Heat engines

Version 1.1

Index:

1. The steam engine 1

2. The gasoline engine 2
3. The diesel engine 4
4. The two-stroke engine 5
5. The jet engine 6

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1. The steam engine

1.1. The steam engine

Every now and then an invention comes out that changes forever the way people live, work or relate. In recent years,
one of these inventions has been undoubtedly the Internet. Another good example, but from the past, is the steam
engine. Its invention, in the 18th century, allowed humankind for the first time to have a reliable and powerful engine,
which enabled us to become independent from traditional sources of mechanical energy: such as rivers, wind and
draft animals. The use of the steam engine in industry and transport came swiftly, becoming one of the pillars of the
First Industrial Revolution (late 18th century-early 19th century), which brought many social, political and economic
changes in developed countries.
The first steam engines were built by engineers D. Papin, T. Savery and T. Newcomen, but it was the Scot James
Watt who finally succeeded, in 1769, in building a practical engine.

1.2. Uses of the steam engine

During the 19th century, the use of steam engines was massive, so much so that it was called the Steam Century.
Today, steam engines are no longer used, at the beginning of the 20th century they began to be replaced by internal
combustion engines (such as the gasoline engine) and electric engines, which are more cost-effective and practical.
The steam engine had many uses, although two of them can be highlighted: powering machines in industries
(especially the textile industry) and railway transport (steam locomotive).
Another prominent use of the steam engine was powering ships. By eliminating dependence on the wind, steamships
-or "steamboats", as they were known- allowed the development of intercontinental navigation. Shortly thereafter,
though less successful, the first steam cars appeared.
The steam engine was also used in mining (to power water pumps), in agriculture (such as tractors) and all kinds of
machinery for Public Works (for example, excavators).

1.3. How does a steam engine work?

The steam engine, or steam machine, is an external combustion heat engine. Like other heat engines (gasoline,
diesel, 2-stroke engines), it gets energy from burning a fuel, typically coal. The difference with previous engines is that
combustion does not occur inside the engine but outside in a boiler. The heat generated is used to heat water and
make it boil until it transforms into steam.
The high-pressure steam exiting the boiler is sent to a metal cylinder, which contains a piston. The steam first enters
through one end of the cylinder and later through the opposite end. This causes the piston to move from one side to
the other in a back-and-forth motion. This back-and-forth motion later becomes rotation motion through a crank and
connecting rod mechanism. The item responsible for directing the steam from one side of the cylinder to the other is
called the distributor. The distributor is a sliding valve that is automatically actuated by the movement of the engine. In
the following pages, we explain its operation step by step.

Step 1:
The distributor is on the left; this forces the steam to enter the cylinder from the right. The steam exerts great pressure
on the piston and moves it to the left. The linear movement of the piston is converted into rotation of the wheels
through a crank and connecting rod mechanism.
Step 2:
The movement of the engine causes the distributor to automatically move to the right. As a result, steam now enters
the cylinder from the left side. The steam pushes the piston to the right, to its initial position. The cycle starts again.

We have seen the basic operation of the steam engine, but one key element is missing: the centrifugal regulator or
the Watt regulator. Its function is to maintain constant rotation speed of the steam engine. Without the regulator, the

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machine is accelerated when the required effort decreases. This would happen, for example, when a steam
locomotive would go down a slope. The regulator consists of a shaft to which two metal balls are coupled; these two
balls, in turn, are connected to the valve that regulates the steam supply to the engine. The shaft rotates at a speed
proportional to the movement of the engine. By the effect of centrifugal force, the faster the shaft spins, the more
separation there is between the balls and the more closed the valve will be, and vice versa. The centrifugal regulator
was one of the first automatic control systems.

2. The gasoline engine

2.1. Introduction
In 1876, one century after the invention of the steam engine, German engineer Nikolaus Otto invented the gasoline
engine. Unlike the steam engine, the gasoline engine is an internal combustion engine, because the fuel is burned
inside the engine, not in an external boiler. Internal combustion engines, along with electric engines, soon replaced
steam engines in the industry because they are lighter, more cost-effective and of easier maintenance. The gasoline
engine was also a small powering group and consumed a cheaper fuel, which made possible the emergence,
development and popularization of the car.

