High Voltage Direct-current

Transmission

Dr. Ibrahim El-Amin

Professor – EE Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

January 2006
 Outline

| Introduction
| Components of EHV AC & DC Links
| Classification of DC links
| Why HVDC? HVDC Problems, Categories
| HVDC for Asynchronous Connection
| Economic Comparison of AC versus DC
| HVDC Projects
| Converter Arrangements and Operation
| Harmonics
| Control Characteristics
 Introduction

| Power transmission was initially carried out in the early 1880s

using direct current (dc).

| With the availability of transformers, development of robust

induction motor, availability of superior synchronous generator,
and the facilities of converting ac to dc when required, ac
gradually replaced dc.

| It is only in recent years that the direct current for transmission

purposes has become again an economic proposition. This is due
to successful development of HV converters (rectifiers and
inverters) based on the grid controlled mercury arc valve and
silicon-controlled-rectifiers (SCRs or Thyristors).
High Voltage Direct Current
(HVDC) Transmission
| What is HVDC?

| Why HVDC?

| HVDC technology
High Voltage Direct Current
(HVDC) Transmission
| The history of HVDC Part 1: The
mercury arc valve era

| The history of HVDC Part 2: ASEA’s

HVDC Thyristor Introduction 1965
 What is HVDC

| It is used to transmit electricity over

long distances by overhead
transmission lines or submarine cables.

| It is also used to interconnect separate

power systems.

| Over 70,000 MW Capacity is installed.

Categories of HVDC
transmissions

1. Point to point transmissions

2. Back-to-back stations

3. Multi-terminal systems
 Why HVDC
1. Lower investment cost

2. Long distance water crossing

3. Lower losses

4. Asynchronous connection

5. Controllability

6. Limit short circuit currents

7. Environment
HVDC transmission for lower
investment cost
 HVDC transmission has
lower losses

An HVDC transmission line

has lower losses than AC
lines for the same power
capacity. The diagram shows
a comparison of the losses for
overhead line transmissions
of 1200 MW with AC and
HVDC
HVDC does not contribute to
the short circuit current
| When a high power AC transmission is
constructed from a power plant to a major
load center, the short circuit current level
will increase in the receiving system.

| If generating plants are connected to the

load center via a DC link , the situation will
be quite different. The reason is that an
HVDC transmission does not contribute to
the short circuit current of the
interconnected AC system.
HVDC transmission for
controllability of power flow
| In the majority of HVDC projects, the main control is based on a
constant power transfer.

| An HVDC link can never become overloaded!

| The HVDC link can also be used to improve the AC system

performance by means of additional control facilities.

| Control functions could be constant frequency control, redistribution

of the power flow in the AC network, damping of power swings in
the AC networks etc.

| Control functions can make it possible to increase the safe power

transmission capability of AC transmission lines where stability is a
limitation.
 HVDC transmission for
asynchronous connection
| Many HVDC links interconnect incompatible AC systems.
Several HVDC links interconnect AC system that are not
running in synchronism with each other.

| The Nordel power system in Scandinavia is not synchronous

with the UCTE grid in western continental Europe even though
the nominal frequencies are the same.

| The power system of eastern USA is not synchronous with that

of western USA.

| There are also HVDC links between networks with different

nominal frequencies (50 and 60 Hz) in Japan and South
America.
 HVDC Technology
| Thyristor valves

| Converter transformers.

| AC filters,

| Smoothing reactor

| DC filter

| control system.

| Circuit breakers, current and voltage transducers, surge arresters,

etc.
HVDC Technology
HVDC Converter
Transformers
| It provides transfer of power between two voltage
levels, it serves a number of additional functions like
galvanic separation between the AC and DC systems.

| It is built with two valve windings of equal power and

voltage ratings. One of the windings is connected in
star and the other in delta. With this arrangement the
dominant harmonics from the converter will be
cancelled out.

| The internal voltage distribution from the DC-voltages

on the transformer valve terminals will need a different
insulation build-up as compared to the insulation
system in a conventional transformer.
The development of HVDC
Systems

| The key challenge in the HVDC

technique was the development of
reliable and economic valves which
could convert high-voltage alternating
current into high-voltage direct current
and vice versa.
 Components of EHV AC and DC links

| EHV AC
z Three-phase
z Requires transformers at both ends – step-up at SE and step-
down at RE.
z Requires series compensation of part of the inductive reactance
z Two parallel three-phase circuits are required for reliable
transmission
z Lines are usually sectionalized by means of intermediate
switching stations.
z Shunt reactors (usually placed at intermediate switching stations
are required for limiting the voltage, especially at light loads.
 Components of EHV AC and DC links cont.

