ = Rγη γ /τw and dr = ( R/τw )dτ = ( R/τw ) η γ + γdη/dγ dγ should be
utilized [21]. Using these properties, the substitution of Equation (8) into Equation (3) can
R R q (r )2
give the Nusselt number. Unfortunately, analytically achieving the integral, 0 c r dr =
R γ. w qc (γ. )2 . 

.
. dη (dγ) .
0 . η γ + γ . dγ, with the core flow rate given by Equation (8) is not very
τ (γ) dγ
beneficial because a huge number of terms are generated. Inevitably, this integration should
be performed numerically. Moreover, the wall shear rate
should be determined for a given
.
Q by solving a nonlinear algebraic equation, Q = qc,C γw using Equation (8). Nonetheless,
it is still advantageous to obtain the Nusselt number using Equation (3) compared to the
finite element or the finite difference methods since the solution of a matrix system, and
the mesh error can be avoided.

2.6. Numerical Integration

In this work, the numerical integration is fulfilled by the Cuhre algorithm using
the cubature rules [25], which is iterative and adaptive though the resulting value is
deterministic. With this algorithm, the integration is done by a quadrature rule as follows:

q c (r )2 2
Z R
p q c (ri )
0 r
dr ≈ J p = ∑ wi ri
(11)
i

The whole integration interval is subdivided as required. When applying the quadra-
ture, the subdivision becomes smaller near the problematic points. The procedure is as
follows [26]:
(1) Further divide a subdomain with the largest predicted error.
(2) Apply a cubature rule to the new subdomain.
(3) Update the integral in the subdomains
 and obtain the global integral.
 J p +1 − J p 
(4) Check the error by  J p 
Acknowledge that the integration in the subdomain is recursively conducted in a
nested way.

2.7. Expressions for Correlations

Assuming a Newtonian flow, the apparent shear rate is described as

. 4um
γa = (12)
R
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 6 of 13

Then, the apparent viscosity is obtained by

.

ηa = η γ a (13)

The Carreau fluid renders a viscosity curve shown in Figure 2. As shown in the figure,
the viscosity behaves like a Newtonian fluid in the low shear rate regime and like a power
law one in the high shear regime. For the power law model, the following identity holds
.
d ln η p γ dη p
n−1 ≡ . = . (14)
d ln γ η p dγ

d ln η
It should be noted that both d ln γ.p and Nu p are functions only of n independent of
K. Based on this idea, a method has been proposed to utilize this property even in more
complex models. In this method, the original Carreau model can be approximated to a
power law form by [1,5]
.

. 1 n (γ,η
.
. ,η ,λ,n)− 21
η γ ≈ K1 γ, η∞ , η0 , λ, n γ 2 1 ∞ 0 (15)
.

.
As mentioned,
K1 γ, η∞ , η0 , λ, n is not considered an approximate evaluation of Nu;
n1 γ, η∞ , η0 , λ, n is the only function of interest. In consideration of Equation (14), the
.
apparent index for a specific γ a that characterizes the flow can be proposed as
. 
.
γ a dη 
n1 γ a , η∞ , η0 , λ, n = .
. +1 (16)
η γ a dγ γ. =γ. a

For a Carreau fluid, the above relation can be written again as

.
n1 γ a , η∞ , η0 , λ, n ≡ n1 (Γ,


ϕ, n)

1 ( n −1) Γ2 (17)
= 1 −   n −1
 n −1 +1
1
1+ ϕ −1 (1+ Γ2 ) 2 (1+ Γ2 ) 2

.
where ϕ and Γ are defined as ϕ ≡ η∞0 and Γ ≡ λγ a , respectively.
η

Placing the above quantity into Equation (10) gives an approximate Nusselt number,
Nu = Nu p (n1 ). In other words, the change from zero shear rate to the wall shear rate is
approximated by a result of substituting the value of n1 at the apparent shear rate into Nu p .
Since the velocity profiles of the power law and the Carreau model are different from each
other, the core flow rates would be different, and thus the Nusselt number would be so
also. Thus, the mathematical foundation of the method seems weak and is thought to be a
phenomenological methodology. Although the bias from the accurate value is somewhat
noticeable, this method efficiently yields a useful number. This will be examined later in
this work. To overcome the bias, this work modifies n1 (Γ, ϕ, n). The modified apparent
index takes the form of
 