2.2. Where are gasoline engines used?

The gasoline engine is used today in most of cars and motorcycles, as well as karts and various construction and
garden machinery.

2.3. Gasoline
Gasoline engines use two types of fuel: unleaded 95 gasoline and unleaded 98 gasoline. The number, 95 or 98,
corresponds to the octane rating, an indicator of the amount of energy contained in gasoline. The greater the octane
rating, the more energy there is in a litre of gasoline. 98 gasoline contains more energy per litre than 95, and is
generally used in more powerful vehicles. In each vehicle’s manual, the manufacturer specifies which type of fuel is
recommended.
Gasoline is a chemical obtained from petroleum. It consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons (compounds that contain
carbon and hydrogen). It is a very dangerous product: it is very flammable and can radiate toxic fumes. Gasoline
should not be stored at home; it is very dangerous!
How does gasoline generate mechanical energy? Hydrocarbons in gasoline contain energy stored in their chemical
bonds (junctions between two atoms). When gasoline burns, hydrocarbons bind with oxygen in the air (oxidation
reaction) and two gases are formed: carbon dioxide and water steam; and a large amount of energy is released in the
form of heat. The molecules of gases formed take some of this energy and expand rapidly. When they move, they can
exert great force on anything that stands in their way; this force powers the engine.

Hydrocarbons + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O + Energy

(gasoline) (oxygen) (carbon dioxide) (water steam)

Unfortunately, this reaction generates a large amount of CO2, a greenhouse gas. Since the First Industrial Revolution,
humans have been generating and expelling to the atmosphere a large amount of this type of gases, so much so that
we are beginning to change the Earth’s climate, which is a major risk for our future and that of other species. In
addition to CO2, unburned hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide are also generated, among others; all
of these gases are very harmful to the environment and to the health of people.

2.4. Gasoline engine parts

A gasoline engine consists of three parts: the cylinder head, the
block and the crankcase. In the image, you can see a simplified
gasoline engine where the basic elements that make up each of the
three parts are indicated.
- Cylinder head: This is the top section of the engine. The cylinder
head contains the intake valve, through which a mixture of air and
gasoline enters, the exhaust valve, through which burned gases
exit, and the spark plug, which is the item that produces the
explosion of fuel by an electrical spark.
- Block: This is the middle section of the engine. The block contains
the elements that produce the movement. The reciprocating motion
of raising and lowering of the piston inside the cylinder is
transmitted to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. The
crankshaft converts the back and forth motion into rotary motion.
- Crankcase: This is the bottom section of the engine. The
crankcase, in addition to protecting the crankshaft, serves as an oil
reservoir. The oil is used to lubricate (lubricate moving engine parts
and reduce friction), thus reducing engine wear and overheating.

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2.5. How does a gasoline engine work?
The gasoline engine is a four-stroke engine, which means it works in four phases, in the following order: intake,
compression, power and exhaust. We will study these phases step by step.

2.5.1. First stroke. Intake

In the intake phase, the first stroke of the gasoline engine, the piston descends from the highest position, called top
dead centre (TDC), to the lowest position, the bottom dead centre (BDC). The intake valve opens and the cylinder is
filled with a mixture of gasoline and air, which will serve to power the engine. The exhaust valve is closed.
Work sequence:
1- Piston descends
2- Intake valve opens
3- Mixture enters the cylinder

In modern engines, the mixture is generated by injectors. These are electrically controlled valves that spray gasoline
in the form of small droplets into the pipe that conveys air to the engine or directly into the cylinder. The injectors are
controlled by a computer. Older engines use a carburettor, a mechanical component.