| EHV DC
z Line itself has two conductors, although some lines have only
one, with ground or sea return.
z Converters (transformers and valve groups) at both ends of the
lines. Converter at SE is called rectifier, and that at the RE an
inverter. Either converter can function as rectifier or inverter
permitting power transmission in either direction.
z Due to absence of a natural current zero with dc, circuit breaking
is difficult. This is not a major problem as faults can be cleared
more rapidly by grid control.
z Harmonic filters and shunt-capacitors (on ac side of converters)
for supplying reactive power to the converters.
z Large inductance called dc smoothing reactors are connected
with each pole of the dc line.
 Classification of the dc Link

MONOPOLAR BIPOLAR HOMOPOLAR

 Monopolar Link

There is only one conductor (usually of negative polarity to reduce

corona loss and radio interference), and ground or sea serves as
the return path.
Disadvantages of Monopolar dc link

Interference with railway signalling.

Electrolytic corrosion of buried metals.
Magnetic compass error when sea provides the return pass.
May affect the setting of electronic relays.
Can cause dangerous and touch potentials.
Interference with communication circuits due to the harmonics
generated on the dc side of the link.
 Bipolar Link

The bipolar link has two conductors - one positive, the other negative.
Each terminal has two converters of equal rating
Junction between converters may be grounded at one or both ends
Each link can be independently operated if necessary
 Homopolar link

The homopolar link has two or more conductors having the same
polarity, usually negative, and always operates with ground return.
 Why HVDC?
Stability
Long distance water
crossing
Lower investment costs

Smaller tower size

Efficient transmission of HVDC
power (Lower losses)

Does not increase Asynchronous connection

short circuit levels at
connection points Controllability
HVDC Problems

Expensive converters.
Reactive power requirements
Generation of harmonics.
Difficulty of circuit breaking.
Difficulty of voltage transformation.
Difficulty of high power generation
Absence of overload capacity (converters)
Categories of HVDC transmission

Point to point transmissions

Back-to-back stations

Multi-terminal systems
HVDC for Asynchronous Connection

| Several HVDC links interconnect AC system that are not

running in synchronism with each other.

| The Nordel power system in Scandinavia is not

synchronous with the UCTE grid in western continental
Europe even though the nominal frequencies are the
same.

| The power system of eastern USA is not synchronous

with that of western USA.

| There are also HVDC links between networks with

different nominal frequencies (50 and 60 Hz) in Japan
and South America.
AC versus DC: Economic Comparison
For an equivalent transmission capacity, the HVDC system has a
lower line cost per unit length than an equally reliable ac system.
z A double HVAC three-phase circuit with 6 conductors is needed
to get the reliability of a bipolar dc link.
z dc requires less insulation
z For the same conductor, dc losses are less
z An optimized dc link has smaller towers than an optimized ac link
of equal capacity
Right-of-way for a 2000 MW ac line is more than 70% wider than
that of a dc line of equivalent capacity.
The need to convert to and from AC implies the terminal stations
for a dc line cost more than the corresponding ac transformer
stations.
There are extra losses in DC/AC conversion relative to AC
voltage transformation.
Operation and maintenance costs are lower for an optimized
HVDC than for an equal capacity optimized AC system.
Economic Comparison (cont.)

| HVDC transmission is not generally economical for short

distances, unless other factors dictate otherwise.

| Economic considerations call for a certain minimum

transmission distance (break-even distance) before
HVDC can be considered competitive on cost.