 ϕ   1  (n − 1)c2 Γ2d
n2 (Γ, ϕ, n; c, d, h) = n1 cΓd ; , n = 
1 −

 n −1    n −1 + 1
h  
2 2
1+ h
ϕ − 1 1 + c2 Γ 2d
1 + c2 Γ2d

where c, d and h are real numbers that are functions of n. Then, n2 becomes an input to
Equation (10) instead of n1 , which means Nu is evaluated by Nu = Nu p (n2 ). The reason
.
for modification of γ a is that the adoption of the apparent shear rate is simply a convention
. .
and the corresponding physical background is weak. Thus, γ a is replaced by cγ a d to
improve the accuracy. Moreover, since the Nusselt number variation is known to change
ϕ
dramatically alongside ϕ, it is modified by a function as h . Based on the solutions in
 Energies 2022, 15, 2368 7 of 13

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

Equation (3), c, d, and h will be sought to provide an accurate correlation for the Nusselt
number of the Carreau fluid.
3. Results
3. Evaluation
3.1. Results of Nusselt Number
3.1.Let
Evaluation of Nusselt Number
us first demonstrate evaluated Nu for various viscosity constants. As aforemen-
tioned,Let theus first demonstrate
evaluation evaluated
of Nu is quite Nu for various
straightforward. viscosity
Putting constants.
Equation (8) into AsEquation
aforemen-
(3)tioned,
followed the evaluation
by numerical of Nu is quite straightforward.
integration gives the number. Putting
The Equation
benefit of(8) into
this Equationis(3)
approach
followed
that Nu forby numerical
many different integration
conditions givescanthebe number.
easily and The benefitobtained.
rapidly of this approach
This workis thatpre-Nu
for many
sents 𝑛 = 0.05𝑖
Nu fordifferent for 1 ≤can
conditions 𝑖 ≤ be 19.easily and n,
For each rapidly
Nu is obtained.
obtained Thisfor 𝜑work = 0.001 ⋅ 2 Nu
presents
forfor1 n≤i =𝑘≤ 14. for
0.05i 1 ≤n iis≤more
Since 19. For eachto
crucial n, evaluation
Nu is obtainedof Nu, k = 0.001
foraϕfiner · 2k−5 for 1has
discretization ≤ been
k ≤ 14.
give for n. It is known that Nu for different n can be presented in a similar range n.
Since n is more crucial to evaluation of Nu, a finer discretization has been give for of It
.
1− n
(𝜆𝛾 )
is known [10]. AllNu
that these calculated
for different n values of Nu willin
can be presented beaput into range
similar determining
of λγ athe correla-
[10]. All
tion.
these calculated values of Nu will be put into determining the correlation.
.
1− n
Figure
Figure3 3showsshowsNu Nu for 0.05≤≤n𝑛≤
for 0.05 ≤ 0.95 alongside λ(𝜆𝛾
0.95alongside γ a ) for forϕ =𝜑 0,=0.0000625,
0, 0.0000625, 0.001,
0.001,
0.008,0.008,
0.016,0.016,
0.0640.064 and 0.512.
and 0.512. For ϕ For = 0,𝜑Nu = smoothly
0, Nu smoothly
ramps up ramps
fromup Nufrom
N to Nu
Nu p ( nto
) as
Nu can(𝑛) beas caninbethe
seen seen in theFor
figure. figure.
ϕ =For 𝜑 =peaks
0, Nu 0, Nuoutpeaks
at aout at aand
point point and comes
comes back toback Nu N .
toThe
Nu peak . Thevalue
peak is value is notNu
not over over
p ( n )Nuand(𝑛) and depends
depends on ϕ and on n. 𝜑 and As 𝜑 increases,
As ϕn.increases, the peak
the peak value becomes smaller. As a result, the overall variation
value becomes smaller. As a result, the overall variation alongside the shear rate becomes alongside the shear rate
becomes insignificant.
insignificant. Similar Similar results
results can alsocan also beinfound
be found in [10,12,22].
[10,12,22]. Figure 4Figure
shows 4the shows the
evaluated
Nu alongside
evaluated Nu alongside 𝜑 forn.
ϕ for a given For a n.
a given For an,given
given the overall Nu curve
n, the overall Nu comes
curve comesdown down
toward
Nu N as
toward as 𝜑 increases,
Nuϕ increases, as shown in the figure.
as shown Overall,
in the figure. the variation
Overall, of Nu of
the variation is Nu
pronounced
is pro-
for smaller
nounced n and larger
for smaller n andλ.larger 𝜆. Especially
Especially for a moderate range ofrange
for a moderate of 𝜑,<0.0001
ϕ, 0.0001 < 𝜑such
ϕ < 0.01, <
variation
0.01, can cause
such variation cansignificant errors in errors
cause significant the estimation of Nu byof
in the estimation correlation.
Nu by correlation.