2.5.2. Second stroke. Compression

In the second stroke, compression, the intake valve closes and the piston moves from BDC to TDC. The exhaust
valve remains closed. As the piston rises, the mixture is compressed, resulting in high pressure and temperature
within the compression chamber, which favour the combustion of gasoline.
Work sequence:
1- Piston rises
2- Intake valve closes
3- Mixture is compressed

2.5.3. Third stroke. Power

In the third stroke, power, the spark plug produces a spark that causes the mixture to explode. The two valves remain
closed. As a result of combustion, a large amount of gases is formed, which push the piston down (to the BDC). This
is the only phase in which work is obtained; heat energy is transformed into mechanical energy.
Work sequence:
1- A spark occurs in the spark plug
2- Mixture explodes
3- Piston is pushed down

2.5.4. Fourth stroke. Exhaust

In the fourth stroke, exhaust, the exhaust valve opens while the intake valve remains closed. The piston begins to rise
and expels gases from the engine originated from combustion. When the piston reaches the TDC, the cycle starts
again.
Work sequence:
1- Piston rises
2- Exhaust valve opens
3- Burned gases exit

2.6. The 4-cylinder lined engine

We have seen how a single-cylinder gasoline engine works. Most cars have engines consisting of 4 cylinders lined
connected by a crankshaft. For the engine to have a smooth, continuous motion, the 4 strokes (intake, compression,
power and exhaust) are divided between the different cylinders. Explosions are produced consecutively on one
cylinder at a time. The sequence followed by these explosions is called the firing order. The firing order of a typical
engine is 1-3-4-2.

2.7. Other engine settings

As noted before, the typical setting of car engines is the 4-cylinder lined engine. However, there are other common
settings, such as single-cylinder, V-shape engine and opposite cylinders. The single-cylinder setting, as its name
suggests, consists of a single cylinder and is used in mopeds and small motorcycles. In V-shape engines, the
cylinders are placed at an angle, in the shape of a letter V. In the case of opposite cylinders, the angle is 180°. The
latter two settings are used in some types of automobiles and powerful motorcycles.

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3. The diesel engine

3.1. Introduction
The diesel engine was invented in 1892, a few years after the gasoline engine (1876). It was invented by German
engineer Rudolf Diesel, who was looking for a way to make an engine that would be as efficient as possible, i.e. one
that would make the most use of energy contained in the fuel. An interesting fact is that the first diesel engines ran on
vegetable oil, palm or coconut oils, and not with a petroleum derivative. Although it is similar to a gasoline engine,
both are 4-stroke internal combustion engines, there are actually important differences between them.

3.2. Where are diesel engines used?

The diesel engine is used in all types of heavy vehicles: trucks, vans, buses, public work machinery, ships and trains
on non-electrified lines. It is also used in a number of cars; between 60 and 70% of new cars are diesel (the rest use a
gasoline engine).

3.3. Gasoil
Diesel engines use a fuel named gasoil and sometimes simply diesel. Gasoil is also used to heat homes and
businesses. Like gasoline, it is a petroleum derivative fuel. It differs from gasoline in that it is denser and has a higher
calorific value (more energy in the same volume); also, its storage is safer because it is not highly flammable.
Traditionally, gasoil was cheaper than gasoline, but the increase in consumption, especially in cars, has equalled their
prices. In recent years, biodiesel is being introduced in the market, which is not a petroleum derivative but a derivative
of oils obtained from plants, such as rapeseed, sunflower and soy. Although it can be used directly, it is normally
mixed with gasoil.

3.4. Parts of the diesel engine

In the image, you can see the basic components of a diesel
engine. As can be observed, there are no spark plugs, since the
fuel does not explode under the effect of an electric spark, as in
the gasoline engine, but by high temperatures created due to
great compression of air in the cylinder. Precisely for this
reason, given the great compression it must withstand, it is a
more robust and, therefore, heavier engine than a gasoline
engine of equivalent power.

3.5. How does a diesel engine work?

The diesel engine is a four-stroke engine that operates on four
phases: intake, compression, power and exhaust. We will study
them step by step.
Fact: Although diesel engines used in cars and trucks are 4-
stroke engines, there are also 2-stroke diesel engines, which are
used in ships and powerful locomotives.

