Morphology of bacteria

▪ What are bacteria?

Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms without chlorophyll. They do
not show true branching except in higher bacteria (Actinomycetes).
▪ Classify bacteria on the basis of their shape.
Depending on their shape, bacteria are classified into the following types (Fig.
4.1):
 • Cocci (from Greek word Kokkos, meaning berry)—oval or spherical in
shape.
 • Bacilli (from Latin word bacillum, meaning stick)—rod shaped.
 • Vibrios—comma shaped, curved rods.
 • Spirilla—Rigid spiral forms.
 • Spirochaetes (from Greek word speira, meaning coil and chaite meaning
hair)—flexuous spiral forms.
 • Actinomycetes (from Greek word aktis, meaning ray and mykes meaning
fungus)—branching filamentous bacteria resembling a radiating sun—rays-
like appearance in tissue lesions.
 • Mycoplasma—cell wall deficient bacteria and hence do not possess stable
shape.

FIG. 4.1Shapes of bacteria.

▪ Classify bacteria based on characteristic arrangement of their cells.

Bacteria show characteristic arrangements (Fig. 4.2). Cocci may be arranged in

 • Pairs, e.g. Diplococci
  • Chains, e.g. Streptococci
 • Groups of four, e.g. Tetrads (Gaffkya)
 • Groups of eight, e.g. Sarcina
 • Grape like clusters, e.g. Staphylococci
 Some bacilli also may be arranged in:
 • Chains, e.g. Streptobacilli, Bacillus anthracis
 • Pairs, such as diplobacilli, e.g. Klebsiella pneumoniae
 • Cuneiform or Chinese letter pattern, e.g. Corynebacteria
A typical bacterial cell (Fig. 4.3) shows the following structures:

FIG. 4.3Bacterial cell.

1. The cell wall
• It is a tough and rigid structure surrounding the bacterium like a shell.
1. • It is responsible for the form of bacterial cell and plays a
o fundamental role in life activities of bacteria.
o • It is 10–25 nm in thickness and accounts for 20–30% of
the                                         
o dry weight.
o • Cell wall is absent in mycoplasma group of organisms.
Chemical nature
o • Chemical composition of cell wall varies in Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria.
o • In both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, the component
primarily responsible for mechanical strength is mucopeptide
(peptidoglycan).
 o • The peptidoglycan is composed of alternating units of N-acetyl
muramic acid and N-acetyl glucosamine linked together by beta—1–
4 linkage and a set of tetrapeptide side chains attached to N-acetyl
muramic acid. These monomeric units are cross—linked to each
other by peptide cross bridges (Fig. 4.4).
o • In Gram-positive bacteria, cell wall is 16–18 nm thick and
monolayered. Peptidoglycan is the major component (50–80%),
which is associated with polysaccharides and a special class of
polymers called teichoic acids—glycerol teichoic acid or ribitol
teichoic acid. The teichoic acid constitutes a major surface antigen in
Gram-positive     bacteria.
o • In Gram-negative bacteria, cell wall is comparatively thinner and a
multilayered structure. It contains an inner layer of peptidoglycan (1–
10%) about 2–3 nm and an outer layer (8–10 nm) known as outer
membrane linked together by lipoprotein molecules. The outer
membrane is composed of protein, phospholipids and
lipopolysaccharide (LPS)—the proteins are embedded in a
phospholipid bilayer, which is attached to LPS. These proteins are
called outer membrane proteins, which form special channels
called porins that permit passive diffusion of small molecules like
sugars, amino acids, certain ions, etc. and serve as specific receptors
for bacteriophages. The wall of some Gram-negative bacteria may
possess a third layer of protein. LPS in Gram-negative bacteria
consists of three regions:
                                    
