WEEK 13
that critical thinking means to
THE NATURE OF CRITICAL
THINKING
Critical thinking is defined as the progressive ability
to rationalize matters and think
vividly by connecting logical reasoning behind ideas.
Historically, the very essence of
critical thinking has been a favorite topic by ancient
Greek philosophers, usually
debated upon by great minds like Plato and Socrates.
Today, it is commonly described
as one‟s capacity to think independently and reflect
on his or her thoughts objectively,
with or without the opinions of other people.
Essentially, thinking critically and logical reasoning go
hand and hand all the time.
Hence, one needs to be an active learner who
seeks facts and investigates with all
means possible rather than to be a passive learner
who only waits for information to
present itself as the situation permits it.
Despite criticisms, a critical thinker assumes that a
presented information is just an
assumption, an opinion or a guess unless proven
with proper research or apparent
evidences. He or she rejects all information that does
not come with any valid backup
information and accepts everything that follows
logical reasoning and comes with
evidences. For that person, those that are considered as
general facts are still open to
argument as new data arise from time to time.
Critical thinkers will identify, analyze and solve
problems systematically rather than by
intuition or instinct. Furthermore, information are
accepted based on quality and not on
the quantity of proponents. After all, discoveries and
inventions never come up through
a popular vote; they are achieved after painstakingly
studying a subject matter over and
over again.
A critical thinker habitually displays the following
characteristics:
• Determines the relevance and importance of
arguments, questions and ideas
• Understands the connections between ideas
• Identifies inconsistent reasoning and consistent errors
• Recognizes, appraises and builds arguments
• Reflects on the justification of their own assumptions,
beliefs and values
• Approaches problem solving in a systematic way,
favoring objectivity over
subjectivity
From the aforementioned discussion, we can surmise
constantly try to solve problems and seek solutions.
The key here is consistency and
adherence to the mindset of a true critical thinker.
Skills Needed in Critical Thinking
The skills that we need in order to be able to think
critically are varied and include
observation, analysis, interpretation, reflection,
evaluation, inference, explanation,
problem solving, and decision making.
• Objectively and critically think about a topic or subject
matter
• Accurately identify what arguments are raised in a
particular issue.
• Carefully evaluate the different points of view presented
to understand how valid
and concrete they are.
• Recognize the weaknesses and loopholes in the
presented arguments and
evidences.
• Understand all implications of every argument.
• Come up with a structured reasoning that supports any
argument that you want
to raise.
The Critical Thinking Process
No matter how ideal critical thinking as the new norm
may be, the fact of the matter is
that we cannot apply critical thinking at all times. We put
are mental guards down. We
prefer practicality over technicality sometimes. We feel
complacent and too comfortable
depending on the people we talk with. Our emotions
also get in the way, making
physical and mental controls challenging. Remember
how they say “Don‟t make any
decisions when you are angry and do not make
promises when you are happy”?
Apparently, that is true.
It is natural to put our mental state at rest from
time to time. Not all situations and
problems require critical thinking. Even common
sense suffices sometimes. What„s
important is for you to have the ability to identify the
situations that need critical thinking
and to be able to activate your critical thinking skills when
they are needed the most.
Moreover, since our ability to think critically varies
according to our mindset at present,
we can learn to improve this ability by developing certain
routine activities and applying
them to all problems. Practice it whenever possible.
Once you understand the theory of critical thinking,
improving this ability becomes more
natural and less challenging.
Ascertaining Your Goals
One of the most important aspects of critical thinking is to
decide what you are aiming to
achieve and then make a decision based on a range of
possibilities.
Once you have clarified that aim for yourself, you should
use it as the starting point in all
future situations requiring thought and further
decision making. As much as possible,
everyone around you should be aware of this goal
so they can assist you whenever
there is opportunity to do so. Nevertheless, the
discipline to successfully adopt the
attitude and mindset of a critical thinker should always
start with yourself.
There are things that get in the way of every simple
decision making. We all carry with
us a range of likes and dislikes, personal preferences
and learned behaviors developed
throughout our lives; they are the hallmarks of being
human. A major contribution to
ensuring that we apply critical thinking is to be aware of
these personal characteristics,
preferences and biases, and make allowance for
them when considering the next
possible steps, whether they are at the pre-action
consideration stage or as part of a
rethink caused by unexpected or unforeseen
impediments to continued progress.
The more we understand ourselves, the faster we can
develop critical thinking.
The Benefit of Foresight
Critical thinking can never be completed without a
keen foresight. Foresight is defined
as the ability to predict future actions, which enables
a person to proactively create
solutions to impending problems. Essentially, applying
foresight to critical thinking
allows a person to remain three steps ahead in any
situation, giving him or her certain
level of control.
Foresight is not just any random guessing game. It
requires inference using existing
information gathered through systematic research, keen
observation and careful
analysis. In a way, we can say that this is the ability to
make tentative conclusions and
plan logical arguments ahead of time. This is described
as the most important element
of critical thinking, more often than not.
The elements needing consideration are generally
numerous and varied. In many
cases, consideration of one element from a different
perspective will reveal potential
dangers in pursuing our decision.
For instance, moving a business activity to a new
location may improve potential output
considerably but it may also lead to the loss of skilled
workers if the distance moved is
too great. Which of these is the more important
consideration? Is there some way of
lessening the conflict?
This scenario shows problems that have yet to arise.
Thus, one needs to set his or her
eyes to the future to as if multiple possible outcomes
have already unfolded.
These are the sort of problems that may arise from
incomplete critical thinking, a
demonstration perhaps of the critical importance of good
critical thinking.
In Summary:
• Critical thinking aims to come up with the most
favorable results in any situation.
This is only possible after collecting and evaluation
information culled from as
many reliable sources as possible.
• Critical thinking entails an objective self-evaluation
of strengths, weaknesses,
preferences and expected outcomes, no matter how
uncomfortable it may feel at
first.
• Critical thinking requires the development and use of
foresight.
• Decisions made with critical thinking require
assessment of projected outcomes
after application. This allows proactive solutions as
soon as negative outcomes
are projected.
• Critical thinking does not stop at the application of
decisions and their evaluation. Curiosity forces you to keep an open mind and propels you
Changes are also implemented if there is still room for to gain deeper knowledge --
improvement. For a critical all of which are also fundamental to being a lifelong learner.
thinker, no solution is permanent as problems constantly
change.