7 7 7
ϕ=0 n = 0.05
ϕ = 0.0000625 ϕ = 0.001
n = 0.05

increase of n by 0.05 increase of n by 0.05

increase of n by 0.05
6.5 6.5 6.5
n = 0.05

n = 0.1
n = 0.1

6 6 6 n = 0.1

n = 0.15 n = 0.15
n = 0.15

5.5 5.5 5.5

Nu

Nu

Nu

5 5 5

4.5 4.5 4.5

n = 0.95 n = 0.5 n = 0.95 n = 0.95 n = 0.5

n = 0.5

4 4 4
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100

(λγa )
1−n
(λγa ) (λγa )
1−n 1−n

Figure 3. Cont.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 8 of 13

7 7 7
ϕ = 0.008 ϕ = 0.064 ϕ = 0.512
7 7 7
ϕ = 0.008 ϕ = 0.064 ϕ = 0.512

6.5 6.5 6.5

6.5 6.5 6.5

increase of n by 0.05
6 6 6
increase of n by 0.05
increase of n by 0.05
6 n = 0.05 6 6
increase of n by 0.05
n = 0.05

5.5 5.5 5.5

Nu Nu

Nu Nu

Nu Nu
5.5 5.5 5.5

n = 0.05
5 5 5
n = 0.05
5 5 5
increase of n by 0.05

increasen of n by 0.05
= 0.05
4.5 4.5 4.5
n = 0.05
4.5 n = 0.95 4.5 n = 0.95 4.5 n = 0.95
n = 0.5
n = 0.95 n = 0.5
n = 0.95 n = 0.95
n = 0.5
4 4 n = 0.5 4

40.1 1 10 100 40.1 1 10 100 40.1 1 10 100

(λγa )10 (λγa )10 (λγa )10

1−n 1−n 1−n
0.1 1 100 0.1 1 100 0.1 1 100

(λγa ) (λγa ) (λγa )

1−n 1−n 1−n

Figure 3. Nu for 0.05 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 0.95 alongside (𝜆𝛾)

.
1−n for various 𝜑.
Figure 3. Nu for 0.05 ≤ n ≤ 0.95 alongside λγ for various ϕ.
Figure 3. Nu for 0.05 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 0.95 alongside (𝜆𝛾) for various 𝜑.

7 7 7
n = 0.1 n = 0.2 n = 0.3
7 7 7
n = 0.1 n = 0.2 n = 0.3

6.5 6.5 6.5

ϕ=0 ϕ=0 ϕ=0
6.5 ϕ = 0.0000625 6.5 ϕ = 0.0000625 6.5 ϕ = 0.0000625
ϕ
ϕ == 00.000125 ϕ
ϕ == 00.000125 ϕ
ϕ == 00.000125
ϕ
ϕ == 0.0000625
0.00025 ϕ
ϕ == 0.0000625
0.00025 ϕ
ϕ == 0.0000625
0.00025
ϕ
ϕ == 0.000125
0.0005 ϕ
ϕ == 0.000125
0.0005 ϕ
ϕ == 0.000125
0.0005
6 ϕ = 0.00025
0.001
6 ϕ = 0.00025
0.001
6 ϕ = 0.00025
0.001
ϕ = 0.0005
0.002 ϕ = 0.0005
0.002 ϕ = 0.0005
0.002
6 0.004
ϕ = 0.001
6 0.004
ϕ = 0.001
6 0.004
ϕ = 0.001
0.008
ϕ = 0.002 0.008
ϕ = 0.002 0.008
ϕ = 0.002
0.016
ϕ = 0.004 0.016
ϕ = 0.004 0.016
ϕ = 0.004
0.032
ϕ = 0.008 0.032
ϕ = 0.008 0.032
ϕ = 0.008
5.5 0.064
ϕ = 0.016 5.5 0.064
ϕ = 0.016 5.5 0.064
ϕ = 0.016
Nu Nu