Functions of cell wall
It plays fundamental role in life activities of bacteria:
 • Gives rigidity and shape to cell.
 • Provides mechanical support to cell membrane.
 • Plays role in virulence and immunity.
  • Helps to maintain osmotic pressure and protects cell against osmotic
damage.
 • LPS of Gram-negative bacteria have endotoxic activity and ‘O’ antigen
specificity.
 • Provides site for the phage absorption.
 • Takes part in cell division.
Demonstration of cell wall
The presence of cell wall can be demonstrated by the following ways:
 • Plasmolysis—when a bacterial cell is placed in hypertonic solution, the
cytoplasm shrinks by loosing water by osmosis, while cell wall retains
original shape and size.
 • Microdissection.
 • Differential staining method.
 • Electron microscopy.
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
Synthesis of cell wall may be inhibited by antibiotics, bacteriophages and
lysozyme. Lysozyme is an enzyme normally present in many tissue fluids, which
splits the beta 1–4 linkage of peptidoglycan in the cell wall.
Bacteria with defective cell wall obtained by the action of                                         
lysozyme are:
Protoplasts and spheroplasts
1. 1. When lysozyme acts on Gram-positive bacteria in a hypertonic solution,
protoplast containing only cytoplasmic membrane is formed.
2. 2. When lysozyme acts on Gram-negative bacteria, a spheroplast containing
cytoplasmic membrane and some cell wall material is formed.
 3. 3. Both protoplasts and spheroplasts obtained by the action of lysozyme
are spherical in shape regardless of the original shape of the bacterium and
require hypertonic conditions for their maintenance.
4. 4. These cell wall-deficient forms of bacteria—protoplasts and spheroplasts
—may probably have a role in the persistence of certain chronic infections
such as pyelonephritis.
L-forms
 • These are abnormal forms of bacteria first observed at Lister Institute,
London hence named as L-forms.
 • L-forms are seen in many species of bacteria that develop either
spontaneously or in the presence of penicillin or other agents that interfere
with cell wall synthesis. Sometimes, formed spontaneously in patients
treated with penicillin.
 • They are more stable than protoplasts and spheroplasts.
 • They are difficult to cultivate and require right osmotic strength for
growth in agar containing solid medium.
 • They have been isolated from chronic urinary tract infection and
suppurative infection but their role in these infections is not exactly known.
2. Cytoplasmic (cell) membrane
 • It is a thin, elastic, 5–10 nm, semipermeable layer lining the inner surface
of the cell wall.
 • It is a typical unit membrane structure composed of phospholipids and
proteins, in which peptide molecules are embedded in phospholipid
bilayer.
 • It also contains small amounts of carbohydrates but no sterols (except
in Mycoplasma) and carrier molecules (enzyme permease, oxidase,
polymerase, etc.).
Functions of cell membrane: Principal osmotic barrier
  • Acts as a semipermeable membrane and controls the inflow and outflow
of metabolites, i.e. it selectively allows passage of nutrients inside and
waste products outside the cell.
 • With the help of enzyme permease, it participates in active transport of
selective nutrients.
 • As it contains the cytochromes and other enzymes necessary for
respiration, it acts as the center for respiratory activity to generate energy
(ATP) by electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation.
 • Participates in the synthesis of cell wall components.
3. Mesosomes
 • Mesosomes are complex infoldings of the cell membrane.
 • Composed of an invaginated cell membrane with many vesicles or tubules
filling the invagination.
 • They are chemically similar to cytoplasmic membrane with few other
proteins.
 • They are more prominent in Gram-positive bacteria, also found in Gram-
negative bacteria.
 • Mesosomes are of two types—septal and lateral.
 • Septal mesosome is attached to bacterial chromosome and is involved in
DNA segregation and in the formation of cross walls during binary fission.
Functions of mesosomes
 • Mesosomes are center for respiratory activity. They possess respiratory
enzymes such as ATPase, dehydrogenase, cytochrome, etc. As
mitochondria are absent in bacteria, respiratory activity is carried out by
mesosomes.
 • They take part in cell division.
4. Cytoplasm
  • The bacterial cytoplasm is a colloidal system containing a variety of
organic and inorganic solutes in a viscous watery solution.
 • It contains ribosomes, mesosomes, inclusion granules and vacuoles.
 • Endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria are absent.
 • It stains uniformly in young cultures.
a. Ribosomes
 • The tiny granules, scattered in the cytoplasm are called ribosomes.
 • These are globular structures composed of RNA and proteins.
 • Made up of two subunits:
o ▪ Larger subunit (50 S)
o ▪ Smaller subunit (30 S)
 • 10–15 nm in size with sedimentation coefficient of 70 S.
 • Function—site for protein synthesis.
b. Inclusion granules
 • These are nonliving bodies deposited in cytoplasm.
 • These are not permanent and essential structures usually deposited when
large amount of nutrients are present and disappear under the conditions
of starvation.
 • Examples: Lipid granules, volutin granules, sulphur granules.
 • These are source of stored energy and present in some species of
bacteria.
5. Nucleus
 • The nucleus in bacteria is not well developed and is without nuclear
membrane and nucleolus.
 • It contains a single, circular molecule of double stranded deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) free from basic proteins and about 1 mm in length.
Functions
It controls:
 • Growth and metabolism of cell.
 • Multiplication of cell.
 • Hereditary transmission of characters.
In addition to nuclear DNA, bacteria may possess extrachromosomal genetic
material consisting of DNA known as plasmids or episomes, which are not
essential for life of the cell. They may be responsible for properties like drug
resistance, toxigenicity, etc.
6. Capsule and slime layer
 • Many bacteria synthesize organic polymers which are deposited outside
the cell wall as a loose, gelatinous, amorphous viscid layer called capsule or
slime layer.
 • When it is loose and irregularly arranged, it is called slime layer.
 • When it is organized into a sharply defined structure, it is known as
capsule (F