3. Objectivity

A critical thinker remains objective despite the situation

being affective and personal.
WEEK 14 That person is able to distinguish facts from opinions,
logic from emotions and reality
from wishful thinking. Moreover, judgment is not dictated by
CHARACTERISTICS OF A other compelling people.

CRITICAL THINKER
Nevertheless, being objective does not mean losing all
your personal beliefs, biases
and preferences. It only means being aware of your own
weaknesses, and knowing how
Critical thinking is more than just the accumulation of facts to separate subjectivity from objectivity. It is also the first
and knowledge; it’s a way of step to becoming an analytical
approaching whatever is presently occupying your mind thinker.
so that you can come up with
the best possible conclusion.

If you are hoping to reach your full potential and make your 4. Introspection
mark on the world, cultivate
the following 16 characteristics of critical thinkers.
Introspection is the state of being aware of your own
manner of thinking and train of
thoughts. It means knowing when to shift thoughts or to stop
altogether.
1. Observation

Introspection allows you to stay alert and attentive at all

Observation is considered as one of the first innate
critical thinking skills that people
learn as a child. You observe when you perceive your
environment to be more aware of
the world around us. As you observe, you also take
mental notes of relevant details,
which you can use to develop deeper insight and a more
profound understanding of the
world.
2. Curiosity
times. It is also a good quality
to have when self-reflecting on your decisions and actions.
5. Analytical thinking
Critical thinkers are innate analytical thinkers, and analytical
thinkers are on their way to
becoming critical thinkers.. The ability to analyze
information is key when looking at
anything, whether it is a piece of business document,
statistical data or a pressing
situation.