3.5.1. First stroke. Intake

The piston descends and the cylinder is filled with air. Unlike
gasoline engines, fuel does not enter at this time, only air.
Work sequence:
1. The piston descends
2. The intake valve opens
3. Air enters the cylinder

3.5.2. Second stroke. Compression

The intake valve closes. The piston rises and compresses the air in the cylinder. Compression in diesel engines is
much higher than in gasoline engines, so much so that the air reaches a great temperature.
Work sequence:
1. The piston rises
2. The intake valve closes
3. The air inside the cylinder is strongly compressed, which makes it heat to a great temperature

3.5.3. Third stroke. Power

Gasoil is injected into the cylinder in the form of very small droplets. Upon contact with highly hot air gasoil explodes.
As a result of combustion, a large amount of gases is formed, which push the piston downward. Unlike gasoline
engines, a spark is not necessary to make the fuel explode.
Work sequence:
1. Gasoil is injected into the cylinder
2. The diesel explodes
3. The piston is pushed downward

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3.5.4. Fourth stroke. Exhaust
The piston rises again, the exhaust valve opens and the gases exit the engine. The cycle may start again.
Work sequence:
1. The piston rises
2. The exhaust valve opens
3. Burned gases exit

4. The two-stroke engine

4.1. Introduction
In the second mini-unit of this chapter, we studied the gasoline engine’s operation, an internal combustion heat
engine operated according to four phases or strokes. Another type of engine that uses gasoline to run is the two-
stroke engine; in this type of engine, the four strokes of the gasoline engine (intake, compression, power and exhaust)
are grouped into only two strokes (intake-compression and power-exhaust). This engine is generally used in low
power machines such as motorcycles, lawn mowers, chain saws, jet skis, cars and aircraft modelling, etc.

4.2. Features of a two-stroke engine

The two-stroke engine operates with a fuel called "mixture", which is nothing else than gasoline mixed with a small
amount of lubricating oil (between 2% and 4% of the total mixture).
Since the mixture is in contact with all moving parts of the engine, the oil incorporated into the fuel keeps the engine
lubricated without the need of a complex and expensive system. In addition, the two-stroke engine, unlike four-stroke
engines, has no valves, which makes it a simple, light and inexpensive engine.
Disadvantages include having a lower performance than four-stroke engines, because during combustion not all the
mixture is burned, i.e. not all the fuel is used. They are also more polluting engines.

4.3. Parts of a two-stroke engine

The two-stroke engine, like the gasoline or diesel engine,
also consists of three parts: the head, the block and the
crankcase, although its components are somewhat
different from those of four-stroke engines.
The spark plug is located in the crankcase, and produces
the explosion of the mixture through an electric spark.
The block includes the cylinder, along with the piston, the
connecting rod and the crankshaft; these are the parts that
generate movement. It also has load ports, exhaust ports
and intake ports, which are tubes that guide the entry and
exit of gases to/from the engine.
The crankcase, as discussed below, in addition to
protecting the crankshaft, acts as pre-compression
chamber for the mixture, so it must be hermetically sealed
(it should not allow the exit of gases). This is not an oil
reservoir as in the four-stroke engine.

4.4. How does a two-stroke engine work?

As mentioned before, in this type of engine the four strokes of gasoline or diesel engines are grouped into only two
strokes. In the first stroke, intake and compression occur simultaneously (entry of the mixture into the engine and
reduction of its volume), and in the second stroke power and exhaust take place (combustion of the mixture and exit
of gases produced by combustion). Instead of valves, there are several openings, called "ports", which are opened or
closed by the piston as it moves along the cylinder.

4.4.1. First stroke. Intake and compression

The piston rises and intakes a mixture of gasoline, air and oil coming from an engine component called the
carburettor. The bottom of the engine is filled with this mixture. At the same time, the mixture of gasoline, air and oil is
compressed, which is now trapped inside the cylinder.
Work sequence:
1. The piston rises.
2. The bottom of the engine is filled with the mixture of gasoline, air and oil coming from the carburettor.
3. The mixture of gasoline, air and oil trapped in the cylinder is compressed.

4.4.2. Second stroke. Power and exhaust

When the piston reaches the highest point, known as the top dead centre (TDC), the spark plug generates a spark
and the mixture explodes. Combustion gases generated drive the piston downward to the bottom dead centre (BDC).
As the piston descends, the mixture that used to be in the bottom of the engine is pumped into the cylinder through
the load port. Finally, combustion gases are displaced outwards.

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Work sequence:
1. The spark plug generates a spark.
2. The mixture explodes.
3. Combustion gases drive the piston downward.
4. The mixture that used to be in the bottom of the engine is pumped into the cylinder.
5. Combustion gases are expelled from the cylinder.