Types
 • Macrocapsule: Capsule that has a width of more than 0.2 μ and can be
demonstrated by light microscope, is known as macrocapsule.
 • Microcapsule: Capsule that has a width of less than 0.2 μ and cannot be
demonstrated by light microscope, is known as microcapsule.
Chemical nature
 • Water is the main component: 98–99%.
 • Solids: 1–2%—generally carbohydrates, polysaccharides, but may be
noncarbohydrate in nature.
  • Bacteria form capsule containing either homopolysaccharides (only one
type of sugar) or heteropolysaccharides (more than one type of sugar).
 • A few bacteria form capsule containing noncarbohydrate residues, e.g.
o ▪ Yersinia pestis—a causative agent of plague forms capsule
containing proteins
o ▪ Bacillus anthracis—a causative agent of anthrax forms capsule
containing D-glutamic acid (polypeptide).
Functions
 • Enhances bacterial virulence by inhibiting phagocytosis.
 • Acts as protective covering against antibacterial action of substances such
as lysozyme, colicins, bacteriophages, antibodies, etc.
 • Acts as an antigen—helps in identification and typing of bacteria.
Demonstration
Capsule can be demonstrated by:
 • Negative staining—using India ink or nigrosin.
 • Quellung reaction (capsule swelling reaction).
7. Flagella
 • These are the thread-like structures arising from cytoplasm and extending
out through cell wall.
 • They are contractile, extremely thin elongations about 5–20 μ in length
and 0.01–0.02 μ in diameter.
 • All motile bacteria, except spirochaetes possess one or more flagella.
Chemical nature

