Designing of Synchronous Mod-N Counters

Example 1: Design a mod – 5 synchronous counters using JK flip-flop.

Solution:

A mod-5 counter counts from 0 to 4. Thus, following the steps given in article - designing of
synchronous counter, a mod-5 counter can be designed as:

Step 1: The number of flip-flops required to design a mod-5 counter can be calculated using the
formula: 2n >= N, where n is equal to no. of flip-flop and N is the mod number. In this case, the
possible value on n which satisfies the above equation is 3. Hence, the required number of flip-
flops is 3.

Step 2: The type of flip-flop required to design the counter is JK flip-flop.

Step 3: We can draw the state diagram for mod-5 counter describing the state flow in current and
next state as:

Step 4: Using the excitation table of JK flip-flop, we need to obtain the flip-flop inputs
for each state that we obtained in the third step and now we will enter it into a table as:
Step 5: Making K-Map for each input combination and simplifying it to get the
minimized Boolean expression.

.
Step 6: Using the Boolean expressions obtained in step 5, now we will draw the required
counter circuit which can be shown as:

Example 2: Design a mod - 10 synchronous counter/ Decade counter/ BCD

counter using T flip-flop

Solution:

A mod-10 counter counts from 0 to 9. Thus, following the steps given in the article - designing
of synchronous counter, a mod-10 counter can be designed as:

Step 1: The number of flip-flops required to design a mod-10 counter can be calculated using the
formula: 2n >= N, where n is equal to no. of flip-flop and N is the mod number. In this case, the
possible value on n which satisfies the above equation is 4. Hence, the required number of flip-
flops is 4.

Step 2: The type of flip-flop required to design the counter is T flip-flop.

Step 3: We can draw the state diagram for mod-10 counter describing the state flow in current
and next state as:
Step 4: Using the excitation table of T flip-flop, we need to obtain the flip-flop inputs for each
state that we obtained in the third step and now we will enter it into a table as:

Step 5: Making K-Map for each input combination and simplifying it to get the minimized
Boolean expression.
Step 6: Using the Boolean expressions obtained in step 5, now we will draw the required counter
circuit which can be shown as:
Synchronous 3 bit Up/Down counter
 These types of counters fall under the category of synchronous controller counter.
 Here the mode control input is used to decide whether which sequence will be
generated by the counter.
 In this case, mode control input is used to decide whether the counter will perform up
counting or down counting.
 Designing of such a counter is the same as designing a synchronous counter but the
extra combinational logic for mode control input is required.
Steps to design Synchronous 3 bit Up/Down Counter :
1. Decide the number and type of FF –
 Here we are performing 3 bit or mod-8 Up or Down counting, so 3 Flip Flops are
required, which can count up to 23-1 = 7.
 Here T Flip Flop is used.
2. Write excitation table of Flip Flop –

Excitation table of T FF

3. Decision for Mode control input M –

 When M=0 ,then the counter will perform up counting.
 When M=1 ,then the counter will perform down counting.
4. Draw the state transition diagram and circuit excitation table –
 State transition diagram for 3 bit up/down counting.

5. Circuit excitation table –

The circuit excitation table represents the present states of the counting sequence and the next
states after the clock pulse is applied and input T of the flip-flops. By seeing the transition
between the present state and the next state, we can find the input values of 3 Flip Flops using
the Flip Flops excitation table. The table is designed according to the required counting
sequence.
Circuit excitation table

If there is a change in the output state of a flip flop (i.e. 0 to 1 or 1 to 0), then the
corresponding T value becomes 1 otherwise 0.
6. Find a simplified equation using k map –
Here we are finding the minimal Boolean expression for each Flip Flop input T using k map.

Simplified equation for K map

7. Create a circuit diagram –

The simplified expression for Flip Flops is used to design circuit diagrams. Here all the
connections are made according to simplified expressions for Flip Flops.
 3 bit synchronous up/down counter.