Nu Nu

Nu Nu

ϕ = 0.032
0.128 ϕ = 0.032
0.128 ϕ = 0.032
0.128
5.5 0.256
ϕ = 0.064 5.5 0.256
ϕ = 0.064 5.5 0.256
ϕ = 0.064
ϕ == 0.128
ϕ 0.512 ϕ == 0.128
ϕ 0.512 ϕ == 0.128
ϕ 0.512
ϕ = 0.256 ϕ = 0.256 ϕ = 0.256
ϕ = 0.512 ϕ = 0.512 ϕ = 0.512
5 5 5

5 5 5

4.5 4.5 4.5

4.5 4.5 4.5 n=0.95

n=0.95

4 4 4

40.1 1 10 100 40.1 1 10 100 40.1 1 10 100

(λγa )10 (λγa )10 (λγa )10

1−n 1−n 1−n
0.1 1 100 0.1 1 100 0.1 1 100

(λγa ) (λγa ) (λγa )

1−n 1−n 1−n

Figure 4. Cont.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 9 of 13

7 7 7
n = 0.4 n = 0.5 n = 0.6

6.5 6.5 6.5

ϕ=0 ϕ=0 ϕ=0
ϕ = 0.0000625 ϕ = 0.0000625 ϕ = 0.0000625
ϕ = 0.000125 ϕ = 0.000125 ϕ = 0.000125
ϕ = 0.00025 ϕ = 0.00025 ϕ = 0.00025
ϕ = 0.0005 ϕ = 0.0005 ϕ = 0.0005
6 ϕ = 0.001
6 ϕ = 0.001
6 ϕ = 0.001
ϕ = 0.002 ϕ = 0.002 ϕ = 0.002
ϕ = 0.004 ϕ = 0.004 ϕ = 0.004
ϕ = 0.008 ϕ = 0.008 ϕ = 0.008
ϕ = 0.016 ϕ = 0.016 ϕ = 0.016
ϕ = 0.032 ϕ = 0.032 ϕ = 0.032
5.5 ϕ = 0.064 5.5 ϕ = 0.064 5.5 ϕ = 0.064
Nu

Nu

Nu
ϕ = 0.128 ϕ = 0.128 ϕ = 0.128
ϕ = 0.256 ϕ = 0.256 ϕ = 0.256
ϕ = 0.512 ϕ = 0.512 ϕ = 0.512

5 5 5

4.5 4.5 4.5

4 4 4
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100

(λγa ) (λγa ) (λγa )

1−n 1−n 1−n

.
1− n
Figure 4. Nu for 0.0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 0.512 alongside λγ for various n.
Figure 4. Nu for 0.0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 0.512 alongside (𝜆𝛾) for various 𝑛.
3.2. Correlations
3.2. Correlations
The Nusselt numbers along with Γ from 10−3 to 108 for all the combinations of
19 n’The
andNusselt
15 ϕ’s.numbers along with
An optimization Γ fromseeking
problem 10−3 to 10 8 for all the combinations of 19 n’
c, d, and h that minimizes a sum of
and 𝜑’s. An optimization problem seeking 𝑐, 𝑑, and ℎ that minimizes a sum of least
15squares
least
squares
S(c, d, h) ≡ ∑ Nu Γ j , ϕk , ni − Nu p n2 Γ j , ϕk , ni ; c, d, h



