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Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity: Antecedents and

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Article  in  International Journal of Emerging Markets · January 2015

DOI: 10.1108/IJOEM-11-2011-0102

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 International Journal of Emerging Markets
Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity: antecedents and consequences
Pilar Fernández-Ferrín Belén Bande-Vilela Jill Gabrielle Klein M. Luisa del Río-Araújo
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Pilar Fernández-Ferrín Belén Bande-Vilela Jill Gabrielle Klein M. Luisa del Río-Araújo ,
(2015),"Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity: antecedents and consequences",
International Journal of Emerging Markets, Vol. 10 Iss 1 pp. 73 - 88
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Consumer
Consumer ethnocentrism and ethnocentrism
consumer animosity: antecedents and consumer
animosity
and consequences
Pilar Fernández-Ferrín 73
Economía Financiera II, Universidad del País Vasco, UPV/EHU, Received 25 November 2011
Vitoria, Spain Revised 5 March 2012
Accepted 18 April 2012
Belén Bande-Vilela
Organización de Empresas y Comercialización,
Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain
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Jill Gabrielle Klein

Department of Marketing, Melbourne Business School, Carlton,
Victoria, Australia, and
M. Luisa del Río-Araújo
Organización de Empresas y Comercialización,
Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Abstract
Purpose – Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity provide marketing management with
two useful concepts to understand the reasons behind consumers’ purchase decisions concerning
domestic vs imported products. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the antecedents and
consequences of animosity and ethnocentrism within a single model, and respondents’ evaluations of
a specific product category are solicited.
Design/methodology/approach – The study is conducted within an ideal context for the study of
consumer animosity: data were collected in Belgrade shortly after the US-led NATO bombings of 1999.
The surveys were carried out in person at the interviewees’ home. The sample was part of a regular
omnibus panel composed of 270 adult respondents, of which 92.2 percent agreed to participate.
Findings – The findings indicate that animosity and consumer ethnocentrism are distinct constructs.
Also consistent with previous research, results obtained confirm that each construct has unique
antecedents and consequences.
Practical implications – Once consumer animosity and ethnocentrism levels have been measured,
managers can then make decisions about whether to promote their country of origin or, alternatively,
create more powerful local connections for their products. Thus, the consideration of animosity and
ethnocentrism can be part of a firm’s international strategies.
Originality/value – Previous studies on consumer animosity have demonstrated through structural
equation modeling that the two constructs are distinct and have distinct antecedents, but research has
not examined both the antecedents and the consequences of animosity and ethnocentrism in the same
study. Thus, this study investigates the antecedents and consequences of animosity and ethnocentrism
within a single model.
Keywords Decision making, Country of origin, Consumer ethnocentrism
Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Emerging

1. Introduction Markets
Traditionally, research on the purchase of foreign products has focussed on the effects Vol. 10 No. 1, 2015
pp. 73-88
of a product’s origin on inferences made about the product. Research in this vein has © Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1746-8809
supported the contention that consumers’ judgments of a product are affected by DOI 10.1108/IJOEM-11-2011-0102
 IJOEM country-of-origin information (e.g. Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Han, 1989; Papadopoulos and
10,1 Heslop, 1993; Hong and Wyer, 1989; Maheswaran, 1994). More recently, however,
research has focussed on broader implications of a product’s origin. Two of these
factors are consumer ethnocentrism (Shimp and Sharma, 1987; Sharma et al., 1995)
and consumer animosity (Klein et al., 1998; Klein, 2002, for a review see Riefler and
Diamantopoulos, 2007).
74 It has been demonstrated that consumer ethnocentrism and animosity are distinct
concepts. Consumer ethnocentrism captures beliefs about the moral appropriateness of
buying foreign products in general. In contrast, the construct of consumer animosity
captures anger toward a specific country and predicts the willingness to buy products
from that specific country (Klein et al., 1998; Klein, 2002). Some consumers may refuse
to buy products from a specific country but are willing to buy products imported
from other countries (Klein, 2002). Previous studies on consumer animosity have
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demonstrated through structural equation modeling that the two constructs

