mitochondria and in the cytopiasm it combines with

c. Citrulline then moves out of the

An ATP molecule is utilized, an additional Nittogen atom
aspartate to form arginosuccinate.
1s incorporated. This reaction is catalyzed by arginosuccinate
synthetase.
The reaction is catalyzed by the
Arginosuccinate cleaves to form fumarate and arginine.
into the mitochondria and gets converted to
enzyme arginosuccinase. (Fumarate enters
aspartate which is needed for formation of arginosuccinate)
e. Arginine breaks down in the presence of the enzyme arginase to form urea and ornithine.
Ornithine is formed once again and is available to start the cycle. Ornithine now enters into
f.
the mitochondria.
Urea cotains two nitrogen molecuies. This process of formation of urea is called ornithine
cycle as ornithine is formed at the end of the process and is available to start the cycle. This
process is also called ornithine-urea cycle. O
Though urea is needs to be eliminated, in hibernating
toxic waste
a
and
animals like bears urea is converted back to ammonia, which is used up to HN-C-NH
Urea
make amino acids.
METABOLISM OF NUCLEOTIDES
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides.
Nucleosides like ATP, GTP, UTP are required to provide energy. CTP is a source of energy
in lipid metaboiism. AMP is needed as a part of the coenzyme like NAD and Coenzyme A
Our body is able to synthesise nucleotides and also metabolise them to be reused.
Nucleotide synthesis
is an anabolic invoiving the
process joining of phosphate,
pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
The phosphate group is common to both DNA and RNA but
with respect to only one nitrogen base.
they differ in the sugars and

RNA has Ribose sugar and DNA has Deoxy ribose

sugar.
Nucleotides can be divided into purines and
pyrimidines. Purines are Adenine and Gunine.
Pyrimidines are Thymine, Uracil and Cytosine
The nitrogen bases in the DNA are
A,T.C.G ( Adenine, Thymine, Cytos ine and Guanine)
The nitrogen bases in the RNA are A,U,C,G (U-Uracil instead
of T-Thymine)
NUCLEOTIDE SYNTHESIS-
The synthesis of nucleotides needs
ribose and phosphate phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) which donates the
necessary to make a nucleotide.
PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
The synthesis of Adenosine
are similar.
monophosphte (AMP) and Guanosine
monophosphate (GM
The reactions are as follows-
Ribose-5-phosphate converted to .Phosphoribosyl
is

pyrophosphate (PRPP)
b. PRPP is converted to Inosine monophosphate IMP (this reaction
glycine, aspartate, and ATP)
or
requires glutamine,

Ribose-5-Phosphate
ATP
AMP

5-phosphoribosy! pyrophosphate
Glutarnine-
HP20-4
Glutamate
5-phosphoribosy! amine pyrophosphate
ATP gycine
alutamine +ATP
AOP Gutamate + ADP
Asparlale+ ATP
ADP
Fumarate
Inosine monophosphste
GTPaspartate
GOP

Xanthosine
Adenylsuccinate monophosphate
Glutarnine+ ATP
Glutamaie+ AMP
Fusmarake
Guanosine
Adenosine AMP monophosphate GMP
monophosphate
C. IMP is then directly converted to AMP (adenosine monophosphate) using GTP and
aspartate, which is converted into fumarate.
Synthesis of GMP (guanosine monophosphate) requires an intermediate step, in which
NAD+ is used to form the intermediate xanthosine monophosphate, or XMP.
XMP is then converted into GMP by using the hydrolysis of 1 ATP and the conversion of
glutamine to glutamate.
DEGRADATION OR CATABOLISM OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDE
Uric acid is produced in all animals as a result of purine metabolism. But only certain
animals excrete uric acid, which is related to the need for conservation of water. Insects, land
Snails, reptiles and birds excrete uric acid.
 Adenosine
monophosphate
purine nucleoside