Curiosity is a core trait of many successful leaders. It is To analyze information, you need to break information down
prerequisite to learning. Without to its component parts and
it, there would be fewer discoveries and fewer inventions. evaluate how well those parts function together and
Furthermore, there would be separately. Analysis relies on
less radical principles as people would have been afraid observation—on gathering and evaluating evidence so
to challenge the status quo, you can come to a meaningful
resulting to dormancy in our society. conclusion.

Being inherently inquisitive and interested in the world

and people around you is a
hallmark of leaders who are critical thinkers. Rather 6. Identifying biases
than taking everything at face
value, a curious person will wonder why something is the
way it is, and will not be afraid Critical thinkers challenge their own beliefs by verifying the
to impose changes as deemed necessary. sources of their information
and looking for alternative sources. Doing this helps you
understand your own biases
and question your preconceived notions.
7. Determining relevance
When gathering information, you should not be
distracted by the reputation of the
source, the complexity of the data and the popularity of the
information. Only look at its
relevance to the topic and the arguments that you are
planning to raise.
8. Inference
Information does not always come with a summary that
spells out exactly what it
means. Critical thinkers need to assess the information and
draw conclusions based on
raw data. Inference is the ability to extrapolate meaning
from data and discover
potential outcomes when assessing a scenario.
It is also important to understand the difference
between inference and assumptions.
For example, if you see data that someone weighs 100
kilograms, you might assume
they are overweight or unhealthy. However, other data
points like height and body
composition may alter that conclusion since the
normality of weight depends on the
combination of weight and height, also known as the body-
mass index (BMI).
9. Compassion and empathy
At first, having compassion and empathy may seem like
a negative quality for critical
thinkers. After all, being sentimental and emotional can
skew our perception of a
situation. However, the point of having compassion is to
have concern for others and to
value the welfare of other people.
10. Humility
Humility is the willingness to acknowledge one’s
shortcomings and see one’s positive
attributes in an accurate way. It makes us aware of our
own assets and flaws, which
shows how open minded you are and willing to learn.
When you have intellectual humility, you are open to other
people’s viewpoints. This is
without saying that you accept all viewpoints presented
in front of you. You only
acknowledge their existence, but not their validity.
You are also able to recognize when you are wrong,
and you are willing to challenge
your own beliefs when beneficial.
11. Willing to challenge the status quo
Critical thinking means questioning long-established beliefs
and practices, and refusing
to adhere to traditional methods. Critical thinkers are
looking for smart, thoughtful
answers and methods that take into account all the current
and relevant information and
practices available. Their willingness to challenge the status
quo may seem
controversial, but it is an essential part of the innovative and
creative mind of a critical
thinker.
By challenging the status quo, you acknowledge that
everything can change and has to
be changed when deemed necessary.
12. Open-mindedness
Critical thinkers avoid launching into a frenzied argument or
taking sides—they want to
hear all perspectives. Critical thinkers do not jump to
conclusions right away. They
approach a question or situation with an open mind
and embrace other opinions and
views.
13. Awareness of common thinking errors
Critical thinkers do not allow their logic and reasoning
to become clouded by illusions
and misconceptions. They are aware of the common logical
fallacies, which are errors
in reasoning that often creep into arguments and
debates. Some common errors in
thinking include:
• Circular reasoning, in which the premise of an argument or
a conclusion is used
as support for the argument itself.
• Cognitive shortcut bias, in which you stubbornly stick
to a favored view or
argument when other more effective possibilities or
explanations exist.
• Confusing correlation with causation. In other words,
asserting that when two
things happen together, one causes the other. Without
direct evidence, this
assumption isn’t justified.
 WEEK 15
14. Effective communication

It is hard to strictly define effective communication as a THE CHALLENGES AND

person’s effectiveness varies
depending on the situation and the people involved. In BARRIERS TO
general, though, a person is said
to be an effective communication when the 7Cs of CRITICAL THINKING IN
effective communications are
observed both in oral and written forms: clarity, clarity, THE 21ST CENTURY
conciseness, concreteness,
correctness, coherence, completeness and courtesy.