are distinct (Klein et al., 1998; Klein, 2002). Furthermore, Klein and Ettenson (1999)
have demonstrated that the two constructs have distinct antecedents. This study,
however, looked only at antecedents of the two constructs, not at the consequences.
Animosity studies have generally focussed on the consequences of animosity
(Klein et al., 1998; Klein, 2002). Thus, research has not examined both the antecedents
and the consequences of animosity and ethnocentrism in the same study.
Previous research on consumer ethnocentrism and animosity has suffered from one
shortcoming: antecedents and consequences have been examined separately, rather
than in a single model (Klein, 2002; Klein and Ettenson, 1999; Klein et al., 1998). This
research paper addresses this concern by including both antecedents and consequences
in the same model. The study is conducted within an ideal context for the study of
consumer animosity: data were collected in Belgrade shortly after the US-led NATO
bombings of 1999.

2. Literature review
2.1 Consumer ethnocentrism
Consumer ethnocentrism is defined as beliefs held by consumers regarding the
appropriateness and morality of purchasing foreign-made products (Shimp and
Sharma, 1987). Those high in consumer ethnocentrism, as measured by the
CETSCALE (Shimp and Sharma, 1987), prefer to purchase domestic rather than
foreign products and see domestic products as superior to those produced in other
countries (Chryssochoidis et al., 2007; Netemeyer et al., 1991).
When choosing among foreign products these consumers manifest more favorable
attitudes toward products from those countries with a similar culture (Lanz and
Loeb, 1996; Sharma et al., 1995; Watson and Wright, 2000). Research on consumer
ethnocentrism has found that the phenomenon is extremely robust: consumer
ethnocentrism exists even in countries where the majority of consumers prefer
products that are imported (e.g. Balabanis et al., 2001; John and Brady, 2011; Watson
and Wright, 2000) and also that ethnocentrism levels may increase following traumatic
events such as the terrorist attacks in the USA in 2001 (Dube and Black, 2010) or the
Tsunami that affected Thailand and other countries in 2004 (Kongsompong, 2005).

2.2 Consumer animosity

Consumer animosity is defined as “the remnants of antipathy related to previous or
ongoing military, political or economic events” (Klein et al., 1998, p. 90). Research on
 consumer animosity has shown that anger toward a foreign country leads consumers Consumer
to avoid products made by that country. This effect of animosity is independent of ethnocentrism
product judgment: while animosity is related to buying decisions it is not related to
judgments of product quality. In other words, angry consumers do not distort or
and consumer
denigrate images of a target country’s products, they simply refuse to buy them (Klein animosity
et al., 1998; Klein, 2002; for an exception see Shoham et al., 2006). Figure 1 depicts the
animosity model of foreign product purchase. 75
An initial test of the animosity model explored the marketplace effects of Chinese
consumers’ animosity toward Japan stemming from past military events and current
economic tensions (Klein et al., 1998). The study was conducted in Nanjing, China,
which was the site of a 1937 Japanese invasion in which an estimated 3,00,000 civilians
were killed (Chang, 1997). Consistent with the basic tenets of the model, the degree to
which Chinese consumers were angry toward Japan predicted their willingness to buy,
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and their actual ownership of, Japanese goods. These effects were independent of
judgments of Japanese product quality: whether consumers were angry or not,
they gave high marks to Japanese goods, but if they were angry they did not buy
these products.

2.3 Antecedents and consequences

Table I summarizes research on the antecedents of consumer ethnocentrism. While
there are inconsistencies in the findings, as a general rule ethnocentric consumers are
more likely to be older and female, hold patriotic views and possess lower levels of
education and income.
Little research has been conducted on the antecedents of animosity. Klein and
Ettenson (1999) found that consumers holding greater levels of animosity toward Japan
in the context of the USA were older, white and tended to feel prejudice toward
Asian-Americans. Patriotism and membership in a union were found to be antecedents
of both animosity and consumer ethnocentrism. Thus, more research is necessary to
understand the antecedents of this construct, and to further explore the unique
antecedents of animosity and consumer ethnocentrism.
Turning to the consequences of the constructs, consumer ethnocentrism is
significantly related to product judgments, purchase intentions and buying (Han, 1988;

Consumer
Ethnocentrism

Product Willingness
to
Judgments Buy

Figure 1.
The animosity model
of consumer
Animosity
purchase behavior
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76
10,1