2
(18)
𝑆(𝑐, 𝑑, ℎ) ≡ ∑ , , i,j,k
Nu Γ , 𝜑 , 𝑛 − Nu 𝑛 Γ , 𝜑 , 𝑛 ; 𝑐 , 𝑑, ℎ (18)
/
where ΓΓ j==10
where 10−3+ j/4for for 00 ≤
≤ 𝑗j ≤
≤ 44.
44. Note that n𝑛 and
Note that i
andϕ𝜑 are
k
aredefined
definedinin the
the previous
previous sec-
section.
tion.
As a result, a
total of 12,825 evaluations of Nu have been conducted to evaluated to to
As a result, a total of 12,825 evaluations of Nu have been conducted to evaluated set
set Nu Γ , 𝜑 , 𝑛 . This work proposes 𝑐, 𝑑, and ℎ in Equation (18) as functions
Nu Γ j , ϕk , ni . This work proposes c, d, and h in Equation (18) as functions of n. Both c and of n. Both
c dand
aredexpressed
are expressed as linear
as linear functions,
functions, whichwhich
are are = c0=+𝑐c1+
c(n)𝑐(𝑛) n 𝑐and
𝑛 and
d(n) 𝑑(𝑛)
= d0 =+ 𝑑d1 n.
+𝑑 𝑛.
Since
Since h (𝑛)
h(n) should accommodate severe nonlinearity, it is expressed as h(n) = h0 + h1 exp(h2+
should accommodate severe nonlinearity, it is expressed as h (𝑛) = ℎ n ).
ℎThen,
𝑒𝑥𝑝( ℎto 𝑛). Then, to cdetermine
determine (n), d(n) and 𝑐(𝑛),h(𝑑(𝑛)
n) byand ℎ(𝑛) by minimizing
minimizing Equation (18), Equation (18), the
the generalized
generalized reduced
reduced gradient gradient
method has method has beenAs
been employed. employed. Asfollowing
a result, the a result, the
hasfollowing has
been achieved:
been achieved:
c(n) = 0.63732 − 0.0057246n (19)
𝑐(𝑛) = 0.63732 − 0.0057246𝑛 (19)
d(n) = 1.0047 − 0.021029n (20)
𝑑(𝑛) = 1.0047 − 0.021029𝑛 (20)
h(n) = 0.95951 − 0.83184exp(−5.9982n) (21)
As a result, for ah(𝑛) = set
given of γ −
0.95951.
, η , λ𝑒𝑥𝑝(
, η0.83184 and−n,5.9982𝑛)
the modified apparent index n(21)
can
a ∞ 0 2
be determined
As a result,byfor
putting Equations
a given , 𝜂 , 𝜂 into
set of 𝛾(19)–(21) , 𝜆 and 𝑛, the (18).
Equation Then,apparent
modified the Nusselt 𝑛
number
index
is obtained by Equation (10). The results are summarized in Table 1.
can be determined by putting Equations (19–21) into Equation (18). Then, the Nusselt
number is obtained by Equation (10). The results are summarized in Table 1.
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 10 of 13
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Table 1. Correlation.
Table 1. Correlation.
Apparent Index Method (Cruz et al. 2012)
Apparent Index Method (Cruz et al. 2012)
Modified Apparent Index Method
  Modified Apparent Index Method

apparent index 1 1 (𝑛
− 1)Γ
( n −1) Γ2 1 1 (𝑛 (−n−1)𝑐
1)c2ΓΓ2d
apparent index 𝑛 = n11−= 1 − n −1 +n−11 + 1 𝑛 = 1 −1 −
n2 = n −1 +11
n −1 +
1 1+ 1 −1 (1+ Γ2 ) 2 ℎ1+ h −1 (1+c2 Γ2d ) 2
   
(1 + Γ(1)+Γ ) 1+𝑐c ΓΓ2d )) 2
2
(1(+
2 2
1+ − 1 (1
ϕ +Γ ) 1+ − 1ϕ (1 + 𝑐 Γ )
𝜑 𝜑
𝑐(𝑛)
c(n)==0.63732
0.63732−− 0.0057246𝑛
0.0057246n
𝑑(𝑛)
d(n)==1.0047 −−
1.0047 0.021029𝑛
0.021029n
h(𝑛) = 0.95951 − 0.83184 𝑒𝑥𝑝( − 5.9982𝑛)
h(n) = 0.95951 − 0.83184exp(−5.9982n)
8(5𝑛 + 1)(3𝑛 + 1) 8(5𝑛 + 1)(3𝑛 + 1)
Nusselt number Nu = (5n1 +1)(3n1 +1) Nu = +1)(3n2 +1)
Nusselt number 31𝑛=+812𝑛
Nu 2+1 Nu =31𝑛8(5n
+212𝑛
2 +1
31n1 +12n1 +1 31n2 +12n2 +1