The ability to think critically is one skill

15. Creative thinking separating innovators and leaders from
followers.
It combats the power of advertisers and
Effective critical thinkers are also largely creative
thinkers. Creative thinkers reject capitalistic media, unmasks the unscrupulous
standardized formats for problem solving. They think and pretentious, and exposes unsupported
outside the box and dare to defy arguments.
standards when deemed more beneficial. They have a
wide range of interests and
adopt multiple perspectives on a problem. They are Students enjoy learning the skill because they
also open to experimenting with immediately see how it gives them more
different methods and considering different viewpoints.
control. They argue better in school. They
persuade people around them much easier.
The biggest difference between critical thinkers and creative They build confidence to influence others.
thinkers is that creativity is
associated with generating ideas, while critical thinking is
associated with analyzing and Critical thinking is simple. It is merely the
appraising those ideas. Creativity is important to bringing in
novel ideas; critical thinking ability to understand why things are the way
can bring those ideas into clearer focus. they are and to understand the potential
consequences of actions.
Incidentally, creativity is also considered as the
extension of the 7Cs of effective
communication, sometimes calling it the 9Cs of effective
communication with the
inclusion of “creativity” together with “credibility.”

A World of Illusions
16. Active listening
In particular, people adopt false ideas for several
Attentive listening is often classified into two: active listening reasons:
and passive listening. Both • People believe stories because they are the
involve intent listening, which is good as it shows genuine ones available (due to lack of other
interest, but between the two, source)
only active listening shows adequate feedback.
• Beliefs may justify past actions (to pacify guilt
and protect pride)
Attentive listening, in as far as communications is
concerned, is great, but being a • People may not recognize the significance
passive listener may not always be the best option. of their own perceptions (due to low
Hence, one has to practice active self-esteem and poor sense of self-worth)
listening and make his or her presence feel in the group. • People may not want to question their
This is known as the precursor
to assertiveness as one has to participate in the beliefs (to avoid disappointing or painful
discussion first before asserting reality)
opinions.