Table I.
IJOEM

of consumer
Antecedents

ethnocentrism
Marín
Sánchez
and
Good and Sharma Miquel Klein and Mavondo Watson and
Huddleston et al. Caruana Peris Ettenson and Tan Wright Balabanis et al.
(1995) (1995) (1996) (1997) (1999) (1999) (2000) (2001)
Antecedents Russia Poland South Malta Spain USA Malaysia New Zealand Turkey Czech Rep.
Korea
Age No Yes (+) No Yes (+) Yes (+) No – Yes (+) Yes (+) No
Gender No Yesa Yesa No No Yesa – Yesa Yesa No
Education Yes Yes (−) Yes (−) Yes (−) Yes (−) Yes (−) – Yes (−) No No
(−)
Income No Yes (−) Yes (−) No Yes (−) Yes (−) – Yes (−) Yes (−) Yes (+)
Occupation – – – No – Yesc – – – –
Marital status – – – No – – – – – –
Place of residence – – – No – – – – – –
Union membership – – – – – Yes (+) – – -– –
Patriotism – – Yes (+) – – Yes (+) Yes (+) – Yes (+) No
Nationalism – – – – – – – – No Yes (+)
Internationalism – – – – – – – – No No
Conservatism – – Yes (+) – – – – – – –
Dogmatism – – – Yes (+) – – – – – –
Openness to foreign cultures – – Yes (−) – – – – – – –
Collectivism/individualism – – Yesd – – – – – – –
Concern about the personal financial situation – – – -– – Yes (+) – – – –
Concern about the national economy – – – – – Yes (+) – – -– –
Life style – – – – – – – – -– –

(continued )
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Nijssen
and Spillan
Ibáñez Douglas Saffu and Walker Kottasz and Bennett Chryssochoidis et al. Erdogan and
(2001) (2004) (2005) (2006) et al. (2007) (2007) Uzkurt (2010)
Spain Holland Russia Canada Hungary UK Greece Guatemala Turkey
Age Yes (+) No No No No No Yes (+) – –
Gender Yesa No No No No No No – Yesa
Education Yes (−) Yes (−) No No No No Yes (−) – Yes (−)
Income Yes (−) – – – No No No – Yes (−)
Occupation Yesb – – – – – – – –
e
Marital status – – – – – – Yes – –
Place of residence – – – – – – – – –
Union membership – – – – – – – – –
Patriotism – – – – – – – – –
Nationalism – – – – Yes (+) Yes (+) – – –
Internationalism – – – – – – – – –
Conservatism – – – – Yes (+) Yes (+) – – –
Dogmatism – – – – – – – – –
Openness to foreign cultures – – – – Yes (−) Yes (−) – – –
Collectivism/individualism – – – – Yesd Yesd – – –
Concern about the personal financial situation – – – – – – – – –
Concern about the national economy – – – – – – – – –
Life style – – – – – – – Yesf –
Notes: aWomen; bretired people, housewives; cworking class; dcollectivism; emarried; fliberals been less ethnocentric. Yes, there is a relationship between the
antecedent and consumer ethnocentrism; the sign of the relationship is indicated in brackets; No, there is no statistically significant relationship; –: relationship
not analyzed

Table I.
ethnocentrism
and consumer
animosity
Consumer

77
 IJOEM Herche, 1994; Shimp and Sharma, 1987; Klein et al., 1998). The effects of consumer
10,1 ethnocentrism in purchasing decisions has been found to outweigh the effects of
traditional marketing mix variables (e.g. distribution, location and communication;
Herche (1994). Ethnocentric consumers manifest less favorable attitudes and beliefs
toward foreign products (Chryssochoidis et al., 2007; Durvasala et al., 1997), and they
evaluate domestic products more favorably than imported products. While consumer
78 ethnocentrism has consistently been found to predict product judgments and buying,
consumer animosity has been shown to predict buying independently of product
quality judgments (Klein et al., 1998; Klein, 2002).