Figure 5 compares Nu values for n = 0.2 with φ = 0, 0.001 and 0.032 by the original
Figure
apparent 5 compares
index n1 and the Nu values for
modified n = 0.2index
apparent with nϕ2.=With
0, 0.001 and
n1, the 0.032
bias by the
is quite original
noticeable
apparent index n
in the rising edge, and the modified apparent index n . With n , the bias is quite noticeable
1 but it is significantly reduced by2 n2. For 1n = 0.05, the bias is further
in the rising with
pronounced edge,n1,but
as it is significantly
shown reduced
in Figure 6, since the n2 . For n = 0.05,
by nonlinearity the bias iswith
is augmented further
the
pronounced
lower n. Again, n1 ,bias
withthe as shown in Figure
has been much6,reduced
since thebynonlinearity
n2. Thus, the is augmented with the
proposed modified
lower n.improves
method Again, the
on bias has beenofmuch
the accuracy reduced
the original by n2 . Thus, the proposed modified
method.
method improves on the accuracy of the original method.

6 6
Exact ϕ = 0.032 Exact ϕ = 0.001 Exact ϕ = 0 n = 0.2 Exact ϕ = 0.032 Exact ϕ = 0.001 Exact ϕ = 0 n = 0.2
n ϕ = 0.032 n ϕ = 0.001 n ϕ= 0
2 2 2
n ϕ = 0.032 n ϕ = 0.001 n ϕ= 0
1 1 1

5.5 5.5
Nu

5
Nu

4.5 4.5

4 4
4 4
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10

(λγa )
1− n
(λγa )
1− n

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Nu by nn11 and
Nu by andnn22and
andEquation
Equation(3) fornn==0.2.
(3)for 0.2.

8 8
Exact ϕ = 0.032 Exact ϕ = 0.001 Exact ϕ = 0 Exact ϕ = 0.032 Exact ϕ = 0.001 Exact ϕ = 0
n = 0.05 8
n = 0.05
8 n ϕ = 0.032 n ϕ = 0.001 n ϕ= 0 n ϕ = 0.032 n ϕ = 0.001 n ϕ= 0
7.5 7.5 2
Exact ϕ = 0.032 Exact2ϕ = 0.001 Exact ϕ = 20
Exact
1 ϕ = 0.032 Exact
1 ϕ = 0.001 Exact
1 ϕ= 0
n = 0.05 n = 0.05
7.5 n ϕ = 0.032 n ϕ = 0.001 n ϕ= 0 7.5 n ϕ = 0.032 n ϕ = 0.001 n ϕ= 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
7 7

7 7
6.5 6.5

6.5 6.5
Nu

6
Nu Nu

6
Nu

6
5.5 5.5

5.5 5.5
5 5

5 5
4.5 4.5
4.5 4.5
4 4
4 4
40.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4 4
0.1 1 10
(λγa )1−n
1− n 100 1000 10 0.1 1 10
(λγa )
1− n 100 1000 10

(λγa ) (λγa )
1− n

Figure 6. Nu by n1 and n2 and Equation (3) for n = 0.05.

Figure 6. Nu by n1 and n2 and Equation (3) for n = 0.05.
Energies 2022, 15, x2368
FOR PEER REVIEW 1111ofof 13
13

Figure 77 compares
Figure compares the the modified
modified method
method withwith the
the data in the original study [5]. The
The
simplified method
simplified methodby byCruz
Cruz et et
al. al. matches
matches the result
the result n1 study.
bythis
by n1 in in thisThe
study.
Nu inThe Nu in
Equation
Equation
(3) and the(3)numerical
and the numerical
result by result
Cruz et byal.
Cruz
alsoetagree
al. also agree
very very
well. Thewell.
bias The bias between
between them is
thempronounced
less is less pronounced
thanks to thanks to increased
increased n comparedn compared
to thoseto inthose in Figures
Figures 5 and 6.5 As
andcan
6. As
be
can be seen in Figure 7, the result using
seen in Figure 7, the result using n2 can reduce n 2 can reduce the bias dramatically. The maximum
the bias dramatically. The maximum error
error
is 3% is
by3% by nis
n1 and 1 and is reduced
reduced to 0.9% toby n2. by n2 .
0.9%

5.2

5
n = 0.358 ϕ = 0.000108

4.8

4.6
Nu

Simplified method (Cruz et al. 2012)

Numerical (Cruz et al. 2012)