These reasons, on their own, can already

be considered as challenges that hinder
people from critically thinking in the modern
times. Hence, you must learn to identify the
common barriers to critical thinking in the
21st century, avoid them, adapt to them or
accept them as they are if no choice is available.
Barriers in the 21st Century
Aside from the emergence of fake news, which
is considered as the biggest challenge
after the advent of the internet and social media
in particular, people in this generation
are facing other barriers that affect the critical
thinking process.
1. Egocentric Thinking
Egocentric thinking is a natural tendency to
view everything in relation to oneself,
sometimes to a point of having narcissistic or
messianic mindsets. This type of thinking
leads to the inability to sympathize with
others or analyze and evaluate various
perspectives. Sadly, since most egocentric
people are not willing or cannot see this
character flaw within them, this increases the
difficulty in overcoming the barrier.
As students explore themselves and their
rightful places where they can fill accepted
and appreciated, egocentric thinking may
become more apparent. After all, they need
experiences, opportunities for debate,
brainstorming sessions, and the chance to
ask
meaningful questions in order to recognize
and understand the viewpoints of others.
Problem arises when initial victory or
compliment gets into their head, making
them
think that one opportune moment of success
in the past can define all of their future
actions and decisions.
2. Groupthink
Groupthink is described as a mental
phenomenon where people belonging to the
same
group adopt the same manner of thinking
and the same principles, regardless of how
irrational or illogical they are, for the sake of
maintaining a harmonious relationship or
reputation. This is how online trends start, as
people start supporting trending opinions
to feel relevant, acknowledged and given
importance, to point when they no longer care
if what they say online reflects their true opinions
and values or not.
Groupthink can lead to unhealthy decision-
making patterns. Like egocentric thinking, it
is difficult to overcome. Breaking the cycle
requires individuals to stand apart from the
group and question opinions, thoughts, and
popular ideas. This can be especially
difficult for adolescents, but teachers can
play a key role in encouraging independent
thought and action in students.
3. Drone Mentality
If you have a drone mentality, this means you do
not pay attention to what is going on
around you. You only pay attention to your
point of view from atop, not minding what
really happens on the ground at face value.
Daily routines often lead to a drone
mentality and can prevent or cause a loss of
critical thinking skills. This is especially true
when your mind automatically ignores stressors
even when they are necessary for you
to understand reality.
This mentality is dangerous in a classroom
because learners forget how to respond to
new circumstances. It also causes them to
shy away from challenges for the sake of
ease and convenience. They prefer to stay
cooped up in their comfort zones, possibly
due to fear of getting rejection, getting
embarrassed in front of other people, or feeling
disappointed of themselves.
Teachers are students should be in constant
connection with each other to remove
whatever barrier there is that makes learning
awkward and frightening at times.
4. Social Conditioning
Unwanted assumptions and stereotyping lead
to social conditioning. Commercialism
and capitalism do not seem to help either
as they dominate media with information
controlled by profit-based desires. This social
conditioning blinds us from the realization
that we are making assumptions and
stereotyping in the first place. We often think not
the way we should, but how capitalists want us
to think.
The ability to think outside of the spectrum is a
priceless asset because most students
do not realize they are being conditioned to
think a certain way. Thus, completely
owning one’s thoughts is a special characteristic
that not everyone gets to enjoy.
Teachers can help their learners by
presenting objective information and then by
subsequently providing different
interpretations, which may be used by
students as
examples to create their own interpretations later
on.
5. Biased Experiences
Personal biases can prohibit critical thinking
because they prevent the thinker from
being fair, inquisitive and open-minded. This
kind of thinking can also prevent an
individual from using experience, reasoning
and common sense to make informed
decisions.
6. Time Pressure
It is especially important that teachers do their
best to create a learning schedule that is
not hindered by time constraints. However, since
this is not possible for all activities and
quizzes due to class scheduling concerns,
students should also adhere to set rules and
instructions to avoid experiencing any problems.
Prioritization, nonetheless, is becoming a
challenge for many learners belonging to the
younger generation due to the advent of the
internet, especially with social media and
online games readily accessible for everyone.
Hence, it is of utmost importance for all
learners to clearly identify and understand their
goals in life, which should comprise their
