The partial showing of the human figure in art: A challenge to

our anthropomorphic comprehension

Our understanding of art often comes with the appreciation of what is there — what we can see – but rarely of what we cannot see,
even less of the reason behind its absessence. We are used to praising and aspiring to create art that resembles the human figure to
its every detail, as we seek to find a profound connection between an artist’s work and our experiences and beliefs. A partially
shown body often speaks nothing because it does not resemble anything we know or see, and it cannot be connected to anything we
have experienced before; we have never encountered a person whose entire body is covered by insults, a limbless goddess, or an
anthropomorphic figure whose dimensions only comprehend a torso and two thighs.
Betty Tompkins (1945), Women Words
What drew me to these pieces in the first place is their inisuation of a human figure without actually
Ingres #2 (2018), Acrylic on book page,
showing it completely. The ambiguity that comes with a tacit subject is explored by the Aphrodite of P.P.O.W Gallery New York
Melos, Yves Klein, and Betty Tompkins, through the seeking and creation of a representation of
concepts that surpass our comprehension through partially shown female bodies, whose incompleteness
might say more than the actual painted or sculpted figures we can see. Studying the partial
representation of the human figure in art results in a profound understanding of society’s values and their
perception of women based on how much of them is shown, it is a pure and genuine
perce
embodiment of the cultural, political, and philosophical beliefs and ideas that have shaped
women’s role in society for centuries.