8. Timing Diagram –

Timing diagram for 3 bit synchronous Up/Down counter

 Shift Registers in Digital Logic
Flip flops can be used to store a single bit of binary data (1or 0). However, in order to store
multiple bits of data, we need multiple flip flops. N flip flops are to be connected in an order to
store n bits of data. A Register is a device which is used to store such information. It is a group
of flip flops connected in series used to store multiple bits of data.
The information stored within these registers can be transferred with the help of shift
registers. Shift Register is a group of flip flops used to store multiple bits of data. The bits
stored in such registers can be made to move within the registers and in/out of the registers by
applying clock pulses. An n-bit shift register can be formed by connecting n flip-flops where
each flip flop stores a single bit of data.
The registers which will shift the bits to left are called “Shift left registers”.
The registers which will shift the bits to right are called “Shift right registers”.
Shift registers are basically of 4 types. These are:
1. Serial In Serial Out shift register
2. Serial In parallel Out shift register
3. Parallel In Serial Out shift register
4. Parallel In parallel Out shift register

Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register (SISO) –

The shift register, which allows serial input (one bit after the other through a single data line)
and produces a serial output is known as Serial-In Serial-Out shift register. Since there is only
one output, the data leaves the shift register one bit at a time in a serial pattern, th us the name
Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register.
The logic circuit given below shows a serial-in serial-out shift register. The circuit consists of
four D flip-flops which are connected in a serial manner. All these flip-flops are synchronous
with each other since the same clock signal is applied to each flip flop.

The above circuit is an example of shift right register, taking the serial data input from the left
side of the flip flop. The main use of a SISO is to act as a delay element.
Serial-In Parallel-Out shift Register (SIPO) –

The shift register, which allows serial input (one bit after the other through a single data line)
and produces a parallel output is known as Serial-In Parallel-Out shift register.
The logic circuit given below shows a serial-in-parallel-out shift register. The circuit consists
of four D flip-flops which are connected. The clear (CLR) signal is connected in addition to the
clock signal to all the 4 flip flops in order to RESET them. The output of the first flip flop is
connected to the input of the next flip flop and so on. All these flip-flops are synchronous with
each other since the same clock signal is applied to each flip flop.

The above circuit is an example of shift right register, taking the serial data input from the left
side of the flip flop and producing a parallel output. They are used in communication lines
where demultiplexing of a data line into several parallel lines is required because the main use
of the SIPO register is to convert serial data into parallel data.

Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register (PISO) –

The shift register, which allows parallel input (data is given separately to each flip flop and in a
simultaneous manner) and produces a serial output is known as Parallel-In Serial-Out shift
register.
The logic circuit given below shows a parallel-in-serial-out shift register. The circuit consists
of four D flip-flops which are connected. The clock input is directly connected to all the flip
flops but the input data is connected individually to each flip flop through a multiplexer at the
input of every flip flop. The output of the previous flip flop and parallel data input are
connected to the input of the MUX and the output of MUX is connected to the next flip flop.
All these flip-flops are synchronous with each other since the same clock signal is applied to
each flip flop.
A Parallel in Serial out (PISO) shift register us used to convert parallel data to serial data.

Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register (PIPO) –

The shift register, which allows parallel input (data is given separately to each flip flop and in a
simultaneous manner) and also produces a parallel output is known as Parallel-In parallel-Out
shift register.
The logic circuit given below shows a parallel-in-parallel-out shift register. The circuit consists
of four D flip-flops which are connected. The clear (CLR) signal and clock signals are
connected to all the 4 flip flops. In this type of register, there are no interconnections between
the individual flip-flops since no serial shifting of the data is required. Data is given as input
separately for each flip flop and in the same way, output also collected individually from each
flip flop.
A Parallel in Parallel out (PIPO) shift register is used as a temporary storage device and like
SISO Shift register it acts as a delay element.

Bidirectional Shift Register –

If we shift a binary number to the left by one position, it is equivalent to multiplying the
number by 2 and if we shift a binary number to the right by one position, it is equivalent to
dividing the number by 2.To perform these operations we need a register which can shift the
data in either direction.
Bidirectional shift registers are the registers which are capable of shifting the data either right
or left depending on the mode selected. If the mode selected is 1(high), the data will be shifted
towards the right direction and if the mode selected is 0(low), the data will be shifted towards
the left direction.
The logic circuit given below shows a Bidirectional shift register. The circuit consists of four
D flip-flops which are connected. The input data is connected at two ends of the circuit and
depending on the mode selected only one and gate is in the active state.
Shift Register Counter