priority list.
7. Intolerance and Arrogance
Intolerance and arrogance are never
characteristics that will match the
descriptions of
genuine critical thinkers. Furthermore, finding
solutions is almost impossible while
having close-mindedness. Without critical
thinking skills, people usually react
thoughtlessly and recklessly to situations.
Nonetheless, what they should do is assess
and take responsibility for their decisions and
action while also accepting the rewards or
consequences that follow those decisions and
actions.
Intolerance and arrogance undermine creativity,
which, consequentially, leaves no room
for other suggestions for problem-solving. If
learners believe no better solution to a
problem exists, a teacher must have students
question their logic.
• What do I think about this topic?
• What could be the reason behind this thought?
• Where and how did I know about this
information?
• What does the information imply?
• Would it be more beneficial if I change my
view?
Critical thinkers do not accept information
presented in front of them right away. They sort
out and filter what needs to be accepted and
what needs to be rejected. That is only
possible if you keep asking questions and
challenging the veracity of information presented
to you.
WEEK 16
CRITICAL THINKING AND
CRITICAL READING
How are critical reading and critical thinking
different but still closely related with each
other?
Critical reading is definite as a technique for
discovering information and ideas within a
text while critical thinking is a technique for
evaluating information and ideas, and for
deciding what to accept and believe.
Critical reading refers to a careful, active,
reflective, analytic reading. Critical thinking
involves reflecting on the validity of what you
have read in light of our prior knowledge
and understanding of the world.
For example, read the argument below which
you may find humorous but relatable:
Teenagers are buying expensive clothes to let
them rot inside their closets.
Using the aforementioned sentence as example,
critical reading will help you determine
from a linguistic and semantic point of view if the
word “teenagers” collectively refers to
“all teenagers” and if the word “rot” may be taken
from a figurative sense. On the other
hand, critical thinking can help you figure out
whether you agree with the applicability of
the statement in present setting and if you can
relate to it from a personal standpoint.
With the definitions and explanations given,
we can assume that critical reading
appears, at least on most occasions, before
critical thinking. Only once we have fully
understood a text (critical reading) can we truly
evaluate its assertions (critical thinking).
The Two Together in Harmony
In reality, critical reading and critical thinking
work together. Both are crucial parts—
usually standing on different ends—of the
same intricate yet worthwhile cycle of
progressive analysis and evaluation. Critical
thinking allows us to monitor our
comprehension as we read.
Critical thinking depends on critical reading. You
can think critically about a text (critical
thinking) only if you have understood it (critical
reading). We raise objective arguments
based on facts and evidences, which we
critically think about only after painstakingly
researching for them through critical reading.
The Usefulness of the Distinction
Students might wonder why there is still a useful
distinction between critical reading and
critical thinking when they belong to the same
process and are closely linked with each
other.
The usefulness of the distinction lies in its
reminder that we must read each text on its
own merits, not imposing our prior
knowledge or views on it. While we must
evaluate
ideas as we read, we must not distort the
meaning within a text just because we have a
dissenting prior knowledge. Remember that
to think critically is to learn and re-learn
actively, and that is only possible if we keep our
mind open for new information.
The Two Together in Harmony
In reality, critical reading and critical thinking
work together. Both are crucial parts—
usually standing on different ends—of the
same intricate yet worthwhile cycle of
progressive analysis and evaluation. Critical
thinking allows us to monitor our
comprehension as we read.
Critical thinking depends on critical reading. You
can think critically about a text (critical
thinking) only if you have understood it (critical
reading). We raise objective arguments
based on facts and evidences, which we
critically think about only after painstakingly
researching for them through critical reading.
Reading Critically: Verifying and Validating
the Text
Certain tasks must be done when performing
critical reading, regardless of the nature of
the text and the type of topic involved. A writer
must:
• address a specific topic
• define terms clearly
• present logical, logical and objective evidences
• account for the common knowledge
• explain the exceptions, if there are any
• show that the causes are able to precede
effects
• show conclusions based on logic through
arguments supported by evidences
Thinking Critically: Evaluating the Evidence
We often read to gather information that we
can apply and perform. While correcting
inaccurate information is easier when we
simply read to learn new information, the