3. Research background
Three theories uphold this research paper and serve as a theoretical framework: the
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social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986), the realistic conflict theory (Sherif,
1966) and the planned behavior theory (Ajzen, 1991).
The social identity theory, developed by Tajfel and Turner (1986), asserts that all
individuals tend to classify themselves into groups that these authors call in-groups
and set themselves apart from the out-groups, which encompass all other individuals.
This classification helps to generate a sense of identity but also leads to contrasts
between the in-group and the out-group, which may give rise to barricades and conflict
between the two groups.
For Lantz and Loeb (1998), ethnocentrism is a general term that can be applied to all
social groups (families, friends, communities, race, religion or nations), but that can also
be considered as part of the effect of country of origin (COO). In this case, the nation is
the interest group and the threat thereto is of an economic nature. Individuals may
choose to support national products as they see it as beneficial for their country’s
economy (rational judgment) or even as an obligation (moral judgment).
The division of the world into countries and nationalities means that each individual
has their own specific group (their country), outside of which there are many unrelated
groups (other countries). The country is considered the territory of each group and
the products made there are considered group products, while foreign products are
considered unrelated-group products (Tajfel, 1981; Verlegh, 1999). The natural
tendency of each group is to favor itself over other groups.
Although ethnocentrism originally referred to the importance of the distinction
between social in-groups and out-groups, research on consumer ethnocentrism is
centered almost exclusively on the identification of social in-groups on the basis of
consumer COO. However, an individual may consider themselves part of various social
groups (Brewer and Gardner, 1996; Reed, 2002), which may not necessarily be mutually
exclusive (Lantz and Loeb, 1998). The extent to which various social identities influence
perception of and regard for in-groups and out-groups depends on the intensity of each
identity (Brewer and Gardner, 1996). The strength of ties to a given group can vary
substantially among individuals.
The realistic group conflict theory (Sherif, 1966) maintains that inter-group behavior
is the result of functional relationships between the groups, which, in turn, are affected
by each other’s objectives and interest. When these objectives are perceived as
incompatible, conflict may arise. Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2007) reviewed the 15
studies mentioned above on consumer animosity and verified that the most common
and studied causes of animosity are war animosity, economic animosity and political
and diplomatic conflict. In the first case, the consumer considers that the foreign
 country has committed crimes during historical or military occupations (Klein et al., Consumer
1998; Shimp et al., 2004); in the second case, the consumer considers that the foreign ethnocentrism
country has too much economic power and takes part in unethical trade. (Klein and
Ettenson, 1999; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004); and the last case includes aspects such
and consumer
as corruption or political decisions of the foreign country that may go against national animosity
interests (Ettenson and Klein, 2005).
The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1991) is an attitude-intention-behavioral 79
model which demonstrates that an individual’s social environment has a notable
influence on their intentions and behaviors. If this theory were applied in a purchasing
context, it would state that buying behavior is greatly determined by the belief that
such behavior is approved of by society and, especially, by the individual’s closest
environment (friends and family). Shimp (1984) considers that consumer ethnocentrism
forms part of a wider construct that addresses the cognitive, affective and normative
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orientations of consumers toward foreign products. The foundation of this general

construct includes: commodities-based beliefs and attitudes (e.g. perceptions of a product’s
quality or value); normative beliefs and attitudes (e.g. opinions on whether or not foreign
products should be purchased); and personal views regarding the most appropriate
behaviors with respect to individual interests (e.g. choosing a particular product).
Consumer ethnocentrism was devised to illustrate the second dimension of this construct,
i.e. normative beliefs regarding the appropriateness of buying products from one’s own
country and the inappropriateness of buying imported products.

4. Methodology
4.1 Sample
Data were collected by a Yugoslav marketing research agency from 249 adult
individuals in the city of Belgrade, during the first week of March 2000
(approximately nine months after the NATO bombings ended). The surveys were
carried out in person at the interviewees’ home. The sample was part of a regular
omnibus panel composed of 270 adult respondents, of which 92.2 percent agreed to
participate. Respondents were between 18 and 83 years old (average 44 years);
53 percent were male.

4.2 Measures
The questionnaire was drafted in English and then translated into Serbo-Croatian by
the agency in charge of the data collection. Respondents were asked to indicate
their level of agreement (on a 1 “strongly disagree” to 7 “strongly agree” scale) with
statements concerning: US product quality; willingness to buy US products; consumer
ethnocentrism; war animosity toward USA; patriotism; and perceptions of the state of
the national economy. Higher ratings indicated higher values in these constructs. To
measure the ownership of American products, respondents were asked if they owned
jeans or sports shoes from the USA (0 ¼ none; 1 ¼ one item, jeans or sports shoes;
2 ¼ two items, jeans and sports shoes). Table II lists the measures of each construct and
some of the previous studies that have used each measure.