| Estimates for the break-even distance of overhead lines

are around 500 km with a wide variation about this value
depending on the magnitude of power transfer and the
range of costs of lines and equipment.
Break-even Distance for dc Transmission
[Assuming cost variations of ±5% for ac link and ±10% for dc link]
 HVDC projects by type and power:
Bulk power transmissions
Project MW
Itaipu, Brazil 6 300
Pacific Intertie, USA 3 100
Three Gorges - Changzhou, China 3 000
Three Gorges - Shanghai, China 3 000
Three Gorges - Guangdong, China 3 000
Quebec - New England, Canada - USA 2 000
Nelson River 2, Canada 2 000
Intermountain, USA 1 920
Cahora Bassa, Mozambique - South Africa 1 920
Rihand-Delhi, India 1 500
Chandrapur - Padghe, India 1 500
New Zealand DC Hybrid Link 1 240
Gezhouba - Shanghai, China 1 200
CU Project, USA 1 000
Inga Shaba, DR Congo 560
Leyte - Luzon, Philippines 440
HVDC projects by type and power:
Cable projects
Project MW
New Zealand DC Hybrid Link 1 240
Skagerrak, Norway - Denmark 940
NorNed, Norway - Netherlands 700
Baltic Cable, Sweden - Germany 600
Kontek, Denmark - Germany Selected by team
600
Swepol, Sweden - Poland members on a
600
Konti-Skan, Sweden - Denmark voluntary basis
550
Fenno-Skan, Finland - Sweden 500
Italy-Greece 500
Leyte - Luzon, Philippines 440
CrossSound, USA 330
Vancouver Island, Canada 312
Gotland 2 + 3, Sweden 260
Murraylink, Australia 220
DirectLink, Australia 180
Troll offshore, Norway 84
Gotland Light, Sweden 50
Tjaereborg, Denmark 7
HVDC projects by type and power:
Back-to-back projects

Project MW
Garabi, Brazil 2 200
Chateauguay, Canada 1 000
Durnrohr, Austria 550
Vindhyachal, India 500
Vizag II, India 500
Sakuma, Japan 300
Blackwater, USA 200
Highgate, USA 200
Rapid City, USA 200
Broken Hill, Australia 40
Eagle Pass, USA 36
 Converter Arrangements and
Operation

The three-phase six-valve bridge circuit is almost exclusively

used in HVDC applications.
 Angles

α Firing delay angle (directly controlled).

γ Commutation angle (angle by which

one thyristor commutates to the next on
the same side).

δ Extinction angle (the margin for

avoidance commutation failure.
 No Grid Control and no Overlap

| Vdo=1.35ELL

Ripple of dc voltage is
of frequency 6f

dc output waveforms (α=0)

 Grid Control but no Overlap

| The control angle for rectification (also known as the

ignition angle) is the angle by which firing is delayed
beyond the natural take over for the next thyristor.
| The transition could be delayed using grid control.
| Grid control is obtained by superposing a positive pulse
on a permanent negative bias to make the grid positive.
| Once the thyristor fires, the grid loses control.

Vd = Vdo cosα
 Grid Control and overlap

| The commutation period between two thyristors on the same

side of the bridge is the angle by which one thyristor
commutates to the next. During this period γ, the voltage at the
electrode follows mean voltage of the 2 conducting thyristors on
the same side

Vd = ½ Vdo [ cosα + cos(α +γ)]

 Equivalent Circuit for Rectifier

Vd=Vo cos α - (3ωLc/π) Id

equivalent circuit for the rectifier, operating at constant ac voltage and constant
ignition angle.
 Inversion
| Because the thyristors conduct only in one direction, the current in a
convertor cannot be reversed. Power reversal can only be obtained by
the reversal of the direct voltage Vd.
| For inversion to be possible, the delay angle α>90o, since Vd changes
polarity at this angle.
| The theoretical maximum delay for inversion would occur at α>180o.
Thus it is common practice to define a period of advance from this point
rather than a delay from the previous cross-over as defined for
rectification.
 Inversion (cont.)

| Define β=π-α as the ignition angle for inversion or the angle of advance
| The extinction angle is defined as δ=π-(α+γ), hence β= γ+ δ

-Vd=Vo cos δ - (3ωLc/π) Id

12 –pulse connection
 Harmonics

A converter of pulse
number p generates
harmonics principally of
orders
h=pq on the dc side,
h=pq ±1 on the ac side

P dc side ac side
6 0, 6, 12, 18, 24,… 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25,….

12 0, 12, 24,… 1, 11, 13, 23, 25,…

 Control Characteristics
Plots of direct voltage against direct current

Natural Voltage (NV) &

Constant Ignition Angle (CIA)

Natural voltage characteristic (NV) corresponds to α=0.

Vd=Vo-(3ωLc/π) Id
The Constant Ignition Angle control is similar to the NV characteristic but with
a controllable intercept Vo cos α

Vd=Vo cos α - (3ωLc/π) Id

 Control Characteristics (cont.)