I decided to choose these artists for the study of the incomplete depiction of the human figure
because they construct a historical narrative that shows an evolution in thematic, technical, and
cultural aspects through the constant motif of the partially shown human body, whose purpose
went from being merely representational and aesthetic to critical and socially aware, and
whose exposure went from unforseen to blatantly intensional. From the Aphrodite’s
image by me
embodiment of the traditional beliefs of femininity on a ancient context, to Tompkins’
contemporary and rebellious critiques to this established conception of gender, particularly
femininity and womanhood, this selection of artists allows a comprehension of the technical Venus de Milo (130 - 100 BC),
Parian marble (H. 202 cm),
and thematic evolution of the partial showing of the human figure in art, based on the themes Yves Klein (1928), Monique ANT 57
Musée du Louvre
each artist sought to portray: divine beauty, immateriality, or a rejection to the normative (1960), Pure pigment and synthetic
understanding of femininity. resin on paper mounted on canvas
The Venus de Milo in context
The origins of Aphrodite of Melos’ monumental sculpture remain a
mystery even today. Venus de Milo is perhaps one of most known art
pieces in history, as it “represents one of the earliest and best-
documented examples of Hellenistic emulation and transformation of
classical art” (Kousser, 2005, p. 227), but it is certainly one of the
less well understood. It was found in 1820, in a Greco-French
excavation in the ancient island of Melos, by a Greek farmer called
Yorgos Kentrotas, who only encountered separate pieces of the
sculpture: an upper torso, legs covered in drapery, a left harm that
held an apple, and a plinth with the phrase “sandros from Anchiochia
of the Meander” written on it (Boag, 2020). Given the political
atmosphere in which the stature was found, it is no surprise that
most
of the atmosph
written and visual sources about it are French, since the anglo-french rivalry
increased France’s need to position itself in a higher status by acquiring a strong
national collection of ancient art, especially after the British Museum’s acquisition
of the Elgin Marbles. The statue was thus sent immediately to France, after an
agreement between the Ottomans and French, as a gift to King Louis XVIII, who
donated it to the Louvre, where the loss of the Venus de Medici was still recent.
In order to elevate the value of the newly acquired Aphrodite, it was decided to
ignore the plinth’s inscriptions, which identified Alexandros of Antioch as its
sculptor, to position widely recognised classical sculptor Praxiteles (c. 375-335
BCE) as its creator and date it to the Classical era (480-323 BCE). In the
following years, propaganda was used to spread the importance and value of the
piece, alongside its ancient and admirable origin. This action delayed the scholarly
assessment of the Venus and its origin, nonetheless, soon after it was dated to the
Hellenistic period (323-27 BCE) and attributed to the less recognized sculptor
Alexandros of Antioch. Even so, scholars and art historians still doubt to whom
the Aphrodite sculpture should be attributed to. For instance, Salomon Reinach
(1890) theorized that the sculpture was found in a lime kiln, and therefore was not
necessarily related to the sculptures and inscriptions found with it. He instead
suggests, based on the style of the piece, it remotes to the late fifth century B.C.,
and that its sculpture was likely a student of Phidias. Some other scholars, such as
Adolf Furtwangler (1893), who believed the pieces were a purposeful sculptural
assemblage of four statues, and that the inscriptions found alongside are related to
(1835), Oil painting on canvas,
them. Just as his predecessors, he suggested the arms and hands found with the
Venus were, in fact, hers.
Hellenistic The word “Hellenistic” comes from Hellazein, which means “to speak Greek or identify
Greece with the Greeks”. This period began with the death of the Macedonian king, Alexander the
Great, in 323 B.C. and ended in 31 B.C., when the Romans conquered the last territories of
his Kingdom's vast extension, from Greece to India. Nonetheless, Alexander’s empire was
fragile and, with his death, his lands were soon divided by his generals, evolving eventually
into history’s greatest dynasties: the Ptolomeis in Egypt, the Seleucids in Syria and the
Persia, and the Antigonids in Greece and Macedonia. This new territorial division, ruled by
“cosmopolitan” societies, sparked a sense of alienation within the citizens, who slowly
began joining “mystery” and new religions and cults (Mullen et al, 2021). During this time,
Hellenistic philosophers also shaped the culture with their new ideas: Epicurus argued that
life’s main pursue should be the individual’s pleasure and happiness, the Stoics that every
individual had within hem a virtuous character that could be achieved by living a noble
life, Aristotle dove into science, and much more. As well, this period showed profound
progress in architecture, euergetism, and the construction of great libraries and art.
Thomas Cole (1801), The Course of
Empire: Destruction (1836), Oil painting Hellenistic art is diverse in subject matter and in stylistic development, and it is
on canvas, Private collection distinguished by its strong sense of historical awareness. The intellectual development
allowed an adaptation and innovation of earlier artistic styles, resulting in new
representations of divine figures, such as Greek Gods. During this time the portrayal of the
nude Aphrodite, Hermes, and Dionysos became extremely frequent, something that
Venus de Milo reflected the “increased secularization of traditional religion” (Hemingway, 2007). A prime
(130 - 100 BC),
example of this is definitely the Aphrodite of Melos, as it is an incredibly self-consciously
Parian marble (H.
retrospective sculpture, often seen as the “Greek original” to later Roman and Hellenistic
202 cm), Musée
versions. Nonetheless, her style combination and sense of historical thinking and
du Louvre
reminiscence suggests that “instead of insisting upon the statue's originality, one might
more fruitfully consider it as a creative, but also deliberately retrospective, work of art”
(Kous (Kousser, 2005, p. 238). The Aphrodite shows a
deep classical influence in terms of style, especially
in its baroque-style drapery and curved figure. In
particular, earlier depictions of the goddess such as
the Aphrodite of Capua most likely influenced the
artist. The Venus de Milo thus became one of
image by me
Hellenistic sculpture’s most representative works in
Thomas Cole (1801), The technical, conceptual, and cultural matters, as it is a
Course of Empire: The piece deeply “rooted in the past but also vividly
Consummation of the Empire
contemporary” (p. 238) Likewise, the innovation of
New York Historical Society the new Hellenistic art also resulted in the depiction
of new unorthodox subjects, like grotesques.
A visual reading of the Venus de Milo
The composition or pose used in Venus de Milo
represents the breakage of the normativity of using
stiff and static poses in early Greek sculpture.
Contrapposto, first used around 500 BC, became a
recurrent image when depicting Aphrodite, as it
suggests life through a sense of relaxation and
organic movement (Ward, 2008). Aphrodite’s head
and level gaze are directed towards the left, creating
an open and three-dimensional form; enhanced by
the drapery, also a recurrent image in Classical
sculpture, wrapped around her hips with a thick roll
at the waist with several draps fall over her left knee
and in between her legs, which creates a and
sinuous form. The combination of these elements,
and the fact that her arms were never found, results
in what is perhaps Venus de Milo’s most captivating
characteristic: the partial showing of her body.
Venus de Milo presents deeply
interesting and dynamic lines
throughout the entire
composition, as this is a rather
versatile element that can be
manifested in extremely
different ways in a single piece:
Her hair is made of curved
horizontal lines that are, for the
most part, continuous and
extremely defined. These lines
create a sense of rhythm in this
portion of her head, as the
audience’s eyes are guided
through the “repeated elements
following bends, curves, and
undulations” (Soegaard, 2020)
Some of the textures in Venus de Milo are a result of a meticulous process to create smooth
surfaces with a sense of movement out of a still material like parian marble. Arguably, the most
prominent texture in the sculpture is in Aphrodite’s drapery and hair, nonetheless, some spots
of rough textures appear in smoother areas, such as her stomach and shoulders, where the
sculpture has been broken or damaged, creating a sense that her body is not entirely shown.
This contrast between textures creates rhythm, achieved thanks to alternation of space, when
the smother areas act as negative space, and the textured areas as positive space.
*Picutre taken by me
The sculpture presents mostly representational, three-dimensional forms used to portray the
image of a mature goddess. The artist, according to Kousser (2005), “did not intend to create an
entirely original work of art, but he did not simply copy a model either” (p. 239) as they
image by me
deliberately merged various artistic styles in a single piece; Hellenistic Baroque and
Neoclassicism. The Hellenistic Baroque influence is mostly seen in Aphrodite’s head, as it has
rather proportional and harmonious shapes: regular eyes and moth; strongly defined browline,
Venus de Milo (130 - 100 BC), Parian marble
eyelids, and nose bridge, and the piece tends to contrast textures, create deep carvings that
(H. 202 cm), Musée du Louvre
result in dramatic areas of highlight and shadow. While its neoclassical style “helps to impart
an impressive appearance to an over-life-size statue of a major Olympian goddess” (p. 239).
The drapery that covers most of the lower portion of
Aphrodite’s body is perhaps the most intriguing element of Aphrodite’s body, just as most sculptures from the Hellenistic
the composition, as it comprehends “deeply undercut folds of Era, was sculpted using parian marble, originally from the
cloth that create a richly varied play of light and shadow” Paros Greek islands, in several parts; her legs, bust, feet, and
(Kousser, 2005, p. 239) that show the strong influence of legs are separate pieces. Parian marble gives Aphrodite its
Hellenist Baroque style in the sculpture. The use of lines in crystalline appearance, as it is “wholly composed of fairly
this section is mostly vertical and continuous, they have uniform grains if clear, colorless calcite” (Washington, 1898,
rougher lines and pronounced transitions between peats, p. 9), nonetheless, it is believed that she was originally
creating a sense of volume. Nonetheless, some portions have colorfully painted and adorned with jewelry, even if no
stronger angles that create diagonals and less accentuated remains of these are left in her ivory, almost white figure. As
lines. In both cases, the drapage creates an abstract rhythmic well, Parian Marble’s irregular grain shape allowed the artist to
pattern that emerges from the loosesness and lightness of the create defined and straight-edged lines, like the ones in
fabric, which has a “rich interaction with the shape and Aphrodite’s drapery to cover her lower body.
movement of the human body” (Chen & Cao, 2021, p. 35)
A conceptual reading of the Venus de Milo
The Aphrodite’s incomplete body has signified a Function and Purpose
major challenge for art historians to determine, not
In this sense, the purpose of the Aphrodite of Melos is representational, as it embodies a wide
only her origin, but also what she is intended to
range of aspects from the Hellenistic culture and those before it to develop an essentially
represent and transmit. Furtwangler (1893)
retrospective piece, in a conceptual and technical way. Above all, the statue represents the
hypothesized that the left arm holding an apple found
epitome of the female beauty, nonetheless, given the significance of mythical literature and cult in
alongside her torso belongs to the Venus de Melos, and
the Hellenistic Greece, its portrayal of the Judgment of Paris also suggests the statue sought to
that the apple’s iconography undoubtedly connectects
represent the ethical and moral aspect of the human being, making an emphasis on our decision
the statue to other aspects of the Hellenistic culture,
making. However, if examined in a contemporary context, the Venus presents a deep intellectual
such as canonical myths like Hippomenes and Atalant
challenge for art historias, as its incomplete body opens an incredibly vast path to interpret the
or the Judgment of Paris; the mythical event from
statue using narratives from cult and literature, between others. For instance, it is with almost full
Greek literature that caused death, war, destruction,
certainty that historians afirm the statue intends to depict Aphrodite, nonetheless, her curvy figure
and the eventual fall of Troy. According to Homer’s
also might suggest the statue depicts Amphitrite, a goddess from Greek mythology, highly
epic, the olympian goddesses sought for the help of a
worshiped in the Island of Melos, who became Poseidon’s consort influenced by the Olympian
mortal after Zeus’ refusal to choose which of them
Pantheon. As well, some historians sustain that the statue might be a Roman replica of an original
should earn a golden apple because of their beauty. It
Greek sculpture form the 4th century BCE, and Elizabeth Wayland Barber even suggested the
was Paris, prince of Troy, who had the misfortune of
statue might represent an ancient prostitute.
being
appoinappointed to choose between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite in
Peter Paul Rubens (1577), The Judgement
exchange for a gift; Athena offered Paris the mastery of art and war, Hera The statue’s function, thus, is mainly religious and symbolic. However, since it is believed it was
of Paris (1636), Oil painting on canvas,
Europe and Asia, and Aphrodite the most beautiful mortal woman: Helen of crafted for an Hellenistic gymnasium, its function becomes decorative as well. The cult towards
National Gallery London
Sparta, wife to the king of the Spartans. Paris could not resist Aphrodite’s Aphrodite and her vital role in the development of young Greek men explains her positioning as a
offer and chose her, unleashing a series of events that resulted in the Trojan decorative and symbolic element in the gymnasion, as it “represented the delights of love for an
War as an attempt of the Greeks to recover Helen. The Judgment of Paris is often interpreted as
hhhh audience of youthful male viewers nearing the age of marriage. Examining the statue and its
an allegory for “man’s choice of a way of life” (Kouser, 2005, p. 241) The statue holding the mythological referent, these young men could recall the varying interpretations of Paris' choice
apple, thus, represents Aphrodite’s victory over the two goddesses, while also alluding to the put forth in the texts they studied, from Homer to and the tragedians to Isokrates, and perhaps also
Island of Melos itself, as Melos is Greek for “apple”. o their own rhetorical exercises on the subject” (Kouser, 2005, p. 248)o
Likewise, Furtwangler suggests the remains found alongside Aphrodite’s body determine her
crafting was done to decorate the civic gymnasium of Melos, as the “exedrae like the one in
Vincent Van Gogh
which the statue was found were often funded by gymnasiarchs, formed part of gymnasia, and
(1852), Venustorso
were used for teaching or for the display of statues, as here” (Kouser, 2005, p. 236) Aphrodite’s
(1886), Oil painting
prime audience would be, therefore, athletes, students, and young Greek men like Paris. Judging Peter Paul
on canvas, Van
by her dimensions and reconstructed pose, the Aphrodite is set at the entrance of the gymnasium, Rubens (1577),
Gogh Museum
where she welcomes its visitors and encourages the viewers to reflect upon Paris’ choice: “what The Judgement
is best political power, military success, or love?” (p. 227), showing her role as the patroness of Paris (1636),
and protector of young men during their transition to adulthood. Nonetheless, her presence in the Oil painting on
gymnasium has been disputed, starting with the fact that the arms found might not belong to the canvas, National
same sculpture, but also because the Venus is often seen as an individual piece rather than an Gallery London
“exemplary of a much broader tendency in Hellenistic culture” (p. 248), scholars understand her
depiction as a result of her literary persona instead of her vitalness in the Greek cult.
Monique in context 1962
Yves Klein dies
Post-war European Art
Yves Klein (1928 - 1962) was a French artist and leading figure in Paris, France After the horrors endured during the war, artists, intellectuals, and writers began to re-
of post-war European art. His oeuvre, first perceived as delusional define their identity and cope with the traumas of the war by exploring the nature of
Yves Klein
and absurd, comprehended the remains of a bigger “invisible humanity. In an attempt to reflect “the anguish of the artist's mind and soul against the
(1928), Monique
truth” that the eye could not see. Throughout his career he ANT 57 (1960), backdrop of a world going through hardship and change” (Ibrahim, 2020), several
explored the concept of immateriality, and projected it into artistic movements emerged all over the globe, leading to the reign of Abstract