5. Results
Table II shows the descriptive information for each of our constructs. Yugoslav
consumers generally held positive views of US products (m ¼ 4.73), and they were
willing to buy US products (m ¼ 4.81; t ¼ 0.792). Differences between means were not
 IJOEM Constructs/ Typical
10,1 items Description Average deviat.

US products judgments (modified from Darling and Arnold, 1988; Darling 4.74 1.42
and Wood, 1990; Wood and Darling, 1993) (α ¼ 0.8728)
WORK Products made in US are carefully produced and have fine workmanship
80 TECH Products made in US show a very high degree of technological advancement
RELY Products made in US are usually quite reliable and seem to last the desired
length of time
VALUE Products made in US are usually a good value for the money
Willingness to buy US products (modified from Darling and Arnold, 1988; 4.81 1.84
Darling and Wood, 1990; Wood and Darling, 1993) (α ¼ 0.9187)
AVOIDN Whenever possible, I avoid buying US products (inverted item)
PACKN I would never buy a US pack of cigarettes (inverted item)
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GUILTN I would feel guilty if I bought a US products (inverted item)

IDEAN I do not like the idea of owning US products (inverted item)
TENN I two products were equal in quality, but one was from US and one was from
Yugoslavia, I would pay 10% more for the products from Yugoslavia (inverted item)
Ethnocentrism (modified from Netemeyer et al., 1991; Shimp and Sharma, 3.01 1.79
1987) (α ¼ 0.9666)
CET1 Only those products that are unavailable in Yugoslavia should be imported
CET2 Yugoslav products, first, last, and foremost
CET3 Purchasing foreign-made products is an-Yugoslav
CET4 It is not right to purchase foreign products, because it puts Yugoslavs out of jobs
CET5 A real Yugoslav should always buy Yugoslav-made products
CET6 We should purchase products manufactured in Yugoslavia instead of letting other
countries get rich off of us
CET7 Yugoslavs should not buy foreign products, because this hurts Yugoslav business
and causes unemployment
CET8 It may cost me in the long-run, but I prefer to support Yugoslavian products
CET9 We should buy from foreign countries only those products that we cannot obtain
within our own country
CET10 Yugoslavian consumers who purchase products made in other countries are
responsible for putting their fellow Yugoslavian out of work
ANIMOSITY (developed for this study) (α ¼ 0.8670) 5.80 1.06
FORGIVE I will never forgive US for the NATO bombing
PAY US should pay for what it did to Yugoslavia during the bombing
ACT NATO bombing was an act of interference in the Yugoslav sovereignty
CARE US does not care what Yugoslavia or other nations think about its actions
INFLU US has too much influence in Europe
DIS NATO bombing shows a complete disregard for Yugoslavia and other Eastern
Europe countries
NEG US has a negative attitude toward Yugoslavia
National economy situation (from Klein and Ettenson, 1999)
ECON Please, rate the national economy situation relative to one 2.10 1.35
year ago
(1: much worse - 7: much better)
Patriotism ( from Klein and Ettenson, 1999)
LOVE How strong is your love for your country? 5.82 1.54
Table II. (1: not very strong - 7:very strong)
Description of the Ownership (developed for this study)
constructs’ measure Ownership Do you own any of these American products? 0.68 0.85
items, scales None ¼ 0
reliability and Jeans or sport shoes ¼ 1
average values Jeans and sport shoes ¼ 2
 significant. Consumer ethnocentrism was quite low (m ¼ 3.01), while levels of war Consumer
animosity toward the US were high (m ¼ 5.80; t ¼ 25.572; differences between means ethnocentrism
were significant, p o 0.000).
Respondents tended to think that the national economy had been deteriorating
and consumer
(m ¼ 2.10), but still showed strong patriotism (m ¼ 5.82; t ¼ 29.853). Approximately animosity
one-third of respondents indicated that they owned US jeans or shoes.
81
5.1 Measurement model
Construct reliability measures (composite reliability, Cronbach’s α and extracted
variance) were calculated for all the constructs by means of a CFA with the Amos
7.0 module of SPSS 13.0 (Figure 2). Composite reliabilities ranged from 0.87 to 0.95 and
thus were all above the 0.70 level suggested by Hair et al. (1999). Cronbach’s α ranged
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from 0.85 to 0.97. The extracted variances were all between 0.50 and 0.77, at or above
the 0.50 level suggested by Hair et al. (1999).
This factorial model achieved a good level of fit ( χ2 (203 df) ¼ 419.847,
RMSEA ¼ 0.066, CFI ¼ 0.950 and NNFI ¼ 0.944). All of the factor loadings for each
scale item were above 0.6.
Discriminant validity between the constructs was analyzed using two different
methods. First, we analyzed confirmatory models in which correlations between
each pair of constructs were constrained to be 1, as suggested by Bagozzi (1981) and
Anderson and Gerbing, (1988). Results were compared with the respective