phosphorvlase

Adenosine
adenesine
uanosine thearainase
nonoph0spate

purine nucleoside Inosine

phosphorylase
mucleonicins

Guanosine
aecleosidas Hypoxanthine

Guanine

deagin Xanthine
wanthiise
axase

Uic Aid
Uric acid produced contains four nitrogen molecules and requires five ATP. Uric acid is the
least toxic form of nitrogenous waste when compared to ammonia and urea.
H
Uric acid is insoluble in water and requires very little water for its excretion.
Birds and terrestrial reptiles and insects that donot have enough access to
water excrete uric acid to conserve water. N
N
Uric acid is formed as a result of catabolism of purines- Adenine and H H
Guanine. The degradation pathway of AMP occurring in the tissues is Uric acid
different from that which occurs in the muscles.
The process is as follows,
1. In the tissues, hydrolysis of AMP yields adenosine.
2. In the muscles deamination of AMP gives inosinic acid.
a. Adenosine formed in the tissues is degraded to inosine by the enzyme adenosine
deaminase.
b. Inosine is converted to
hypoxanthine, this reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme, purine
nucleoside phosphorylase.
c. Hypoxanthine is oxidized to xanthine.
d. Xanthine is converted to uric acid by the enzyme xanthine oxidase
The degenerative pathway for GMP is similar to AMP. The process is as follows,
a. GMP is converted to guanosine.
 b. Guanosine is convertad to guanine by the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase.
Guanine undergoes deamination to form xanthine. catalyzed by the enzyme guanine
deaminase.
d Xanthine is converted to uric acid by the enzyme xanthine oxidase

SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES

The synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotide begins with the formation of Uridine
Monophosphate
.Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) provides the ribose- monophosphate
c. There is a requirement of- aspartate, glutamine, bicarbonate, and ATP molecules.
Glutamine

1 cO

2ATP
aspartate
I FRPP

URIDINE
MONOPHOSPHATE (UMP)
ATP

ADP
URIDINE
DPHOSPHATE (UDP)
Ribonucieotide
Kinase
reductase

URIDINE
DEOXYURIDINE
TRIPHOSPHATE (UTP)
DIPHOSPHATE
dUDP
CTP synthetase
CTP
dUMP

Thymidylate
svnthetase CDP

DEOXYTHYMIDINE
MONOPHOSPHATE
CY TIDINE
MONOPHOSPHATE

it can react with 2 ATP to form Uridine-

d. After uridine-monophosphate is synthesized,
triphosphate ( UTP)
CTP in a reaction which is catalyzed by CTP
e.
e. UTP can be converted to Cytidine-triphosphate
synthetase.
then into CMP - Cytdine monophosphte by losing the
f. CTP is converted to CDP and
phosphate group.
Synthesis of Thymiidine monophosphate-
with the reduction of the Uridine
di phosphate to deoxyUridine di
a. Thymidine synthesis starts

phosphate
b. The base is methylated to produce Deoxy thymidine monophosphate.
The nucleotides have ribose sugar and have to be converted to deoxyribose sugar for DNA,

Thymidine exists as deoxythymidine monophosphate.

The other nucleotides have to eliminate the 2'-hydroxyl (-OH group) on the ribose sugar.

(The nucleotides must be in the diphosphate form)

This reaction is catalyzed by Ribonucleotide reductase.

Nucleoside-diphosphate Ribosenucleotide reductase Dehydroxy nucleotide-diphosphate

DEGRADATION OR CATABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
The degradation of pyrimidine nucleotides is similar to the purine nucleotide catabolism.

PYRIMIDINE
NUCLEOTIDES

a. Dephosphorylation
b. Deamination
c Cleavage of
glvcosidic bond

Cytosine Thymine
Uracil

B-Alanine -Aminoisobutyrate
Transamination
and
other reactions

Acetyl CoA Succinyl COA

Kreb's cycle
 The pyrimidine nucleotides undergo dephosphorylation , deamination and cleaving of

glycosidic bonds to recover the nitrogen bases.

The bases- Uracil and Cytosine are converted to amino acid- ß alanine Thymine, , 15

converted into and B-aminoisobutyrate.

alanine and P-aminoisobutyrate undergo transamination and other reactions to produce

acetyl CoA and Suceinyl CoA which can enter the Kreb's cycle to produce energy

VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds which are required in small amounts to perform specific
functions for normal growth and maintenance of the body. They are obtained from the food
we

eat. (We are capable of producing only Vitamin D and Vitamin B3)
There are 13 essential vitamins.
They are- Vitamin A. C, D, E, K and Vitamin B complex
Vitamin B complex comprises of-
a. Vitamin B, Thiamine
b. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
c. Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
d. Vitamin Bs Pantothenic acid

e. Vitamin B, Pyridoxine)
f. Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
g. Vitamin Bg Folate (folic acid)
h. Vitamin Bi2 (Cobalamin)
Vitamins are classified as-;

a. Fat-soluble vitamins

b. Water soluble vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E,
and K. All fat soluble vitamins are isoprenoid
fats.
compounds and their absorption requires dietary
muscles..
They are storedin the body's liver, fatty tissue, and
and all the B vitamins. Theyare not stored in the body
Water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C
and excess is excreted through the
urine.