L'Epoque Bleue (1960 - 1962)

monochrome paintings and a deep exploration of the color blue.
The impact of his work signified much more than the pieces he
created, it represented the breaking of the traditional perception of
art and art-making practices, for instance, by introducing the
concept of performance art with his Anthropométrie de l’Époque
Bleue, a series of nude prints made using "living brushes".
Since much before Klein, the depiction of a nude subject has been
an everlasting motif in art, it can be dated back as far as to the
Paleolithic Era, when the earliest venus figurines were made.
Nonetheless, for centuries, the portrayal of the nude — especially
the female one — had been frowned upon, even prohibited,
Pure pigment and
synthetic resin on Expressionism in America and Taschism in Europe, between many others, who seemed
paper mounted to “fetishise gesture; and glorify the individual painter’s ability to convey emotion
on canvas through entirely abstract forms” (Sotheby’s 2020). Klein, nonetheless, purposefully took
a monumentally different approach, his direct
imprinting of the human body onto the canvas
represented material representation of the concept
he spent his life exploring: the immaterial. For
Klein, the experience was the art itself, and it
surpassed any kind of material expression than an
artist could build, paint, photograph, or sculpt.
Klein’s break from the established

Réalisme (1960-1970
mainly by Catholic Church, who only allowed its portrayal to conception of art resulted in the

Birth of Nouveau
represent death and evilness or mythical subjects. 1960 creation of a new artistic movement:
Monique Nouveau Réalisme. In october of
Even so, artists found ways of exploring and experimenting with the nude
1960, artists such as Yves Klein,
body, and some of the most famous nude paintings were made: Olympia by 1957
François Dufrêne, Pierre Restany,
Manet or The Painter’s Studio by Coubert. With the arrival of the 20th First Blue
Monochrome
Daniel Spoerri, Jacques de la
century, however, artists released themselves from the normativity that
Villeglé, and more came together
dictated what they could create or not, and thus the nude “experiences a 1952
because
hhhh of their newly formed “awareness of
distinct extension of its means of expression in respect to contents and Matisse's Henri Matisse (1869), Blue
Blue Cutouts their collective uniqueness” (Calvo, 2015). Nude (1952), Color lithograph,
form” (Marc Quinn, 2002). Part of the conceptual and technical revolution 1949 - 1951 Nouveau Réalisme questioned the idea that art Centre Georges Pompidou
that surrounded the portrayal of the nude in 20th century art can be Rauschenberg's had to elevate, politicize, or idealize a subject,
attribut attributed to Yves Klein, who made it, not only a subject, but Blueprints
leading to an intersection between art and life and “narrowing the gap
hh
also the medium, a “living brush”. Klein undoubtedly

Second World War

between artists and the public, allowing everyone to participate in and easily
revolutionized the perception of the nude, presenting pieces

Pablo Picasso (1881), Blue
Nude (1902), Oil painting on
canvas, Private collection
entirely avant-garde, however, certain stylistic aspects of his
Anthropomorphs show influences from other artit's exploration
of this subjetc. For instance, Rauschenberg’s 1950s nude
blueprints or Matisse’s 1952 cutout series, which resemble
Klein’s use of the color blue, “equitable brevity of form, and
comparable simplicity of composition” (Sotheby’s, 2020) .
(1938-1945)
relate to a rich multiplicity of media, forms, and styles” (The Art Story
Foundation, 2022), just as Klein did Anthropométrie de l’Époque Bleue, as he
sought to depict the material properties of immateriality, “anticipating
conceptual art” (Tate, n.d), by presenting the experience of creating art as the
1928
art itself and by introducing a completely new art-making form: performance
Yves Klein is art. Henceforward, Nouveau Réalisme was perceived as the European
born in Nice
counterpart to Pop Art.
A visual reading of Monique Klein’s use of an “anthropomorphic brush” resulted in fragmented shapes
The Anthropométrie de l’Époque Bleue comprehends much more than the and areas with interesting optical textures in a composition made of mostly
simple imprints that resulted at the end of each performance, it embodies a flat colors. Since the bodies of the models could not touch the paper’s surface
complex and immaterial experience that is incomprehensible for the human completely, small gaps and lines appear within it, accompanied by
mind. During these performances, Klein would instruct the nude models to significantly larger and noticeable spaces that fragment her body into
press their bodies against sheets of paper as if they were “live anthropometric arms, legs, chest, and torso. This use of texture and negative space
brushes”, while his Monotone-silence Symphony, a single-note composition, is definitely compelling, mainly because one is able to recognize
played in the background: “the simplicity in the composition of Klein’s the anthropomorphic shape Klein intended to depict, however, it is
monotone sounds relate to his monochrome compositions in the way that not completely shown because he was not interested in representing
they call on listeners and viewers to find the nuances and variations in a the human body itself, but rather the remains of an immaterial
single note or hue” (Thackara, 2017), their simplicity can be explained with experience: “the shape of the body, its lines, its strange colors
his intent of portraying the remains of a greater artistic, intellectual, and hovering between life and death, hold no interest for me. Only
spiritual experience that materiality cannot comprehend. the essential, pure affective climate of the flesh is valid” (Klein
cited in Bagtazo, 2018)