1
e1 CET1 1
NEG ea4
1
e2 CET2 1
DIS ea3
1 1
e3 CET3 1
CARE ea2
1
e4 CET4 1
1 ACT ea1
1
animosity INFLU ea5
1 ethnocentrism
e5 CET5 1
PAY ea6
1
FORGIVE ea7
1
e10 CET10

1
WORK ev1
1
1
TECH ev2
judgments 1
RELY ev3
1
VALUE ev4

1
AVOIDN evo1
1 1
PACKN evo2
1
willingness GUILTN evo3
1
IDEAN evo4 Figure 2.
1 Measurement model
TENN evo5
 IJOEM unconstrained models in which the constructs were allowed to correlate. χ2 for the
10,1 unconstrained models was significantly lower[1] than the one obtained for the
constrained models. Furthermore, discriminant validity is demonstrated when the
square of the parameter estimate between two constructs (ϕ2) is less than the average
variance of the two constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Netemeyer et al., 1997). For
all pairs of constructs, the squared correlations were lower than the average variance.
82 These analyses support the discriminant validity of our constructs.

5.2 Structural model

The structural model depicted in Figure 3 showed a very good fit with the data:
( χ2(333 df ) ¼ 649.254, RMSEA ¼ 0.062, CFI ¼ 0.933 and NNFI ¼ 0.924). The results
show that consumer animosity and consumer ethnocentrism have distinct antecedents.
Consistent with previous research (Chryssochoidis et al., 2007; Good and
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Huddleston, 1995; Watson and Wright, 2000), age and education predicted
ethnocentric tendencies positively for age (b ¼ 0.24, p o 0.001) and negatively for
education (b ¼ −0.12, p o 0.05) but these demographics did not predict animosity.

ED ECON LOVE GENDER BIRTH

1
e1 CET1 1
NEG ea4
1
e2 CET2 1
DIS ea3
1 1
e3 CET3 z1 z2 1
CARE ea2
1
e4 CET4 1 1 1
1 ACT ea1
1
animosity INFLU ea5
ethnocentrism
1
e5 CET5 1
PAY ea6
1
FORGIVE ea7
1
e10 CET10

z3
1
1 WORK ev1
1
1
TECH ev2
judgments
1
RELY ev3
1
VALUE ev4

z4 1
AVOIDN evo1
1 1 1
PACKN evo2
z5
1
1 willingness GUILTN evo3
1
Figure 3. OWNERSHI IDEAN evo4
Structural model 1
TENN evo5
 Men showed a higher level of war animosity than women (b ¼ −0.13, p o 0.05), but Consumer
gender did not predict consumer ethnocentrism, which is in line with the findings of ethnocentrism
other previous studies (Caruana, 1996; Chryssochoidis et al., 2007; Marín Sánchez and
Miquel Peris, 1997; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004). Both constructs were predicted by
and consumer
concern about national economies, with those who are less concerned (those who animosity
think that the national economic situation is much better than a year ago) reporting
less animosity (b ¼ −0.18, p o 0.01) and greater ethnocentric tendencies (b ¼ 0.26; 83
p o 0.001). Consistent with Klein and Ettenson (1999), patriotism was a significant and
positive predictor of both consumer ethnocentrism (b ¼ 0.21, p o 0.001) and animosity
(b ¼ 0.40, p o 0.001, respectively).
There is also evidence from our study that consumer ethnocentrism and consumer
animosity have different consequences. Consistent with key tenets of the international
animosity model (e.g. Klein et al., 1998), consumer ethnocentrism was found to be a
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predictor of product judgments (b ¼ −0.58, p o 0.001) and willingness to buy

(b ¼ −0.81, p o 0.001) and animosity predicted only the willingness to buy American
products (b ¼ −0.10, p o 0.01).
The willingness to buy American products has a significant effect on the ownership
of American products (b ¼ 0.32, p o 0.00). Age, but none of the other antecedents,
was a direct significant antecedent of the ownership of American products (b ¼ −0.37,
p o 0.000). The model explained 33 percent of the variance in the ownership of
American products (Table III).