4.4
n
1

n
4.2 2

Exact by Equation (3)

4
4 5
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 10

(λγa )
1− n

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Nu by nn22and
Nu by andEquation
Equation(3) fornn==0.358
(3)for 0.358and
andφϕ==0.000108.
0.000108.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
This work has proposed a correlation for Nusselt number for the fully-developed
This work has proposed a correlation for Nusselt number for the fully-developed
laminar flow of the Carreau fluid in straight tubes. A modified form of the apparent index
laminar flow of the Carreau fluid in straight tubes. A modified form of the apparent index
has been proposed to improve the accuracy of the correlation. On the other hand, thanks to
has been proposed to improve the accuracy of the correlation. On the other hand, thanks
an integration-ready form using the core flow rate, the Nusselt number could be rapidly
to an integration-ready form using the core flow rate, the Nusselt number could be rapidly
evaluated for many cases. Based on the obtained results, the constants for the modified
evaluated for many cases. Based on the obtained results, the constants for the modified
apparent index have been determined by optimization. The correlation has been validated
apparent index have been determined by optimization. The correlation has been validated
by comparing the obtained Nu values with those by the integral formula. Moreover, it
by comparing the obtained Nu values with those by the integral formula. Moreover, it has
has been found that the proposed method can significantly reduce the bias in the original
been found that the proposed method can significantly reduce the bias in the original ap-
apparent power law index method. The error in Nu estimation has been reduced to 0.9%.
parent power
This worklaw index method.
considers The error
the Carreau model in only,
Nu estimation has been reduced
but the modification can be to 0.9%. to
applied
This work considers the Carreau model only, but the modification can be applied
other similar non-Newtonian models. This approach can also be applied to the correlations to
other similardrops.
for pressure non-Newtonian models.
In future studies, theThis approach
modified can also
apparent be applied
method needs totobe
the correla-
applied to
tions for pressure drops. In future studies, the modified apparent method
various correlations for Nusselt numbers and friction factors in a unified way. needs to be ap-
plied to various correlations for Nusselt numbers and friction factors in a unified way.
Funding: This work was supported by NRF grants funded by the Korean government (No. NRF-
Funding: This work and
2018R1A5A1024127 wasNRF-2020R1I1A2065650).
supported by NRF grants funded by the Korean government (No. NRF-
2018R1A5A1024127 and NRF-2020R1I1A2065650).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: : The author declares no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
Nomenclature
𝑐c p heatcapacity
heat capacity
c(𝑛)
c( n ) functionfor
function forapparent
apparentindex
indexmodification
modification
d( n )
d(𝑛) function
functionfor
forapparent
apparentindex
indexmodification
modification
hh heat
heattransfer
transfercoefficient
coefficient
h( n )
h(𝑛) function
functionfor
forapparent
apparentindex
indexmodification
modification
Energies 2022, 15, 2368 12 of 13

R R q (r )2
Jp p-th evaluation of the integral 0 c r dr by the quadratue
k thermal conductivity
K consistency of the power law model
n index of the viscosity model (a constant of Carreau model)
n1 apparent power law index  
modified apparent power law index = n1 cΓd ; h , n
ϕ
n2
Nu Nusselt number
Nu N Nusselt number for the Newtonian model
Nu p Nusselt number for the power law model
qc core flow rate
qc,N core flow rate for Newtonian model
qc,p core flow rate for power law model
qc,C core flow rate for Carreau model
00
qs uniform wall heat flux
Q flow rate
R radius
r radial position
S sum of least squares
T temperature
Tm mean temperature
Ts surface temperature
u velocity in the x-direction
um mean velocity
p
wi quadratue for the p-th evaluation at ri
x coordinate variable in the flow direction
Greek
.
γ shear (strain) rate
.
γw wall shear rate
.
γa apparent wall shear rate  . 
Γ apparent shear rate in a dimensionless form ≡ λγ a
η0 zero-shear viscosity (a constant of Carreau model)
η∞ infinite shear rate viscosity (a constant of Carreau model)
ϕ ratio of η∞ to η0
λ time constant (a constant of Carreau model)
ρ density
τ shear stress
τw wall shear stress
subscript
a apparent
C Carreau
i index for discretized value of n
k index for discretized value of ϕ
m mean
N Newtonian
p power law
w wall

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