Shift Register Counters are the shift registers in which the outputs are connected back to the
inputs in order to produce particular sequences. These are basically of two types:
Ring Counter –
A ring counter is basically a shift register counter in which the output of the first flip flop is
connected to the next flip flop and so on and the output of the last flip flop is again fed
back to the input of the first flip flop, thus the name ring counter. The data pattern within
the shift register will circulate as long as clock pulses are applied.
The logic circuit given below shows a Ring Counter. The circuit consists of four D flip-
flops which are connected. Since the circuit consists of four flip flops the data pattern will
repeat after every four clock pulses as shown in the truth table below:

A Ring counter is generally used because it is self-decoding. No extra decoding circuit is

needed to determine what state the counter is in.
Johnson Counter –
A Johnson counter is basically a shift register counter in which the output of the first flip
flop is connected to the next flip flop and so on and the inverted output of the last flip flop
is again fed back to the input of the first flip flop. They are also known as twisted ring
counters.
The logic circuit given below shows a Johnson Counter. The circuit consists of four D flip -
flops which are connected. An n-stage Johnson counter yields a count sequence of 2n
different states, thus also known as a mod-2n counter. Since the circuit consists of four flip
flops the data pattern will repeat every eight clock pulses as shown in the truth table below:

The main advantage of Johnson counter is that it only needs n number of flip-flops
compared to the ring counter to circulate a given data to generate a sequence of 2n states.
Applications of shift Registers –

 The shift registers are used for temporary data storage.

 The shift registers are also used for data transfer and data manipulation.
 The serial-in serial-out and parallel-in parallel-out shift registers are used to produce
time delay to digital circuits.
 The serial-in parallel-out shift register is used to convert serial data into parallel data
thus they are used in communication lines where demultiplexing of a data line into
several parallel line is required.
 A Parallel in Serial out shift register us used to convert parallel data to serial data.

Read Only Memory (ROM) – Working, Types, Applications, Advantages &

Disadvantages
ROM is the acronym for Read Only Memory. ROM is a type of Primary Memory. As the name
suggests its contents can be read only but cannot write on it. It is a non-volatile memory and so
the data is retained even when the power is switched off.

The data that is required to be stored inside ROM is written during manufacturing phase. It stores
such programs that are essential for the booting process of the computer. It generally cannot be
altered. However, technologies are available to program these types of ROM.
 Fig.1 – Classification of Primary Memory

How Read Only Memory (ROM) Works

A ROM operates like an array. ROM chips contain a grid of rows and columns to turn ON or
OFF. It uses a diode to connect the lines if the value is 1. If the value is 0, then these lines are not
connected at all. Each element of the array corresponds to one storage element in the memory
chip.

The address input to the chip is employed to pick out a specific memory location (corresponding
to the array index). The value read from the memory chip corresponds to the contents of the
selected element of the array.
 Fig.2 – Diode Grid in Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM consists of two basic components- Decoder and OR gates. In ROM, the input to decoder
will be in binary form and output will be its decimal equivalent. All the OR Gates present in the
ROM will take decoders output as their input.

Types of Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is differentiated on the basis of methods used to write data on ROM chips and the number
of times they can be written. It can be classified into following types : –

 Mask Read-Only Memory (MROM)

 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)
 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)
 Flash Read-Only Memory (Flash ROM)
Mask Read Only Memory (MROM)

MROM stands for Mask Read Only Memory. It is a memory chip that is manufactured with its
contents. These are inexpensive and are the very first ROMs which were hard wired devices that
contain a pre-programmed set of data or instructions.

Fig. 3 – Mask Read Only Memory (MROM)

These chips contain a software mask that is burned onto the chip during design phase of the
semiconductor manufacturing process.

The specification of the ROM is taken by the manufacturer from its customer in tabular form and
in a particular format. The manufacturer then makes the corresponding mask for the paths to
produce the desired output.

Applications of Mask Read Only Memory (MROM)

The Mask Read-Only Memory (MROM) are used for:

 Network Operating Systems.

 Server Operating Systems.
 Storing fonts for laser printers.
 Storing sound data in electronic musical instruments.