Thus, the contrast and altercation between the positive and

Yves Klein (1928), Monique ANT 57 negative space not only achieves a sense of variety and harmony,
(1960), Pure pigment and synthetic but it also aids Klein to make the partially shown and
resin on paper mounted on canvas fragmented human form, as the material or physical
manifestation of his performance, the piece's main subject.
Yves Klein (1928), UNTITLED ANTHROPOMETRY ANT 106 (1960), Klein’s use of line in the Anthropométries is mostly Klein’s use of shape in his Anthropométries irregular, flat, opaque, and with a
Pure pigment and synthetic resin on paper mounted on canvas
expontaneous, a result of the way in which the geometric tendency; mostly representational, as it is an imprint of the material
Klein’s Anthropométries, just as most of his works, are composed of a single model pressed her body against the paper and the properties of human form, yet it is abstract, since it depicts the essence of
hue: pink, gold, organe, and — the most distinctive — blue. In 1960, Yves way in which the paint distributed in it. The most anthropomorphism and immateriality using colors and shapes through a
Klein officially patented the International Klein Blue (IKB), a compelling prominent lines in the composition are definitely the partially shown human figure. Klein, therefore, “created a composition that
ultramarine blue hue known for its rich vibrace and intensity. IKB is done continuous, contour lines that delimitate the body’s set a course for a new frontier of painting, one in which the heretofore
using a synthetic resin binder, polyvinyl acetate, that suspends the color and dimensions and fragment it into pieces, creating a antithetical poles of abstraction and figuration achieve a stunning and
preserves its intensity flawlessly, it creates “a rich velvety texture and an color contrast between the positive space — the blue groundbreaking coalescence” (Sotheby’s, 2020)
unusual appearance of depth” (Tate, n.d.). Klein’s use of IKB in Monique figure — and the negative one. Nonetheless, the thin
and the Anthropométries de l’Époque Bleue relies on his belief that blue and discontinuous lines that appear because of the
represents a bridge between the material and immaterial realms. Thus, using uneven distribution of the paint create a sense of
this hue allows him to portray materially a completely immaterial experience: texture and variety within the composition,
his performance art, nonetheless, only the physical essence of the accompanied by some thin and light lines that seem
performance is left, that is, the imprints of a partially shown human body; to be from a pencil sketch previously done
particularly the female torso and legs. underneath the painting.
A conceptual reading of Monique
Klein’s oeuvre sought to create extrasensory experiences and
explore immateriality. For him, art was not a sensory
experience, it was an immaterial substance or the “pure pictorial
sensibility” (Weitemeier, 2017, p. 17) that remained of a higher
spiritual experience. The immaterial suggests freedom from any
kind of material possession or burden in order to allow or
privilege an intellectual and spiritual lifestyle. This belief,
represented in his Anthropomorphs, shows a deep influence
from spiritual practices such as Judo, Rosicrucianism according
to Rebecca Solnit (2005), and religious fetishism according to
David Hopkins (2000). Klein was perhaps drawn to asian
martial arts because of the mysticity and discipline these
required, sparking his interest in the abstractness of Judo’s
eventual
movements and in the concept of immateriality. In this sense, Klein’s conception of
immateriality in the Anthropométrie de l’Époque Bleue was the performance, a metaphysical
and spiritual event, that left material pieces behind: the anthropomorphic prints of a
partially shown body. In these prints, he intended to portray the material properties of the
performance and a pure representation of color. According to Thomas McEvielly, the essence
of the 20th century monochrome painting, and the dichotomy between concepts that modern
art and our contemporary culture perceive in dialectically different ways: “matter and spirit,
the physical and the spiritual, time and infinity” (McEvielly cited in Weitemeier, 2017, p. 16).
Symbolism, International Klein Blue, and L'Époque Bleue
Color symbolism played a substantial role in Klein’s compositions, as he saw in color —
especially blue — a path between two realms: a material and an immaterial one. For him, the
color blue evoked spirituality, soul, depth, and intuition. His long search for a material way of
portraying profound concepts and the idea of the “immaterial” through an exploration of the
conceptual properties and luminous intensity of color is often referred to as L'epoque bleue,
when he developed a new formula to capture the intensity of a color to create a pictorial
sensitization of energy, and began to work on his first monochrome paintings. The reception of
them, nonetheless, was not the expected; his audience saw the monochromes as simple
expressions of color and not as a depiction of immateriality. Thus, he abandoned the study of
nuances and concentrated on a single color: blue. He then developed an extremely saturated
ultramarine blue, the International Klein Blue, and finally “found the pictorial definition, the
materialization of his individual sensitivity between infinite expanse and immediate proximity”
(Weitemeier, 2017, p. 15) This new and revolutionary blue hue represents the idea of infinity,
comprised in finite compositions, such as his monochromes or the Anthropomorphs.
Greco-Roman
imagery
Yves Klein (1928), Jonathan Swift ANT
125 (1960), Pure pigment and synthetic
resin on paper mounted on canvas
Yves Klein (1928), Monique ANT 57
(1960), Pure pigment and synthetic
resin on paper mounted on canvas
Growing up in a family of artists firstly introduced Klein to
the classical and antique sculpture, whose imagery became a
motif in his art because he perceived the central section of
the body as incredibly engaging and expressive: “It was the
block of the body itself, that is to say the trunk and part of
the thighs that fascinated me… Only the body is alive, all-
powerful, and non-thinking” (Klein cited in Sotheby’s, Yves Klein
2020). His fascination with the legs and torso resembles
(1928), Vénus
Bleue (1961),
ancient Greco-roman marble figurines, such as the Belvedere Painted plaster,
Metropolitan
Torso, Winged Victory of Samothrace, and Venus de Milo, Museum of Art
whose compositions also comprehend a portion of the
human body. In this sense, the body also becomes a symbol
of immateriality, seen in the act of carving and sculpture or
directing a performance to portray a bigger truth, whose
remains are its central portion left behind by the imprints or
the falling of pieces throughout time.
Function and Purpose
Immateriality is such a complex concept that our minds often cannot comprehend what it is,
as we tend to use things that we know to explain those we do not because “everything we
know to exist is physical” (Heschmeyer, 2017). However, immateriality is not a concept one
can comprehend using material metaphors, such as an empty room or the outer space,
because “it is what exists beyond our being, yet is forever a part of us. Even Life itself does
not belong to us; it is with our sensibility that we are able to purchase Life. Sensibility is the
currency of the universe, of space, of Nature” (Klein, 1959). Klein’s conception of the
immaterial and his depiction of its remains often presented an intellectual challenge to his
audience, as his art sought to represent concepts that surpass our comprehension and create
imaginative experiences. In this sensee, the Anthropométrie performances combined a
variety of “human perceptual and intellectual capacities to the full extent” (Branksome Hall
Asia, 2021) that were represented in a partially shown and fragmented body, it was an
intellectual challenge for the audience to truly understand how an infinite and otherwise
imaginative experience reduced itself to a material imprint of a torso and legs. Thus, the
function of the Anthropométrie de l’Époque Bleue is merely conceptual and symbolic,
because Klein prioritized the experiencing and portrayal of the immateriality over a finished
work or a perfect depition of the human body, as, for him, the art itself was experiencing the
immateriality: “my paintings are the ashes of my art” (Klein, 2020, p. 5) symbolized through
his deep and vibrant ultramarine blue and the imprints of the bodies.
Women Words in Context
Betty Tompkins (b. 1945) is an American, first-
generation femenist artist whose oeuvre explores
themes related to a representation of sexuality through
tense, explicit, and monochromatic compositions. Her
pieces are usually hyper-realistic, large scale, and built
of layers that transpose light and shadow, where
language has become a recurrent visual metaphor to
convey her feminist and politically charged messages.
Tompkin first began experimenting with her husband’s
pornographic magazines during the late 60s, creating
collages and photo-realistic paintings of genitalia,
showing a profound influence from the Sexual
Revolution of the 60s and 70s, a cultural and social
movement that originated as the second wave of the
Feminist movement evolved in the United States.
During this time, people began to question the traditional
sexual and gender roles imposed by society. For feminists, this
meant women's sexual empowerment, that is, the recognition of
women as sexual beings. The ideas of the revolution clamorously
criticized society’s double standards for men and women, as it
was “acceptable” for men to behave a certain way while it was
“disturbing” and “inappropriate” if done by a woman. However,
for conservatives these ideas were a direct attack to the nation's
values and “an invitation for promiscuity and an attack on the
very foundation of American society—the family” (Public
Broadcast Service, 2001) that would lead to a sexual anarchy.
Betty Tompkins
(1945), Women
Words Ingres #2
(2018), Acrylic
on book page,
P.P.O.W Gallery
New York
Feminist Art
Tompkins' art quickly became part of the first generation Feminist Art, a movement whose significance and relevance
remains till today. Feminist artist seek to challege and question the societal standards and expectations, while strongly
critizing the dominance of men in society and art to achieve recognition and equality for women. Feminist art can be traced
back to the 60s and 70s, when women artists began to use new and groundbreaking mediums — such as performance — and
crafts historically known as "only for women” to oppose to sexism and oppresion, while exposing the concept of femininity
hhhhh as a masquerade to force women to fit into unattaineble expectations.
Since Feminist Art is a rather newer art genre and it is constant
evolution, in past few decades younger feminist artists have broadened
their fight to themes regarding race, class, privilege, and gender identity
or fluitity (Museum of Modern Art, 2022). Tompkins’ art has remained
faithful to its addressing and critique to the sexualization of women,
while also exploring the modern conceptions of gender and their
implications on the lives of contemporary women, especially in what
regards media portrayal, sexual terrorism, access to healthcare and
education, racial fetishization and more.
Women Words, therefore, is the result of the continuous enforcement of
societal and gender norms, even in a contemporary context of liberty
Thus, it is a response to the current issues in business, politics,
Betty Tompkins (1945), Kissing entertainment, social circles whose origin remotes to profound cultural
Painting #2 (2006), Acrylic on canvas Betty Tompkins (1945), Fuck Grid #9 beliefs and behaviors. In Women Words, Tompkins intended to explore
(2006), Mixed media on paper
and transmit the cultural biases that control the way we feel,
The Revolution signified a change in values in society, understand understand, and express femininity. She first began
especially because other movements such as the anti- working on the series in 2010, when she used a large
war and civil rights, were gaining strength during this and international network to ask people to describe
time, and the youth began to reject the older women using words or expressions. The monumental
generation's values by questioning their figures of importance of language in her pieces to create
authority. The rise of these ideas signified a new era meticulously arranged compositions that “disrupt” a
for art; artists began to explore and represent more previous piece to juxtapose classical and contemporary
openly sexual themes that would eventually strengthen art is truly fascinating, especially because these words
the social movements of the decade. This lead to the cover the women’s figure and hide them to “subvert
experimentation of new materials and mediums such as Betty Tompkins Western art historical narratives that, until recently,
such as latex, cloth, vinyl, polyurethane foam, (1945), Women have lionized only men’s contributions” (UBS Art
Words Ingres #3
fibreglass, neon, and even chewing gum: “The non- Collection, 2017). The covering or partial showing of
(2018), Acrylic
traditional form and presentation of these works is on book page, these women intends to represent society’s way of
symptomatic of the influx into art of historically non- P.P.O.W Gallery preventing women from exploring and developing their
artistic materials, which many of these artists used in New York identities because of the established idea of femininity
order to explore the erotic” (Souter, 2018) that defines how a woman should look, act, and think.
A visual reading of Women Words
In Women Words, Tompkins sought to rewrite art history’s most emblematic pieces by inscribing with acrylic paint
terse, direct, politically charged, and even blatant phrases into their compositions to “disrupt” them and convey a
higher conceptual message. She has modified pieces such as Warhol’s Marilyn prints, Artemisia Gentileschi’s Jael and
Sisera, or Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres’ Grande Odalisque; a painting commissioned by Napoleon's sister, Queen
Caroline Murat of Naples, that represents the break from Neoclassicism and the beginning of exotic Romanticism.
The sense of pattern evoked by Tompkins with the written phrases creates a very interesting juxtaposition of a
Neoclassic and early Romantic piece with elements of modern art, as the piece comes together harmoniously with the
inscriptions, despite these being completely incoherent with the atmosphere of the painting. Nonetheless, Tompkins'
inscriptions do not follow the traditional conception of a pattern, as these are not a uniform repetition of an element or
group of elements. Tompkins does not create a uniform repetition, as the size of the letters varies in each individual
case and the words written are not all the same.