Chemically, they are composed of a protein, known as flagellin (molecular weight

—30,000–50,000).
Structure of flagella
It consists of three distinct regions:
1. 1. Basal structure (basal body)
1. a. Circular structure embedded in the cell envelope consists a central
rod, which bears four rings—L, P and S, M.
2. b. All four rings are present in Gram-negative bacteria and only S and
M rings are present in Gram-positive bacteria indicating that only S
and M are required for motility. L and P are required for support.
3. c. In Gram-negative bacteria
 – L is situated in LPS
 – P is situated in inner peptidoglycan
 – S is situated just above the cell membrane
 – M is embedded in the cell membrane.
2. 2. Hook: Short curved structure, connecting the filament and basal body.
o ▪ It is broader than the filament, protein in nature different from
flagellin and embedded in cell 
o envelope.
3. Filament: External to the cell and connected to hook at the cell
surface.
o ▪ It is made up of flagellin (
Flagella are locomotory organs responsible for motility (movement) which help
the bacteria in following ways:
 • To spread through the body fluids and tissues.
 • Active motility is necessary for uptake of nutrients.
 • In chemotaxis (movement towards attractant, e.g. food material),
aerotaxis (movement towards oxygen) and phototaxis (movement towards
light).
  • Constitutes the flagellar (H) antigen.
Demonstration
The following methods are used for demonstrating flagella:
 • Electron microscope
 • Special staining method—by increasing thickness (impregnation staining)
 • Dark ground illumination
Presence of flagella can also be demonstrated by demonstrating motility by:
 • Hanging drop preparation
 • Spreading growth on semisolid agar
 • By using Craigie’s or U tube technique
Physiology of bacteria
▪ Define the term nutrition. Describe the two categories of nutrients required by
bacteria for their growth and development.
Nutrition is the process by which chemical substances, called nutrients, are
obtained from surrounding environment and used for metabolic activity and
growth of cell.
Bacteria require two categories of essential nutrients. These are:
1. 1. Macronutrients: These are required in relatively large quantities and play
important role in cell structure and                                         
1. metabolism.
2. 2. Micronutrients: These are required in small quantities for functioning of
certain enzyme systems.
▪ What are the growth requirements of medically important bacteria? What is
the meaning of term fastidious bacteria?
Most of medically important bacteria grow on nutritionally simple media with
only one source of organic material. However, some other bacteria are more
exacting and require more complex media containing certain organic compounds
known as fastidious bacteria.
▪ Describe in detail optimum nutritional requirements for growth of bacteria.
For optimum growth, bacteria require:
1. 1. Water
2. 2. Source of carbon and nitrogen
3. 3. Inorganic salts
4. 4. Growth factors in some cases
5. 5. Source of energy
Water
 • It is the most important requirement because it is the principal
constituent of a bacterial cell. It constitutes about 80% of the total weight.
 • It is vehicle for the entry of all nutrients into the cells and for the
elimination of all waste products.
 • It participates in metabolic reaction.
 • It forms an integral part of the protoplasm.
Carbon, nitrogen and energy source
Bacteria are classified into four groups based on the carbon and nitrogen sources
they utilize.
 • Autotrophs—this group of bacteria is able to utilize atmospheric carbon
dioxide and nitrogen to synthesize essential metabolites and because of
this they are able to survive independently in soil and water. They are
concerned with soil fertility and are medically less                                         
 important, e.g. nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil.
 • Heterotrophs—these are bacteria which require organic compounds as
their source of carbon and energy—nutritional requirement varies widely
and may require single organic compound or many organic compounds
 such as carbohydrates, amino acids, nucleotides, lipids and coenzymes.
They are medically important, e.g. all disease causing bacteria.
 • Phototrophs—derive energy from the sunlight.
 • Chemotrophs—derive energy from the chemicals, e.g. Nitrobacter,
Nitrosomonas.
Inorganic salts
These are required for osmotic regulation and to provide trace elements essential
for certain enzyme systems. Particularly:
 • The anions—phosphate and sulphate.
 • The cations—sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, manganese and
calcium.
Growth factors
 • Many pathogenic species require certain key substances for their growth
known as growth factors or bacterial vitamins.
 • These include vitamins, purines, pyrimidines, amino acids, etc.
▪ Discuss the environmental factors that affect growth of bacteria.
Environmental factors affecting bacterial growth are:
1. Moisture and desiccation
Moisture is an absolute requirement for growth. The capacity to survive in dry
environment varies from organism to organism. Some bacteria like Gonococci
and T. pallidum die quickly in dry conditions, whereas Staphylococcus aureus and
tubercle bacilli can survive drying for weeks and months.
2. Gaseous requirements
Bacteria require oxygen for their growth. Based on oxygen requirements
bacteria can be classified into four types, viz.
 • Obligate or strict aerobe—grow in presence of oxygen.