same might not be the case when we read for
practical application. That is, correcting
something in your head is faster and easier than
correcting your wrong action that arose
from reading wrong information. There will
be consequences involved at this point.
Hence, we must decide what to accept as true
and useful before applying them into any
task.
As readers, we want to accept as fact only
that which is actually true. To evaluate a
conclusion, we must evaluate the evidence
upon which that conclusion is based. We
do not want just any information; we want
reliable information culled from reliable
sources.
CRITICAL THINKING BY A CRITICAL
READER
No one always acts purely objectively and
rationally. It is of human nature to be
subjective and irrational at times.
Critical thinking includes a complex combination
of skills. These skills are the ones that
you should adopt and inculcate in your system:
Rationality
We are rational critical thinkers if we:
• rely on reason rather than emotion
• require evidence, ignore arguments without
any valid evidence, and follow
evidence where it leads
• are concerned more with finding the best
explanation than being right analyzing
apparent confusion and asking questions
• prioritize truths and facts over emotional
satisfaction and ego-feeding
Self-awareness
We are self-aware critical thinkers if we:
• weigh the influences of motives and bias
• recognize our own assumptions, prejudices,
biases, or points of view
• accept both our mistakes and
achievements in as far as argumentation and
reasoning are concerned
Honesty
We are honest critical thinkers if we:
• recognize emotional impulses, selfish
motives, nefarious purposes, or other
modes of self-deception
• recognize what we feel for what they are and
not for what we want them to be
Open-mindedness
We are open-minded critical thinkers if we:
• evaluate all reasonable inferences
• set aside biases when analyzing and
evaluating information
• consider a variety of possible viewpoints or
perspectives
• remain open to alternative interpretations
• accept a new explanation, model, or paradigm
because it explains the evidence
better, is simpler, or has fewer inconsistencies or
covers more data
• accept new priorities in response to a
reevaluation of the evidence or
reassessment of our real interests, and
• do not reject unpopular views out of hand
Discipline
We are disciplined critical thinkers if we:
• are precise, meticulous, comprehensive, and
exhaustive
• resist manipulation and irrational appeals
• avoid snap judgments
Judgement
We are critical thinkers with good and sound
judgment if we:
• recognize the relevance and/or merit of
alternative assumptions and perspectives
• recognize the extent and weight of evidence
WEEK 17
CRITICAL THINKING AND
LOGIC
Logic is the study of the criteria used in
evaluating inferences or arguments.
An inference is a process of reasoning in which
a new belief is formed on the basis of or
in virtue of evidence or proof supposedly
provided by other beliefs.
An argument is a collection of statements or
propositions, some of which are intended
to provide support or evidence in favor of one of
the others.
A statement or proposition is something that can
either be true or false. We usually think
of a statement as a declarative sentence, or part
of a sentence.
The premises of an argument are those
statements or propositions in it that are
intended to provide the support or evidence.
The conclusion of an argument is that statement
or proposition for which the premises
are intended to provide support (in short, it is the
point the argument is trying to make).
Some Example Arguments
God is defined as the most perfect being. A
perfect being must have every trait or
property that it's better to have than not to
have. It is better to exist than not to
exist. Therefore, God exists.
It has rained more than 15 inches per year in
London every year for the past 30
years. So you can safely bet it will rain more
than 15 inches in London this year.
Professor Santos said that the ratio of female to
male students in the class was
exactly 3:1. This means that there are 112
female students in the class, because
there are 148 students in the class total.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica has an article
on symbiosis. It stands to reason
that the Encyclopedia Americana has an
article on symbiosis as well, since the
two reference works tend to cover the same
topics.
1 is a prime number. 3 is a prime number.
5 is a prime number. 7 is a prime
number. Therefore, all odd integers between 0
and 8 are prime numbers.
Inductive Logic and Deductive Logic
The distinction actually has to do with how
strong the author of an argument intends the
evidence or support to be.
An argument is deductive if the author intends it
to be so strong that it is impossible for
the premises to be true and the conclusion
to be false, or in other words, that the
conclusion follows necessarily from the
premises. A deductive argument attempts
(successfully or unsuccessfully) to provide full
proof of the conclusion.
An argument is inductive if the author
intends it only to be so strong that it is
improbable that the premises could be true and
the conclusion false, or in other words,
that the conclusion is likely if the premises
are true. An inductive argument only