Tompkins’ technique for Women Words creates unique and

intriguing visual effects that completely disrupt a painting's
composition and harmony while conserving its most
distinctive characteristics, creating a conceptually
significant and complex visual narrative, and giving them a
new essence. For instance, since the paintings she adapts are
originally book prints, the pebbled-like texture of the paper
is overlapped to the ones originally in the painting — such
as rough peacock feathers, the woman’s smooth skin, and However, the same color and writing style creates a sense of
the expressive foldings in the textiles — creating a sense of repetition — even if it's not uniform — which also creates a
variety all over the pictorial space. sense of irregular rhythm, asymmetrical balance, and contrast
all over the pictorial space, as the viewer's eyes are
immediately drawn to the pattern Tompkins created, as it is
percieved as the only “odd” element in the piece. The
woman’s defined silhouette, achieved by the intensity and
"oddness" of the inscriptions, insinuates there is a
depiction of a human body even if the woman's body is
never fully shown. Thus, the female figure in the piece went
from being a representational form into one with abstract
tendencies and qualities.
Betty Tompkins (1945), Women Words Ingres #2 (2018), Acrylic on book page, P.P.O.W Gallery New York
In terms of color, Ingres’ composition is also drastically disrupted by Tompkins' pattern enhanced the contour lines Ingres'
Tompkins’ inscriptions, as the color scheme and atmosphere of the painting painting originally had and made the woman's
itself became duller just for the fact of it being printed. Nonetheless, the color silhouette extremely defined, as it creates a sense of
scheme still introduces a sense of contrast created by the visual accents and contrast. By doing so, she plays with space quite
variety. Most of the painting's setting is done using cool hues, especially blues interestingly, as the woman's figure, originally
and browns with lower values, while the woman’s figure is done using light considered positive space, became negative space and
tints. This color scheme, used purposely to draw the viewer's eyes directly to the background of her inscriptions, having a fudamental
the woman’s figure, is disrupted by the introduction of a bright pink hue. conceptual effect achieved through the veiling or
Nonetheless, the fact that the pink only covers the woman’s figure maintains covering her figure. As well, the letters create a
Ingres’ original sense of contrast and its effect on the audience’s attention. mixture of horizontal,vertical, and curved lines.
A conceptual reading of Women Words
In Women's Words, Tompkins "literally dismantled art history" (Cohen, 2018) to present ideas regarding normalized sexism and
oppresion — focusing mainly on the way sexual harassment has been “normalized” in society. To do so, Tompkins presents an
alternative narrative to the way painting and photography is usually worked with, "creating a new art history canon" (Cohen,
2018), as she chooses to alter pieces that go from Renaissance paintings to modern and contemporary photographs. Her oeuvre is
not only incredibly pioneering in terms of artistic techniques and practices, but also in her continuous conceptual explorations, the
way she portrays them, and presents them to an audience. Thus, Tompkins’ purpose for Women Words is undoubtedly to present
a critique to the sexist naratives that have ruled our society for decades, leading to a degrading treatment towards women that
results in sexualization, harassment, and an obstruction to the free development of a woman’s individual identity. Likewise,
driven by her own experiences as a woman, Tompkins’ purpose in her pieces is also to release emotional saturation, a personal
and collective one, as her pieces seek to bring a sense of consciousness to the audience regarding the struggles women have
endured for centuries, thus expressing a profound frustration and feeling of impotence. The function of Tompkins’ Women Words
is, therefore, expressive and political, to cause a sense of shock in the audience.
Tompkins’ portrayal of genitalia and explicit scenes has shocked her audience for
decades, eventually leading to her censorship during the late 60s and her ubiquitous
recognition in the past years. In Women Words, nonetheless, she shocked her
audience using blatant phrases and words, rather than graphic and almost
“pornographic” imagery. Language here becomes her most important medium to
disturb the audience using their own words and expressions to describe women:
“cunt”, “bitch”, “she is so boring”, “cock smoker”, “disgusting”, “Miss Piggy”,
“she would look better with my dick in her mouth”, “babe”, “slut”, “feminazi”, and
uses them to cover the women’s bodies almost completely to represent how one
tends to not look past this narrative that conceals women’s individuality under
the established idea of what femininity is. Thus, Tompkins effectively shocked
her audience by showing a raw reality that, even 60 years after her first critique to
the objectification and degradation of women, and 11 years from her first Women
Words piece, a retrograde thinking and contemptuous
treatment towards women still exists, almost as if time
had not passed at all: “I began to wonder then if language
had changed - 11 years had gone by, things were Betty Tompkins
supposedly different - so I sent another email out, this (1945), Women Words
time promising people anonymity, which I hadn't before. Helmut Newton #6)
I don't know if that's why, but I got so many stories back. (2018), Acrylic on
'Wench' was more popular than it had been before. But book page, P.P.O.W
Gallery New York
the four most repeated words were exactly the same:
bitch, cunt, slut and mother. Isn't it crazy!” (Tompkins
cited in Jansen, 2017)
Betty Tompkins (1945),
Women Words Ingres
#2 (2018), Acrylic on
book page, P.P.O.W
Gallery New York
Because feminism “both intellectually and politically, encompasses a broad social justice
agenda” (Kelly & Gauchat, 2016, p. 1), feminist art often addresses “overly political”
matters, such as sexual violence or “interlocking systems of oppression” (p. 1), to present a
critique to the societal norms that have affected women for centuries. Women Words is no
different, Tompkins presents a critique to the deeply rooted inequality issues that arose
because of these old-fashioned political views that shape the everlasting negative and
misogynistic perception of women. She explores these issues through the expression of her
own experiences as a woman, alongside those of her audience. She mainly uses
juxtapositions of classical and contemporary imagery to present a direct political and social
critique, adapting emblematic pieces done mostly by men and adapting them to express how
womanhood and femininity has been experienced throughout history. For instance, she
carefully chose highly admired and recognized artists like Degas, Caravaggio, Raphael,
Titian, Edward Hopper, Andy Warhol, Brassaï, and Helmut Newton to critique the curatorial
practices that tend to leave women out of the Art History canon. It is here where language
becomes an extremely versatile symbol, because the covering of these women also alludes
to the erasing of women in history. Tompkins, therefore, exhibited pieces by highly
unregarded women artists like Dutch Golden Age painter Judith Leyster, Neoclassical
painter Angelica Kauffman, and photographers Tina Modottiand Gertrude Käsebier, and
presented their works in substantially larger dimentions when compared to Ingres’ or
Caravaggio’s, creating a direct critique.
Yves Klein's Monique Common contextual elements between Monique and Women Words Betty Tompkin's Women Words
Influences: Klein’s was highly
influenced by post-war European art, Both artists are considered from the first generation of an artistic movement; Klein
which sought to explore the nature of from Nouveau réalisme and Tompkins from Freminist Art.
humanity to redefine their identity.
They are both inspired by the artist’s individual experiences; Klein
Contemporary perception of the piece: The use of was deeply influenced by the practice of Judo and his year in Japan
women as anthropomorphic brushes is often perceived as learning its philosophy and technique, and Tompkins by her
sexist, as the performance comprehended a power experiences as a woman and being a female artist.
dynamic between Klein and the models.
Women Words is a response to deeply rooted contemporary and past issues regarding the
Impact: Klein’s revolutionary oeuvre resulted in the creation of a new artistic movement,
perception of gender and how it makes people act towards women, oftenly falling within the
Nouveau réalisme, formed by those artists who did not seem to fit either into the normative Common contextual elements
repetitive biased and oppressive behavior.
art-making practices of the time. between the three pieces
Influences and impact: Her piece is deeply influenced by the ideas of the Sexual
The three pieces were created after or during periods of
The Anthropometries introduced a new art-making practice: performance art, and Revolution, and thus it strongly questions and criticizes the established values of the time.
violent manifestations of the human nature and behavior; the
anticipated the practices of conceptual art This influence led to her, and other artists, to experiment with new and unique mediums
Aphrodite during the Anglo-French rivalry, Monique and the
and motifs, resulting in her use of explicit and terse scenes that revolutionized the
Anthropometrie de L'Epoque Bleue after the Second World
It revolutionized the perception of the nude, as it went from being a symbol to interpretation of sexual imagery in art, as pornographic images had never been used in
War, and Women Words after and during long periods
the medium itself. compositions before her experimentatiions in the early 60s.
characterized by the normalized violence against women.