 • Microaerophilic—require low oxygen concentrations.
  • Obligate or strict anaerobe—grow only in absence of oxygen.
 • Facultative anaerobe—ordinarily aerobes, grow in the presence of
oxygen but can also grow in absence of oxygen.
3. Carbon dioxide
Bacteria require small amount of carbon dioxide as well for their growth.
 • It is obtained from atmosphere or CO2 is produced endogenously by
bacteria during metabolism.
 • A few bacteria require additional carbon dioxide (5–10%) for their
growth, e.g. Brucella abortus, Neisseria spp., Pneumococci and are known
as capnophilic bacteria.
4. Temperature
 • Pathogenic bacteria grow best at body temperature, i.e. 37°C.
 • The optimum temperature is occasionally higher, i.e. 42°C (e.g.
for Campylobacter jejuni) or lower, i.e. 30°C (e.g. for Yersinia pestis).
 • On the basis of temperature requirements, bacteria are categorized into
three groups:
1. i. Psychrophiles—grow optimally below 15°C and are capable of
growing at 0°C. Generally do not grow above 20°C. Most of them are
soil and water saprophytes.
2. ii. Mesophiles—grow at moderate temperature. They grow best at
temperature 20–40°C. Majority of them are pathogenic organisms.
3. iii. Thermophiles—grow optimally at temperatures greater than 45°C
(range 45–80°C). Most of them are spore forming, e.g. Bacillus and
Clostridia. They live in soil and water. A few of them are pathogenic
to humans. Extremely thermophilic bacteria grow at 250°C.
5. pH
 • The growth and multiplication of bacteria is affected by
pH                                         
  of the medium.
 • Most pathogenic bacteria grow best (optimum pH) at a neutral or slightly
alkaline pH (7.2–7.6).
 • Growth is poor below pH 6.0 or above pH 7.8 and stops at pH below 5.0
and pH above 9.0.
 • Some bacteria grow at acidic pH, e.g. Lactobacillus spp. and are known
as acidophilic bacteria.
 • Vibrio cholerae are sensitive to acid but tolerate alkali.
6. Light
 • Bacteria grow well in dark.
 • They are sensitive to ultraviolet rays and other radiations.
 • Photosynthetic bacteria require light and photochromogenic
mycobacteria produce pigment only when exposed to light.
7. Osmotic effect
 • Due to mechanical strength of cell wall, bacteria are able to tolerate
osmotic variations but sudden exposure to hypertonic solutions may
cause plasmolysis, i.e. shrinkage 
 of protoplasm because of osmotic withdrawal of water. It occurs more
readily in Gram-negative bacteria than Gram-positive bacteria.
 • Sudden transfer to distilled water may cause plasmoptysis, i.e. swelling
and rupture of cell because of excessive osmotic water flow inside the cell.
▪ What is bacterial growth?
Bacterial cells, like other living cells are metabolically active. Bacterial growth
means balanced increase in the mass of all cellular constituents. When the growth
reaches a critical mass, cell division (binary fission) occurs.
▪ Describe the modes of bacterial cell division.
Bacteria multiply by simple binary fission in two equal daughter cells (Fig. 5.1).
  • The division starts, when a bacterial cell reaches a critical mass in its
cellular constituents.
 • This occurs in the following way:
1. 1. The circular double-stranded DNA molecule (nucleus) during
replication gets separated into two strands and form new
complimentary strand resulting in two identical double stranded DNA
molecules, which are distributed into two daughter cells.
2. 2. A transverse septum grows across the cell from the
cell membrane.
3. 3. Cell wall material is deposited and the two daughter cells are
separated.
 • Some bacteria also reproduce by budding in which a small bud develops
from the mother cell and separates and grows further to form a new
bacterium.
 • The time required for a bacterium to form two daughter cells under
optimum conditions is known as generation time or population doubling
time.
 • The generation time in most bacteria is 20 minutes, however in tubercle
bacilli it is 20 hours and in lepra bacilli it is 20 days.
Classification of bacteria
▪ Define the words taxonomy and classification with reference to bacteria.
The art of biological classification is known as Taxonomy. It is concerned with the
classification or systematic arrangement of bacteria into groups or categories
called taxa (singular is taxon). Classification is orderly arrangement of units into
groups or larger units.
▪ Name the three taxonomic kingdoms                                         
into which organisms are categorized. Of these, to which one do
microorganisms belong.
Organisms are divided into three main kingdoms:
 1. 1. Animals
2. 2. Plants
3. 3. Protista
Kingdom Protista contains microorganisms including eukaryotes and prokaryotes
(bacteria).
▪ Which is the commonly used phylogenetic system of bacterial classification.
Give one example.
It has been published as Bergey’s Manual. There is no universally accepted
bacterial classification. Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology—International
classification founded by D. Bergey—is commonly used in Microbiology.
According to this, all lower
organisms are divided as Divisions, Classes, Orders, Families, Tribes, Genera and
Species. Major groups are differentiated based on important characters such as
Gram reaction, spore formation, etc. The genus and species are differentiated
based on less important properties such as fermentation reactions, nutritional
requirements, etc.
The full taxonomical position of Salmonella typhi is as follows:

• Division: Protophyta
• Class: Schizomycetes
• Order: Eubacteriales
• Family: Enterobacteriaceae
• Tribe: Salmonellae
• Genus: Salmonella
• Species: Salmonella typhi

▪ Based on Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology classify pathogenic

bacteria, starting from division protophyta to the level of genus.
According to Bergey’s Manual, all lower microorganisms of the plant kingdom,
Division—Protophyta are subdivided into three classes as:
Class I: Schizophyceae
This consists of blue-green algae which are not pathogenic to man and animals.
Class II: Schizomycetes
These are the microorganisms lacking chlorophyll. This class includes 10 orders,
out of which following five orders are pathogenic to man and animals.
Order I
Pseudomonadales—motile by polar flagella or nonmotile
Family: Spirillaceae, Genus: Vibrio, Spirillum, etc.
Order IV
Eubacteriales—true bacteria, rod-shaped, coccal-shaped, motile by peritrichate
flagella or nonmotile
1. (a) Family: Enterobacteriaceae, Genus: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus,
Salmonella, Shigella, etc.
2. (b) Family: Brucellaceae, Genus: Brucella, Haemophilus, Bordetella,
Pasteurella, etc.
3. (c) Family: Bacteroidaceae, Genus: Bacteroides, Fusobacterium
4. (d) Family: Micrococcaceae, Genus: Micrococcus, Staphylococcus,
Peptococcus, etc.
5. (e) Family: Neisseriaceae, Genus: Neisseria
6. (f) Family: Lactobacillaceae, Genus: Diplococcus, Streptococcus,
Peptostreptococcus, etc.
7. (g) Family: Corynebacteriaceae, Genus: Corynebacterium
8. (h) Family: Bacillaceae, Genus: Bacillus, Clostridium
Order V
Actinomycetales—filamentous, branching cells
1. (a) Family: Mycobacteriaceae, Genus: Mycobacterium
2. (b) Family: Actinomycetaceae, Genus: Actinomyces, Nocardia
Order IX
Spirochaetales—nonrigid, spiral forms
1. (a) Family: Spirochaetaceae, Genus: Borrelia, Treponema
2. (b) Family: Leptospiraceae, Genus: Leptospira
Order X
Mycoplasmatales—small, pleomorphic, filterable, microorganisms, e.g.
Mycoplasma
Family: Mycoplasmataceae, Genus: Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
Class III: Microtatobiotes
This class includes small, filterable microbes such as Rickettsia, Chlamydia, viruses
Family: Rickettsiaceae, Genus: Rickettsia, Orientia, Coxiella and Ehrlichia
Order
Chlamydiales
Family: Chlamydiaceae, Genus: Chlamydia
▪ Enumerate the factors generally considered for identification and classification
of bacteria.
For identification and classification of bacteria following important characters are
selected:
 • Morphology
 • Staining
 • Cultural characters
 • Biochemical reactions
  • Antigenic structure
 • Guanine: Cytosine ratio of DNA
▪ Give nomenclature of a bacterium.
Each bacterium possesses two names—a generic name and a specific name.
 • Generic name: It is usually a Latin noun that begins with an initial capital.
 • Species name: It begins with an initial small letter even though it is a
name of a person or place and indicates one of the following things:
o ▪ some property, e.g. albus meaning white
o ▪ the disease it causes, e.g. cholerae from cholera
o ▪ the person who discovered, e.g. welchii after Welch
o ▪ the animal in which it is found, e.g. suis meaning pig.
 • The generic and specific names should be italicized, i.e. they should be
written in italics or underlined.
▪ Classify bacteria on the basis of morphology.
Based on their morphology bacteria are classified into two types:
1. 1. Lower bacteria: They are simple, unicellular microorganisms. Depending
on their shape they can further be grouped into cocci, coccobacilli, bacilli,
vibrio, spirilla and spirochaetes (Fig. 4.1).
2. 2. Higher bacteria: They are filamentous organisms, e.g. Actinomycetes—
branching filamentous bacteria.
▪ Classify bacteria based on their gram staining characters.
Based on Gram staining reactions bacteria are classified as follows:  Classify
bacteria based on acid-fast staining reactions.
Based on the acid-fast staining reaction (some bacteria appear bright red colour
others do not), they are grouped into the following two types:
1. 1. Acid-fast bacilli—e.g. tubercle and leprosy bacilli.
 2. 2. Nonacid fast bacilli—Bacteria other than acid-fast bacilli are nonacid-fast
bacilli, e.g. Staphylococci, E. coli, Salmonella, etc.
▪ Classify bacteria on the basis of the arrangement of their cells.
Based on characteristic arrangement of their cells, bacteria are distinguished into
diplococci, streptococci, staphylococci, tetrad, sarcina, streptobacilli, diplobacilli,
Chinese letter arrangement, etc. (see Fig. 4.2).