6. Conclusions
In this study we examined both the antecedents and the consequences of international
animosity. Consistent with past research, we found evidence to suggest that animosity
and consumer ethnocentrism are distinct constructs: confirmatory factor analysis found
that the two are distinct, and each construct had unique antecedents and consequences.
Age and education were related to ethnocentrism but not animosity, while gender was
related to animosity and not ethnocentrism. Patriotism was a common predictor of both
constructs. Contrary to previous research (e.g. Klein and Ettenson, 1999), those with more
concern about the state of the economy showed less consumer ethnocentrism. This may
have been due to the fact that at the time of data collection Yugoslavia was suffering from
an embargo, and citizens may have believed that imports would have lead to economic
improvement (despite the embargo American jeans and sports shoes were available).
We also found that animosity and consumer ethnocentrism have distinct
consequences. Consumer ethnocentrism predicted willingness to buy and product
judgments, while animosity only predicted willingness to buy. This is consistent with
a basic tenet of the animosity model that feelings of anger toward another country are
independent of product judgments. Interestingly, consumer ethnocentrism was a stronger
predictor than animosity of willingness to buy, suggesting that negative beliefs about
buying foreign products had a stronger impact on buying decisions than animosity did.

7. Managerial implications
Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity provide marketing managers with
two useful concepts to understand consumers’ purchase decisions concerning domestic
vs imported products. In addition to this, the identification of distinct antecedents and
consequences of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity provide evidence of
the distinctiveness of the two constructs. Consumer ethnocentrism will impact product
 IJOEM Estimate CR p
10,1
Ethnocentrism ← ED −0.123 −2.144 0.032
Ethnocentrism ← ECON 0.258 4.494 ***
Ethnocentrism ← LOVE 0.215 3.744 ***
Ethnocentrism ← BIRTH 0.241 4.080 ***
84 Judgments ← Ethnocentrism −0.582 −8.062 ***
Animosity ← GENDER −0.135 −2.174 0.030
Animosity ← ECON −0.176 −2.802 0.005
Animosity ← LOVE 0.398 5.829 ***
Willingness ← Animosity −0.100 −2.870 0.004
Willingness ← Judgments 0.177 3.933 ***
Willingness ← Ethnocentrism −0.805 −14.843 ***
CET4 ← Ethnocentrism 0.932
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CET3 ← Ethnocentrism 0.889 23.811 ***

CET2 ← Ethnocentrism 0.909 25.560 ***
CET1 ← Ethnocentrism 0.656 12.731 ***
NEG ← Animosity 0.654
DIS ← Animosity 0.797 10.498 ***
CARE ← Animosity 0.665 9.080 ***
ACT ← Animosity 0.790 10.430 ***
WORK ← Judgments 0.668
TECH ← Judgments 0.826 11.263 ***
RELY ← Judgments 0.885 11.819 ***
VALUE ← Judgments 0.820 11.198 ***
AVOIDN ← Willingness 0.842
PACKN ← Willingness 0.796 15.261 ***
GUILTN ← Willingness 0.834 16.429 ***
IDEAN ← Willingness 0.875 17.816 ***
CET5 ← Ethnocentrism 0.938 28.521 ***
CET10 ← Ethnocentrism 0.920 26.648 ***
INFLU ← Animosity 0.645 8.849 ***
PAY ← Animosity 0.737 9.877 ***
FORGIVE ← Animosity 0.641 8.794 ***
TENN ← Willingness 0.801 15.414 ***
Table III. Ownership ← Willingness 0.324 5.499 ***
Standardized Ownership ← BIRTH −0.372 −6.648 ***
regression weights Note: ***p o0.001