attempts (successfully or unsuccessfully) to
provide evidence for the likely truth of the
conclusion, rather than outright proof.
Validity and Soundness
A deductive argument is valid if it has a
form that would make it impossible for the
premises to be true and the conclusion
false, or if the conclusion follows necessarily
from the premises.
To test whether an argument is valid, you
should first imagine that the premises are
true—whether or not they actually are—and then
ask yourself, without appealing to any
other knowledge you have, could you still
imagine the conclusion being false? If you
can, the argument is invalid. If you can't, then
the argument is valid.
Note that validity does not have to do with the
actual truth or falsity of the premises. It
only has to do with what would follow from them
if they were true. A valid argument can
have false premises. For example:
All toasters are items made of gold.
All items made of gold are time-travel devices.
Therefore, all toasters are time-travel devices.
It may be hard to imagine these premises as
true, but it is not hard to recognize that if
they were true, the conclusion would also be
true.
So, there's more to an argument's being a
good one than validity. To be a good
argument, an argument must also have true
premises. An argument with true premises
is called factually correct.
A sound argument is an argument that is both
valid and factually correct.
An invalid argument may have true or false
premises, and a true or false conclusion. A
valid argument may have false premises with
either a true or a false conclusion. The
only combination that is ruled out is a valid
argument with true premises and a false
conclusion. Sound arguments always have true
conclusions.
Argument Form
The validity of a deductive argument is
determined entirely by its form. Consider these
arguments.
All tigers are mammals.
No mammals are creatures with scales.
Therefore, no tigers are creatures with scales.
All spider monkeys are elephants.
No elephants are animals.
Therefore, no spider monkeys are animals.
These arguments share the same form: All A are
B, No B is C. Therefore, No A is C. All
arguments with this form are valid. So the
examples above are valid. Now consider:
All basketballs are round.
The Earth is round.
Therefore, the Earth is a basketball.
All Jedis are one with the force.
Yoda is one with the force.
Therefore, Yoda is a Jedi.
These arguments also have the same form. All A
are F. X is F. Therefore, X is an A. All
arguments with this form are invalid. #4 may
seem like a good argument because all the
premises and the conclusion are true (at
least in fiction), but note that the conclusion
isn't made true by the premises. It could be
possible for the premises to be true and the
conclusion false. #4 is invalid, and all invalid
arguments are unsound. #4 is not a good
argument.
Some Logical Pitfalls
• Begging the Question
An argument begs the question when it
makes use of a premise that no one who
didn't already accept the conclusion would
believe. Simply put, an argument begs
the question when it reasons in a circle or
presupposes the truth of the very thing it's
trying to prove.
Example: God exists, because it says that God
exists in the Bible, and everything in
the Bible is the true word of God.
This fallacy is committed when an argument or
position is rejected not in virtue of its
logical merits, but rather in virtue of the
character, personality, background or
motivation of the person giving the argument
or holding the position. However, a position
can be true, and an argument can be sound, no
matter how deplorable the person is. Who holds
a belief has nothing to do with whether or not it's
true.
Example: Former president Clinton has argued
in favor of increasing restrictions on
the sale of guns. But President Clinton is a
lecherous, adulterous, untrustworthy,
draft-dodging old pervert, so his views must
surely be misguided.

• The Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy Opinion and Fact

This fallacy is committed when something is An opinion is something that someone believes
concluded to be true simply because it to be true.
hasn't been proven to be false, or is
concluded to be false just because it hasn't
A fact is something that is true.
been proven to be true. Reasoning in such a
way is invalid. Something can be true
even if no one has succeeded in showing it to be Sometimes people disagree about what the fact
true. of the matter is with regard to a certain
question. In those cases, there are many
opinions, but only one fact. Those people
Example: No one has even proven that there
whose opinion agrees with the facts are
is life after death. Therefore, there is
correct; those who have other opinions are
no life after death.
incorrect.

• The Wishful Thinking Fallacy

This fallacy is committed when someone

concludes that something must be true in
virtue of what he or she wants to be true (or
doesn't want to be false) instead of what
the evidence suggests. Unfortunately, just
because there are better consequences to
something's being true rather than false does
not provide evidence that it is true.

Example: The idea of life in a universe

without God would be frightening and
depressing, and very difficult to accept.
Therefore, God must exist.

• The "Ad Hominem" Fallacy