The three pieces show an appriciation for the female nude and the human
body based on their personal and artistic expreiences, and the covering of
Common contextual elements between
Common contextual elements between Monique and Venus de Milo these bodies is the result of their beliefs as individuals, as the Aphrodite
represents a figure of divinity for the Ancient and Hellenistic Greeks,
Women Words and Venus de Milo
Influences: Both pieces are influenced by the imagery of classical Monique a representation of Klein's conception of the immaterial, and Women
Both are deeply retrospective pieces that combine relevant matters of
sculpture; Klein in the portrayal of the torso and Venus in her Words a representation of Tompkins' experiences as a woman and dissent
the past and our contemporary context, as they address a set of values
drapery and curved figure. towards the normative and oppresive behavior against women.
and beliefs that shaped and determined the moral code of society; the
Aphrodite by being a divine figure is meant to guide the younger
Both pieces show influences from previous explorations of their generations of men, and Tompkins' pieces by addressing a complex
subject, the female nude; Klein (matisse, picasso, and
Venus de Milo
past of gender normativity.
Rauschenberg’s) and Venus from previous depictions of venus
such as the Aphrodite of Capua, that is considering it is a greek It is one of the most emblematic
Influences: The Aphrodite was Both pieces juxtapose in a single composition influences
original and not a roman replica. and significant pieces of all time, as
created in a time where cult and and imagery from different art movements and historical or
its mystery has captivated and intrigued
religion were fundamental for the well geographical contexts to create a conscious and profoundly
art historians for centuries.
Conceptual influences: both can be deeply related to functioning of the society, thus it is retrospective visual narrative: the Aphrodite Hellenistic
The origin of the Aphrodite is uncertain, as inspired or influenced by canonical Baroque and Neoclassicism, and Tompkins contemporary
mystical beliefs; Klein's anthropometry to the concepts
the ambiguity regarding her author has remained myths of the time to represent and feminist art and Neoclassicism.
of immateriality and the practices of Judo, and the Venus
until nowadays. Thus, the political environment reinforce a set of values that shaped
to the Greek mythico-religious culture
of her discovery determined its “origin” to fit a the Hellenistic society.
narrative that favored the French crown
image by me
Yves Klein's Monique Common visual elements between Monique and Women Words Betty Tompkin's Womens Words
Technique: Klein used a rather inno- Color: Both use bright and bold hues for the human form (Klein, ultramarine blue; Tompkins,
vative and unorthodox method to create pink) and duller hues for the background, which creates an intense color contrast, this way the
the anthropomorphs: performance art and bodies become the focal point of the composition.
direct body imprinting onto the canvas. This
technique created interesting and unique visual The partial showing of both human figures was entirely intentional,
features in his pieces, such as expontaneous lines and and a result of the technique used by Klein and Tompkins. Pattern: Tompkins
rich textured areas. creates a sense of pattern and
Line: The silhouette of both human forms is
irregular rhythm using a repetition of
The partial showing of the human figure in this piece is, thus, a result of delimited by highly defined contour lines.
pink inscriptions that cover the human figure.
the technique employed, as the model's body was not pressed completely
onto the canvas, causing only a portion of it to be imprinted. Technique: Tompkins also uses a technique unique to her own artistic practices: taking original
Common visual elements works and disrupting their compositions by covering the female figures in them. Because the
Line: Despite having predominantly continuous, contour lines, the figure presents areas where between the three pieces images she modified are from textbooks, a dull and faint atmosphere with pebble-like texture is
discontinuous vertical and horizontal lines appear due to the technique used, especially in the chest. present all over the pictorial space.
Color: The three pieces use a single hue to
depict the human form: Klein, ultramarine Composition and space: While playing quite thoughtfully with negative and positive space
Shape and figure: The figure in the composition is undoubtedly a human one, where mainly
blue; Tompkins, pink; and Venus, ivory. within the inside of the figure, Tompkins covers it completely with her inscriptions.
flat and irregular shapes can be seen, however, certain shapes with geometric tendencies are
formed within the figure; for instance, circles in her chest and rectangles in her torso.
Space: All the pieces altercate the negative space within the Contrary to Venus de Milo, Tompkins does not use drapery to cover the human
human figure, creating a sense of variety and rhythm. This figure. She instead uses it to maintain the elements from the Neoclassical painting,
The human figure is not continuous, as it is fragmented into torso, chest, and legs. particular use of space creates the impression that the figures creating a sense of variety in the composition.
are not entirely covered, but not entirely shown either.