4.5. Cubic capacity of an engine

You have probably heard the expression "this motorcycle has 125 cubic centimetres." This is what is known as "the
cubic capacity", which is the volume measure of an engine’s cylinders. Cubic capacity is an important detail because
the more cubic capacity, the more powerful the engine. To calculate cubic capacity, it is necessary to know the
cylinder diameter and the piston stroke (distance travelled by the piston inside the cylinder) and put these into the
formulas below. The result is expressed in cc (cm3).

Cc = Π · r2 ·h
Cm = Cc · nc

Where Cc is the cubic capacity of a cylinder (in cm3), Π the number Pi (3,14), r the cylinder radius (in cm), h the piston
stroke (in cm), Cm the engine cubic capacity (in cm3), and nc the number of cylinders.

5. The jet engine

5.1. Introduction
Most modern aircraft use jet engines, also called reactors. The jet engine was invented in the 1930s by two engineers
working separately; on the one hand Frank Whittle in the United Kingdom, and on the other Hans von Ohain in
Germany. Jet engines are gas turbines, a type of rotary engine consisting of a turbine (a rotating mechanism similar
to a fan) spinning as a result of the impact of gases at high speed. In addition to aircraft, gas turbines are used in
power plants to produce electricity or in boats and some locomotives to generate mechanical traction. The great
advantage of gas turbines is that they can generate great power with a reduced weight and size.

5.2. The world is smaller thanks to the jet engine

Large airliners with jet engines allow millions of passengers to travel from side to side of the world at high speed and
low price. They have also increased global trade, making it possible to transport goods from one country to another in
a few hours. The world has become smaller thanks to the jet engine.
Another aspect where this engine has had remarkable influence is geopolitics. Many of today’s wars are based largely
on the use of aviation. World powers have large fleets of highly sophisticated military reactors that allow them to
influence in a conflict even without deploying ground forces.

5.3. Parts of a jet engine

On this page, you can see the main parts of a classic jet engine. Basically, they are: the compressor, the combustion
chamber, the turbine and the nozzle.

5.4. How does a jet engine work?

In a jet engine, the four strokes of gasoline or diesel engines occur simultaneously. The compressor rotates at high
speed and draws air into the engine (intake). As air passes along the compressor its volume is reduced
(compression). Pressurized air is introduced into a combustion chamber where fuel (kerosene) is injected in the form
of droplets. Fuel is burned in the combustion chamber (power) and lots of gases are generated emerging at high
speed through the nozzle (exhaust). Before leaving the engine, these gases pass through a turbine and make it spin.

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The turbine is connected to the compressor through a shaft so, once the engine is running (by the action of an electric
engine at the beginning), engine rotation is maintained by itself.

The end result is that gases are expelled at high speed through the nozzle, the rear of the engine. These gases exert
great force backwards, known as action force. As a result of Newton’s 3rd law, the law of action and reaction, a force
of equal magnitude and opposite direction appears, the reaction force, which drives the aircraft forward.

5.5. Types of jet engines

There are many different types of jet engines. The one discussed above is called a turbojet, which is considered the
classic jet engine, as it was the first to be invented. The turbojet is no longer used much, except in some military
aircraft and missiles, because it is very noisy and inefficient. Jet engines that are currently more used are the turbofan
and the turboprop, which we will study below.

5.5. Types of jet engines. Turbofan engine

The turbofan is the engine used in large airliners and in many military aircraft. It is basically a turbojet with a large fan
in the front, integrated into the engine’s casing. The fan blows air backwards at high speed, generating 80% of the
propulsive force. The remaining 20% comes from burned gases exiting through the nozzle at high speed (although
not as high as in the turbojet). The turbofan is a more efficient (does not spend much fuel) and more silent engine
than the turbojet.

5.5. Types of jet engines. Turboprop engine

The turboprop engine is basically a turbojet that has been incorporated a conventional propeller in the shaft.
Propulsion generated by the turboprop comes mainly from air stream generated by the propeller, because gases
exiting the engine have lost almost all their energy in making it spin. Turboprops do not consume as much fuel as
turbojets and are suitable for aircraft travelling at medium speeds; for this reason, they are widely used in freighters or
troop transport.

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