Constant Extinction Angle (CEA)

| The inverter is usually operated at constant extinction angle. This has the
characteristic given by shown by

-Vd=Vo cos δ - (3ωLc/π) Id

 Control Characteristics (cont.)
Vd

Constant Current Control (CC)

Theoretical
Practical

Id
B

| In a dc link it is common practice to operate the link at constant

current rather than a constant voltage. [of course, constant
current means that current is held nearly constant].
| In constant current control, the power is varied by varying the
voltage. There is an allowed range of current settings within
which the current varies.
 Full Characteristics of Converter

The complete characteristics of each converter has the NV

characteristic and equipped with CC control and the CEA control.
 Compounding of Converters
[Combined characteristic of Rectifier and Inverter]

In many dc transmission links, each converter must function

sometimes as a rectifier and at other times as an inverter.
Therefore each converter is given a combined characteristic.
[Combined characteristic of Rectifier and Inverter]
Thank you.
Development of HVDC
technology
 Milestones in the Development of
HVDC technology

| Hewitt’s mercury-vapour rectifier, which appeared in 1901.

| Experiments with thyratrons in America and mercury arc valves in Europe
before 1940.
| First commercial HVDC transmission, Gotland 1 in Sweden in 1954.
| First solid state semiconductor valves in 1970.
| First microcomputer based control equipment for HVDC in 1979.
| Highest DC transmission voltage (+/-600 kV) in Itaipu, Brazil, 1984.

| First active DC filters for outstanding filtering performance in 1994.

| First Capacitor Commutated Converter (CCC) in Argentina-Brazil

interconnection, 1998

| First Voltage Source Converter for transmission in Gotland, Sweden,

1999
HVDC Projects
| In Itaipu, Brazil, HVDC was chosen to supply 50Hz power into a 60 Hz
system; and to economically transmit large a mount of hydro power (6300 M
W) over large distances (800 km)
| In Leyte-Luzon Project in Philippines, HVDC was chosen to enable supply of
bulk geothermal power across an island interconnection, and to improve
stability to the Manila AC network
| In Rihand-Delhi Project in India, HVDC was chosen to transmit bulk
(thermal) power (1500 MW) to Delhi, to ensure: minimum losses, least
amount right-of-way, and better stability and control.
| In Garabi, an independent transmission project (ITP) transferring power from
Argentina to Brazil, HVDC back-to-back system was chosen to ensure
supply of 50 Hz bulk (1000MW) power to a 60 Hz system under a 20-year
power supply contract.
| In Gotland, Sweden, HVDC was chosen to connect a newly developed wind
power site to the main city of Visby, in consideration of the environmental
sensitivity of the project area (an archaeological and tourist area) and
improve power quality.
| In Queensland, Australia, HVDC was chosen in an ITP to interconnect two
independent grids (of New South Wales and Queensland) to: enable
electricity trading between the two systems (including change of direction of
power flow); ensure very low environmental impact and reduce construction
time.
The attributes of conventional HVDC
transmission systems are
Precise Power Flow Control, no inadvertent or
parallel loop flows.
No distance limitation due to instability.
No reactive power demand of the transmission
line. Reactive power demanded by converter
stations and supplied by switched filters and
shunt capacitor banks.
Similar, less-expensive transmission lines,
narrower ROW.
Requires termination at network locations with
short circuit capacity of at least twice the
converter rating.
Lower transmission losses.
| Over the last ten years, HVDC
systems have developed along three
main lines, relative to the technology
of 1990
| Natural commutated Converters.

| Capacitor Commutated Converters

(CCC).

| Forced Commutated Converters

(VSC)
The converter station:

| Thyristor valves:
| VSC valves:
| Transformers:
| AC Filters and Capacitor Banks
| DC filters:
| Transmission medium
| Thyristor development
| Fire-safe materials
| Thyristor firing method
| Outdoor valves
AC AND DC FILTER DEVELOPMENT

z Active filters
z Continuously tuned filters

| AC filter
| DC filter
OTHER DEVELOPMENT OF MAIN CIRCUIT
APPARATUS

| Composite insulation materials

| DC current measurement
CAPACITOR COMMUTATED
CONVERTERS (CCC) HVDC
2000
| In 1995, ABB presented “HVDC 2000”
as the new generation of HVDC
converter stations, incorporating:
| Capacitor commutated converters
(CCC)
| ConTune AC filters