Common visual elements between Monique and Venus de Milo Composition and form: In all three pieces the main subject is undoubtedly Common visual elements between Women Words and Venus de Milo
the human figure, particularly a female one, which is depicted using a lot of
In both pieces the depiction of the human form is quite similar, a the torso, organic movement and dynamism, as their pose is not stiff or static, it is Composition and characterization: The human form in both compositions is a
chest, and legs is shown quite evidently in both pieces, even if the Aphrodite’s rather inclined towards a diagonal. Likewise, the depiction of the bodies continuous and seamless figure, as it is not visually fragmented into pieces like
legs are not shown, the falling of the drapery over them tells the viewer her suggests a use of representational forms, however, the covering and partial Monique. However, it is worth mentioning that, even if it seems like a seamless figure
legs are underneath. As well, both figures are missing their arms. showing of the bodies gives them an abstract essence. when on display, the Venus de Milo was sculpted and found in two different fragmented
pieces: her torso and upper body, and legs. As well, in both pieces the gaze of the
Texture: Unlike Women Words, whose texture is pronounced all human form is inclined and directed diagonally towards the viewer's right.
over the composition, the Aphrodite and Monique predominantly Venus de Milo
smooth and "flat" pieces in terms of texture. However, they have In both pieces the partial showing of the human body is achieved through
Form : Aphrodite's form is The partial showing of
textured certain areas within the human figure that create the sense covering, as Tompkins deliberately wrote over the fuman figure in Ingre's
three-dimensional and open, making Aphrodite's body was not
that the body is not being entirely shown, as it is missing significantly original painting and the Aphrotie's legs are covered by her drapery.
negative space a fundamental element entirely intentional; while the
larger pieces (such as arms in both figures and the head in Monique) to create a dynamic composition. covering of her legs was done
and smaller ones that give a sense of incompleteness to them. Both artists purposefully juxtaposed different artistic styles in a
purposely with drapery, the
Line: Aphrodite's lines are mostly single piece to create a dynamic composition with a strong sense
falling of her arms was a result
continuous, extremely pronounced, and of variety. Venus uses Hellenistic Baroque and neoclassical
The textured areas are predominant in of the passing of time.
versatile. In the drapery, they do not follow a elements; and Tompkins contemporary and neoclassical.
Aphrodite’s torso, shoulders, and in the right
constant direction, they fall naturally creating Light: Aphrodite's expressive drapes create a
side of her upper body, where her arm is Both compositions use strongly defined and expressive
mostly vertical and diagonal lines; and in her strong and intriguing contrast between light and
supposed to be; and in Monique in the torso drapery to capture light and shadow in an intriguing way.
hair the lines are horizontal, curved, and a mix shadow, however, the areas where the light hitS
and chest, particularly in the left side.
between continuous and discontinuous. image by me vary depending on the audience's viewpoint.
Yves Klein's Monique Common conceptual elements between Monique and Women Words Betty Tompkin's Womens Words

Color symbolism: Both Klein and Tompkins

use color as a mechanism to portray
Purpose: Klein's exploration of
the concepts they intend to explore, and

both of these hues become motifs
the immaterial certainly led him to
throughout their oeuvre, as their career focuses

on the exploration of a single theme.
create pieces that represented an
Thus, Klein uses blue to constantly explore