judgments and willingness to buy for all foreign products, while animosity will impact
willingness to buy but not product judgments. Furthermore, we identified correlates
of standard segmentation variables that affect the probability of a consumer holding
animosity or possessing ethnocentric beliefs.
Elderly people with low levels of education that are very patriotic and not very
concerned about the national economy are more likely to present high levels of
ethnocentrism. Consumers with greater animosity levels tend to be men that are very
patriotic and very concerned about the country’s economic situation. This information
could be very useful when identifying both types of consumer within a specific market.
Also worthy of note is the finding that ethnocentric consumers will be more critical of
the quality of foreign products and will show less willingness to buy such products, while
consumers presenting higher levels of animosity will positively regard products from the
country toward which they feel animosity despite not being willing to buy them.
 Campaigns aimed at improving the image of products from the country toward which the Consumer
consumer feels animosity will not be effective when it comes to these kinds of consumers ethnocentrism
since the relationship between perceived product quality and animosity is not significant.
However, it is likely that companies from the country toward which the consumer feels
and consumer
animosity will be viewed more favorably following government measures that offend the animosity
consumer’s country, such as a public ceremony apologizing to the victims of military
conflict or war, the fight against corruption or the encouragement of fair trade practices, 85
depending on the source of animosity: military, diplomatic or economic.
Animosity and consumer ethnocentrism should be tracked over time in a given
country market, because these opinions, particularly animosity, can change over time.
Ettenson and Klein (2005) found that anger held by Australians toward France due to
nuclear testing decreased after a few years. On the other hand, Klein et al. (1998), found
very high levels of animosity in Nanjing 60 years after the massacre by Japan,
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and young consumers were as angry as older consumers. This suggests that there is no
standard rule for diminishment of animosity over time. Instead, managers must
monitor angry feelings. In some cases, situational animosity can convert into stable
animosity, and vice versa and stable animosity can slowly diminish to become
situational animosity (Riefler and Diamantopoulos, 2007).
Finally, once consumer animosity and ethnocentrism levels have been measured,
managers can then make decisions about whether to promote their COO or, alternatively,
to create more powerful local connections for their products. Thus, the consideration of
animosity and ethnocentrism can be part of a firm’s international strategies.
Note
1. The χ2 reduction (1 df ) was significant at the 0.001 level for the unconstrained correlations
between: consumer ethnocentrism and war animosity, consumer ethnocentrism and product
judgments, consumer ethnocentrism and willingness to buy, war animosity and
product judgments, and war animosity and willingness to buy; for the correlation
between product judgments and willingness to buy, the χ2 reduction was significant only at
the 0.1 probability level.

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About the authors

Dr Pilar fernández-Ferrín is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Economics and Business,
Basque Country University, Spain. She received her PhD from the University of Santiago de
Compostela. Her research interests include new product development and sales management and
consumer behavior. Her research articles appear in Journal of Product Innovation Management,
Technovation, Industrial Marketing Management, European Journal of Marketing, Psychology
and Marketing and Journal of Creativity and Innovation Management. Dr Pilar Fernández-Ferrín
is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: pilar.fernandezf@ehu.es
Dr Belén Bande-Vilela is an Associate Professor of Marketing at the Faculty of Economics and
Business Administration at the University of Santiago de Compostela in Spain. She holds a PhD
from the University of Santiago de Compostela. She works mainly on the field of sales
management, consumer behavior and new product development. Her work has been published in
Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, European Journal of
Marketing, Technovation and Journal of Creativity and Innovation Management.
Jill Gabrielle Klein is a Professor of Management - Marketing at the Melbourne Business School.
She received her PhD in Social Psychology from the University of Michigan in 1990. Her research
interests are consumer boycotts, corporate social responsibility and international marketing, including
the effects of international hostility on consumer perceptions of foreign products. She has had articles
published in the Journal of Marketing, Harvard Business Review, Sloan Management Review,
Management Science, The Journal of International Business Studies and the British Medical Journal.
Dr M. Luisa del Río-Araújo is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Economics and
Business at the University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Her research interests include
international marketing, new product development and marketing orientation. She holds a PhD
from the University of Santiago de Compostela. Her last papers have been published in
Technovation, European Journal of Marketing, Journal of Creativity and Innovation Management
and Marketing Intelligence and Planning.

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