Advantage of Mask Read Only Memory (MROM)

The main advantage of Mask Read-Only Memory (MROM) is its low production cost. The cost
of IC depends on its size, per bit. Mask ROM is more compact. It is significantly cheaper than
any other kind of secondary memory when large quantities of same ROM are manufactured.

Disadvantage of Mask Read Only Memory (MROM)

Design errors are costly i.e. if an error in the code is detected, the MROM is useless and must be
replaced in order to change the code. The life expectancy of MROM is also short, hence requires
frequent replacement.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. PROM is manufactured as a blank
memory. And as its name suggests Programmable, it is programmed after manufacturing. The
user buys a blank memory and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
 Fig. 4 – Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

The process of programming a PROM is called burning the PROM. There are tiny fuses in a
PROM chip which are burnt open during programming. The data can be programmed only once
and cannot be altered. So it is called one- time programming device.

Applications of Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

The Programmable ROM (PROM) are used in:

 Mobile Phones for providing User Specific Selections.

 Video game consoles
 Implantable Medical devices.
 Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)tags.
 High definition Multimedia Interfaces(HDMI)

Advantages of Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

The advantages of Programmable ROM (PROM) are: –

 The programming can be done using many types of software and does not rely on hard
wiring of the program to the chip.
 Since it is not possible to un-blow the fuse, so the authenticity of the data remains intact
and it is impossible to remove or alter the contents.

Disadvantage of Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

The biggest disadvantage of PROM is that the data once burnt cannot be erased or changed when
detected with errors.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is a non volatile memory i.e.
it can retain data even if the power supply is cut off. The basic limitation being encountered in
PROM is that once it is programmed, it cannot be changed or altered. This limitation has been
overcame by EPROM.

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra violet light for a particular length of time using an
EPROM eraser. After exposing, the chip returns to its initial state and can be reprogrammed.
This procedure can be carried out many times but repeated erasing and rewriting can eventually
render the chip useless. Once written, data can be retained for about 10 years.

Fig. 5 – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

Applications of Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

The applications of Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) include:

 As program storage chip in Micro controllers.

 For debugging.
 For program development.
 As BIOS chip in computers.
 As program storage chip in modem, video card and many electronic gadgets.

Advantages of Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

The advantages of Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) are:

 It is non-volatile.
 It can be erased and re -programmed.
 It is cost effective as compared to PROM.

Disadvantages of Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

The disadvantages of Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) are:

 The static power consumption is high as the transistors used have higher resistance.
 It is not possible for a particular byte to be erased, instead the entire content is erased.
 UV based EPROM takes time to erase the content.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

EEPROM is the short form for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is
similar to EPROM and thus developed to overcome the drawbacks of EPROMs. It is erased and
programmed electrically i.e. it uses electrical signals instead of ultra violet rays.

The erasing and programming of data takes 4 to 10 milliseconds. Any byte can be erased at a
time instead of the entire chip. The chip can be erased and re programmed for around ten
thousand times, though the process is flexible but slow.

Applications of Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

The applications of Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) includes:

 As BIOS chip in computers

 As storage for re-programmable calibration information in test-equipment.
 As storage for in-built self learning functionality in remote operated transmitters.

Advantages of Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

The advantages of Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) are:

 The method of erasing is electrical and instant.

 Chip can be reprogrammed infinite number of times.
 Byte wise data can be erased instead of entire content on the board.
 To change the data, additional devices are not required.
Disadvantages of Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

The disadvantages of Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) are:

 Different voltages are required for erasing, reading and writing the data.
 The data retention period of EEPROM is limited i.e 10 years approx.
 EEPROM devices are expensive compared to others.

Flash Read Only Memory (Flash ROM)

It is a universal flash programming non volatile utility, used in computer as a storage medium. It
can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. In this, memory blocks of data (512 bytes) can be
deleted and written at a particular time.

Fig. 7 – Flash Read Only Memory (Flash-ROM)

Applications of Flash Read Only Memory (Flash ROM)

The applications of Flash Read-Only Memory (Flash ROM) are:

 The latest technology computers use BIOS stored on a flash memory chip, called as flash
BIOS.
 Modems, pen drives, small cards use flash ROM.
Advantages of Flash Read Only Memory (Flash ROM)

The Advantages of Flash Read-Only Memory (Flash ROM) are:

 High transferring speed.