| Active DC filters

| Optical direct current transducers

(OCT)
The attributes of CCC HVDC
transmission are :
| Precise Power Flow Control.
| Improved stability at weak network
locations.
| Reactive power demand supplied by filters
and series capacitor banks – no need for
shunt bank switching.
| Continuously tuned filters reduce the
amount of shunt compensation required for
filtering.
| Lower dynamic overvoltage at load rejection
| Can terminate at network locations with
short circuit capacity as low as the
converter rating.
The attributes of HVDC Light
transmission are
| Independent real and reactive power
control.
| Continuous control of ac voltage
| Dynamic voltage support
| Superior stability at weak network locations.
| Reactive power supplied or absorbed by
converter.
| PWM allows smaller filters.
| No restriction on system strength
| Black start capability.
| No contribution to fault duties.
| The traditional classic HVDC technology
is still dominant, but with improved
equipment and sub-systems (e.g. valve,
DC bushings, AC filters, DC filters etc.)
| The new circuit concept of CCC
(capacitor-commutated converter) in the
classic HVDC technology, that
significantly improves the performance of
the traditional converter.
| The new HVDC using VSC (voltage
source converters using IGBTs in place of
thyristors.
The aim was:

| Less equipment in the converter station

(=increased availability and reliability)
| No need for large and complex valve
buildings
| Reduced area requirements
| Reduced visual impact
| Less specialized engineering for each
project
| Simplified interface between high-voltage
equipment and civil works
| Reduced delivery time
Overview of HVDC
Applications
| Natural commutated HVDC 3 years

| CCC based HVDC 2 years

| VSC based HVDC 1 year

 Overview of HVDC Applications

Long Long distance Interconnections of Windmill Feed of small isolated

distance transmission asynchronous connection loads
transmissio over sea networks to network
n over land

Natural commutated with X X

OH lines

Natural commutated with X X

sea cables

X
CCC in Back-to-Back

X X
CCC with OH lines

CCC with sea cables X X

VSC Back-to-Back X X

VSC Land or Sea Cables X X X X X

Advantages of HVDC
Systems
| No limits in transmitted distance. This is
valid for both OH lines and sea or
underground cables.
| Very fast control of power flow, which
implies stability improvements, not only for
HVDC link but also for the surrounding AC
system.
| Direction of power flow can be changed
very quickly (bi-directionality).
| An HVDC link don’s increase the short-
circuit power in the connecting point. This
means that it will not be necessary to
change the circuit breakers in the existing
network.
Advantages of HVDC
Systems
| HVDC can carry more power for a given size of
conductor
| The need for ROW (Right Of Way) is much smaller for
HVDC than for HVAC, for the same transmitted power.
The environmental impact is smaller with HVDC.
| VSC technology allows controlling active and reactive
power independently without any needs for extra
compensating equipment.
| VSC technology gives a good opportunity to alternative
energy sources to be economically and technically
efficient.
| HVDC transmissions have a high availability and
reliability rate, sown by more than 30 years of
operation.
HVDC in the new Electricity
Industry
| In the past, conventions were that
HVDC was chosen when:
| Large amounts of power (>500 MW)
needed to be transmitted over long
distances (>500 km);
| Transmitting power under water;
HVDC in the new Electricity
Industry
| Liberalization has brought bi-
directional power transfers
| HVDC systems enable the bi-
directional power flows
| It is not possible with AC systems
(two parallel systems would be
required).
HVDC in the new Electricity
Industry
| Liberalization has brought other
demands on the power infrastructure
overall.
| Transmission is now a contracted
service
| HVDC provides much better control of
the power link
| A better way for providing contractual
transmission services.
HVDC in the new Electricity
Industry
| New technologies, such as the VSC
based HVDC systems, and the new
extruded polyethylene DC cables,
have made it possible for HVDC to
become economic at lower power
levels (up to 200 MW) and over a
transmission distance of just 60 km.
HVDC in the new Electricity
Industry
| In the past, the land acquisition and
obtaining rights-of-way was relatively
easier, and very often was done under
the principle of “Eminent Domain” of
the State.

| Land acquisition and/or obtaining

rights-of-way is now a significant
portion of the project’s costs.
HVDC in the new Electricity
Industry
| Once these costs are included in their
entirety in the economical analysis of
HVDC versus AC alternatives, it
would be seen that HVDC is much
more economical in this regard, since
it requires much less land/right-of-way
for a given level of power.