 It saves data when turns OFF, preserve its state without power.
 Less prone to damage.
 Comparatively economical to other drives in small storage capacities.

Disadvantages of Flash Read Only Memory (Flash ROM)

The disadvantages of Flash Read-Only Memory (Flash ROM) are:

 Comparatively costly than hard disk.

 Number of read/writes are limited.

Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache
memory and has very fast access.

Static RAM (SRAM) is a type of random access memory that retains its state for data bits or
holds data as long as it receives the power. It is made up of memory cells and is called a static
RAM as it does not need to be refreshed on a regular basis because it does not need the power to
prevent leakage, unlike dynamic RAM. So, it is faster than DRAM.

It has a special arrangement of transistors that makes a flip-flop, a type of memory cell. One
memory cell stores one bit of data. Most of the modern SRAM memory cells are made of six
CMOS transistors, but lack capacitors. The access time in SRAM chips can be as low as 10
nanoseconds. Whereas, the access time in DRAM usually remains above 50 nanoseconds.

Furthermore, its cycle time is much shorter than that of DRAM as it does not pause between
accesses. Due to these advantages associated with the use of SRAM, It is primarily used for
system cache memory, and high-speed registers, and small memory banks such as a frame buffer
on graphics cards.

The Static RAM is fast because the six-transistor configuration of its circuit maintains the flow
of current in one direction or the other (0 or 1). The 0 or 1 state can be written and read instantly
without waiting for the capacitor to fill up or drain. The early asynchronous static RAM chips
performed read and write operations sequentially, but the modern synchronous static RAM chips
overlap read and write operations.

Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
  Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made
up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Dynamic Ram (DRAM) is also made up of memory cells. It is an integrated circuit (IC) made of
millions of transistors and capacitors which are extremely small in size and each transistor is
lined up with a capacitor to create a very compact memory cell so that millions of them can fit on
a single memory chip. So, a memory cell of a DRAM has one transistor and one capacitor and
each cell represents or stores a single bit of data in its capacitor within an integrated circuit.

The capacitor holds this bit of information or data, either as 0 or as 1. The transistor, which is
also present in the cell, acts as a switch that allows the electric circuit on the memory chip to read
the capacitor and change its state.

The capacitor needs to be refreshed after regular intervals to maintain the charge in the capacitor.
This is the reason it is called dynamic RAM as it needs to be refreshed continuously to maintain
its data or it would forget what it is holding. This is achieved by placing the memory on a refresh
circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. The access time in DRAM is
around 60 nanoseconds.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Difference between Static RAM and Dynamic RAM:
SRAM
It is a static memory as it does not need
to be refreshed repeatedly.
Its memory cell is made of 6 transistors.
So its cells occupy more space on a chip
and offer less storage capacity
(memory) than a DRAM of the same
physical size.
It is more expensive than DRAM and is
located on processors or between a
processor and main memory.
It has a lower access time, e.g. 10
nanoseconds. So, it is faster than
DRAM.
It stores information in a bistable
latching circuitry. It requires regular
power supply so it consumes more
power.
It is faster than DRAM as its memory
cells don't need to be refreshed and are
always available. So, it is mostly used in
registers in the CPU and cache memory
of various devices.
Its cycle time is shorter as it does not
need to be paused between accesses and
refreshes.
Examples: L2 and LE cache in a CPU.
Size ranges from 1 MB to 16MB.
DRAM
It is a dynamic memory as it needs to be
refreshed continuously or it will lose the
data.
Its memory cell is made of one transistor
and one capacitor. So, its cells occupy less
space on a chip and provide more memory
than a SRM of the same physical size.
It is less expensive than SRAM and is
mostly located on the motherboard.
It has a higher access time, e.g. more than
50 nanoseconds. So, it is slower than
SRAM.
The information or each bit of data is
stored in a separate capacitor within an
integrated circuit so it consumes less
power.
It is not as fast as SRAM, as its memory
cells are refreshed continuously. But still,
it is used in the motherboard because it is
cheaper to manufacture and requires less
space.
Its cycle time is more than the SRAM's
cycle time.
Example: DDR3, DDR4 in mobile phones,
computers, etc.
Size ranges from 1 GB to 3 GB in
smartphones and 4GB to 16GB in laptops.