the material properties of
intellectual challenge for his audience,
immateriality and the transition between the material and immaterial
both contemporary and in the 60s
realms; and Tompkins bright pinks to criticize the established and
when the pieces were first shown, as
normative perception of femininity and gender.
the Anthropometries represent the
remains of a concept almost
incomprehensible for the human mind. Purpose: Tompkins, as a feminist artist, usually aims to present blatant and terse critiques to
society's enforcement of gender normativity and oppression towards women. Thus, the covering or
Common conceptual elements partial showing of the female figure in her compositions relies on her intention of presenting a social
Concept and theme: Klein explores the concept of the "remaining" to represent materially and between the three pieces critique, unlike the other two artists, whose themes are inclined towards divinity and mythicism.
physically a completely immaterial experience. In this sense, the partial showing of the human Theme and concept: The three pieces use the female
body depicts a "higher truth" and a bigger concept. Her juxtaposition of different artistic styles is also deeply rooted in her criticism purpose,
body as a visual metaphor to depict "bigger" and highly
as she intends to manifest her dissent and rejection towards the biased curatorial practices
complex concepts that surpass human understanding;
Function: Klein's Anthropometries are an anticipation to conceptual art, as these that privilege male artists over female.
immateriality, gender, and divine figures.
did not intend to create a piece that presented a perfect depiction of the human
Their conceptual reliance on the partial showing of the human figure, as Symbolism and function: Tompkins, like many other conceptual and feminist artist,
body, but rather one that privileged the experiencing and portrayal of immateriality.
their meanings would change if the figures were fully shown: Monique recur to language as their main symbol to cause shock in the audience through the
use of explicit and politically charged phrases.
would not represent the material properties of a "bigger truth", the Venus
would not embody the Hellenistic traditions, and the women in Womens
Common conceptual elements between Monique and Venus de Milo Words would not be erased by society's oppressive and biased behaviors. Common conceptual elements between Women Words and Venus de Milo
Purpose: The three artists had as a main purpose for their piece to represent a belief
Purpose: Both pieces, when examined from a contemporary perspective, and experience, either personal or collective, to explore these complex concepts: Concept: Both pieces explore themes related to the concept of femininity;
present or create an intellectual challenge for the audience when trying to Klein's piece represents the material remains of an immaterial experience; the Tompkins to criticize the normativity and oppression that comes with it, and the
understand what they intend to portray and transmit. The Aphrodite Aphrodite represents the cultural and mythico-religious beliefs of the Hellenistic Aphrodite to evoke her essence as the epitome of female beauty.
represents an intellectual challenge because its origin is almost completely Greece; and Tompkins' piece a collective experience with gender and oppression.
unknown, while Monique because immateriality is a highly complex Purpose and audience: Both pieces are intended to portray issues or
concept the human mind cannot fully comprehend themes that concern a large group of people, and thus their purpose is to
Venus de Milo create a sense of deep reflection within the audience. The Aphrodite, for
Function: In both pieces the use of symbols and imagery is vital instance, if interpreted like Furtwangler (1893) suggests, is related to the
to represent the concepts the artist intended to explore, in both Purpose: Because the Aphrodite's The piece uses symbols, such as
Judgment of Paris and, given it is intended for a gymnasium where
cases, concepts that surpass human comprehension and are related purpose is to represent a mythico- the apple, that connect with
young men like Paris attended, it raises a question within them regarding
to mystical beliefs, thus one of their functions is symbolic. religious narrative, the covering of her specific canonical and literary
their morals and choice of lifestyle.
body with drapery portrays Hellenic events relevant in the Hellenistic
Klein's piece, the color blue becomes a symbol cultural traditions through imagery and Greece, such as the Judgment of Similarly, Tompkins, using the audience's own words to
of the bridge between an immaterial and material symbolism present in canonical literature, Paris, that represent a collective refer to women, questions and critiques the societal
realms, where it is used to depict the physical for instance, from Homer's epics. and cultural cosmovision or expectations and unfair treatment towards women
properties of immateriality; while in the Venus, Function: Unlike the other two pieces, which
perception of reality, whereas the causing a deep sense of reflection in the audience
her figure represents a higher mythico-religious serve a mainly conceptual and socially critical
other pieces, especially Klein's, use regarding their morals, language, and behavior.
Greek belief that is accompanied by canonical function, Aphrotide of Melos serves a decorative symbols that represent his own
myths, symbolized by the apple. function within a context of religious and mythic cult. image by me vision and understanding of reality.
An introduction to my work
My artistic practice has focused on a profound exploration on the way the minds of the past
shape our contemporary vision of the world. I am deeply interested in the connections
between artistic, philosophical, and historical narratives that seek to generate change,
especially in matters that regard the perception of gender and the normativity that surrounds
it. I have, thus, explored artists whose oeuvre allow me to perceive an evolution of the
female role in society and how it has been depicted through the passing of
time, mainly focusing on a continuous exploration of the visual language and
narrative of liberty. Some of the artists and thinkers that have inspired me
include Remedios Varo, particularly her use of androgynous figures and their
impact on the traditional ideas about gender and on the contemporary
interpretation of queerness; Yves Saint Laurent’s exploration of the transparent
and sheer fabrics allow women to express their desires and efforts to achieve
The Repeated Gender Performance (2021)
sexual liberation; Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity and the
Artwork by me, Digital photomontage
societal coercion of normative, and otherwise nonexistent, ideas of sex; and
print on on semi-gloss paper
Gustav Klimt’s erotic compositinos that explore themes related to morality,
psychological inquiry, and desire
My pieces, thus, have had an interesting trajectory in terms of what I wish to
portray and explore, leading me to develop motifs and likings of certain visual
traits that give my pieces their essence and own personality. I have noticed my
work has a tendency towards a partial showing of the human figure, where a
sense of emptiness and ambiguity rules to create compositions with tacit
subjects; a constant intention of presenting critiques to the normativity that
prevents a deep and pure exploration of liberty; and a profound sense of
historical and artistic retrospective. I therefore believe that the Venus de Milo,
Klein’s Anthropométrie de L'Époque Bleue, and Tompkin’s Womens Words
have have had the most influence in my pieces, as they represent through
absent and tacit subjects a narrative that shows the artistic, cultural, and
intellectual shift from an idealized and merely aesthetic representation of the
female figure, to an appropriation of it to create socially aware critiques.
Gustav Klimt (1862),
Portrait of Adele
Bloch-Bauer I (1907),
Oil, silver, and gold
on canvas, Neue
Galerie New York
The Repeated Gender Performance
Inspired by Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity, which suggested that the
idea of gender is nothing but an act we have made ourselves perform to fit into
society’s normative perception of what is “normal”, I created a series of photomontages
that seek to portray the struggles to achieve a partial liberation from the established idea
of gender and the norms that this understanding of it coerces. For this piece I sought to
create a composition with layers and transparencies that allowed a partial discern of a
female figure to allude to the complex process of liberation one must endure to achieve
a genuine sense of liberty from the enforcement of beliefs and norms that dictate how
one must look, think, and act.
Joan
I have been deeply intrigued by the stories told and the arguments used by the Catholic Church to
enforce a political and cultural narrative that benefits, for the most part, only those who fit into their
conception of good morals and normality. For decades, the Catholic Church has privileged the rights
and liberty of men, preventing women from developing and exploring their identities as individuals
because they already created one for them, one they should fit into: a responsible, submissive woman
who is devoted to serving her husband and family. Thus, women throughout history have been
arbitrarily assigned a role they should perform to fit into the conception of femininity and the “ideal
woman” dictated by the church, leaving aside any desires for personal exploration and discovery.
I decided to explore this curiosity towards the Church through the art of the Catholic
Imagination, which inspired designers to create gowns using imagery for the MET’S
2018 Gala: Heavenly Bodies. I was deeply intrigued by the brilliant and highly
ornamental gowns worn by women at the carpet, especially those with traditionally
“male” symbols within this religion, especially those found in the traditional
garments of the Pope. I was thus intrigued by the idea of creating a piece designed
for a female pope to position a woman as the head of an institution that has been out
of our reach for centuries, to create a critique of the normative, inflictive, unfair, and
even authoritarian treatment the Church has had and has promoted towards women.
Joan (2022) Artwork by me, Ecoline
ink on textile, 50 x 150 cm
The Repeated Gender Performance (2021) Artwork by me, Digital
photomontage print on on semi-gloss paper
The Repeated Gender Performance: Connections with Tompkins' Women Words
As well, Tompkins' Women Words had a deep influence in my creation
of The Repeated Gender Performance, as the imagery I chose to explore
the partial liberation from the gender cycle was inspired by her oeuvre,
not to mention the contexts in which we created our pieces also
profoundly impacted our art-making practice in conceptual matters.
Even to this day, the concept of gender is quite normative, and the
prejudices that limited women from exploring their potential 60 years
ago are the same that limit women nowadays. Thus, both pieces are a
response to the remaining cultural biases that allow an unfair and
oppresive treatment, seing blatant feminist imagery as the main medium
to embody in the 21 century the ideas that ruled the Sexual Revolution
of the 60s and 70s. Likewise, Tompkins’ transformation of historically
significant and highly symbolic pieces with the covering of the female
body with insults deeply inspired my use of transparent fabrics and
photograph overlapping in this photomontage series, as my images
resemble Tompkins’ mainly in terms of composition and color.
Formal and visual comparison and contrast
Similarities
We both cover the entire human figure using a bright pink element.
Both compositions have a sense of ambiguity created by the coating
of the figures as, despite being completely covered, traits that allow a
recognition of a female form remain visible thanks to the use of space
in Tomkins’ piece and light and transparencies in mine.
Both pieces juxtaposee the female figure to intriguing backgrounds.
Differences
The overlapping of elements in my piece occurs all over the
composition, while in Tompkins’ only over the female figure to
achieve a sense of contrast that made her the focal point of the
composition.
The partial showing of both figures occurs in different ways;
Tompkins plays with negative space within her pattern to leave areas
where her body is seen underneath, while I use transparent fabric that
shows a coated form.
Tomkins uses a single female figure per composition, while I overlay
several to create a sense of transparency and dynamism.
Conceptual and conextual comparison and contrast
Similarities
Both used the covering of the female figure to depict
Both used pink layers to cover the female figures, to represent with color symbolism the
normative and stereotyped perception of femininity.
Purpose: We both had a rather similar purpose, represented with different visual narrative:
to present a critique to the sexist narratives dictated by the normative and outdated
conceptions of gender and femininity. We both also sought to release emotional saturation
through our pieces, as these are highly inspired by our experiences as women.
Function: Both pieces serve an expressive and political
Betty Tompkins (1945), function, however, Tompkins’ visual narrative is
Women Words Degas undoubtedly stronger and more shocking than mine,
#3 (2018), Acrylic on perhaps causing a more impact on the audience.
book page, P.P.O.W
Gallery New York
There is a defined silhouette
that shows a human form
Betty Tompkins (1945), Women Words Manet #1 (2018),
Acrylic on book page, P.P.O.W Gallery New York
Differences
Her main symbol is language while mine is transparencies.
She sought to critique especially the ostracism of women artists from the
In both pieces the visible traits
underneath the coverings are artistic circles and galleries, while I sought to critique the limitations imposed
hands, noses, and lips; and how these lead to women “wasting” their potential to shape their identity
however, Tompki's piece also to fit into the archaic conception of what femininity should be.
allows a glance at the woman's Function: Tompkins definitely sought to create a sense of shock in the
breasts, and my piece to the audience through explicit and terse symbolism, such as nudity and insults,
woman's neck and hair
while my piece did not seek to generate shock, but rather a deep reflection.
The Repeated Gender Performance: Connections with the Venus de Milo
The connections between The Repeated Gender Performance and the
Aphrodite of Melos are perhaps not as evident as they were between
Tompkins’ pieces and mine. However, the cultural narrative depicted in the
Aphrodite embodies the ideas of femininity that have shaped our perception
of this concept throughout time, thus inspiring my piece's conceptual
foundation and helping me to fully comprehend the implications of the
enforcement of the gender norms to construct a meaningful and informed
interpretation and critique of them in my pieces. The Aphrodite has inspired
my work in the sense it represents the ideas that I wish to critique: the
idealized perception of women and femininity.
Visual, conceptual, and contextual comparison and contrast
Differences
The partial showing of the human figure in both pieces is quite different. Starting with
the fact that my piece I covered the entire woman with the fabric and layers is entirely
intentional, while the Aphrodite’s legs were covered intentionally and her arms fell
off due to the passage of time.
Despite creating a weightless and even translucent effect, the Aphrodite’s drapery is
completely opaque, while mine is transparent.
The perception of the female body is judged with different standards in the context in
which I created my piece than in the context in which the Aphrodite was created.
Thus, the depiction of the ideal woman in the Hellenistic Period defers monumentally
to the one we have today, as her curves and robustness would not be found desirable
nowadays.
Function: Because the Aphrodite of Melos was an emblem and a symbol of
femininity and fertility, considered the patroness of the young men of the Island of
Melos, its construction was meant to be decorative, yet also symbolic to generate a
reflection within the young men of Melos; while my piece is mainly political, as it
seeks to dismantle a narrative with deeply rooted political and cultural issues.
Purpose: My piece, contrary to the Aphrodite, seeks to create a critique to the
established idea of femininity, while the Venus seeks praise it.
Connection with Klein's Anthropométrie de l’Époque Bleue
Klein’s influence in The Repeated Gender Performance is perhaps the least evident out
of the three artists I have chosen to study, as his partial showing of the human form relies
on fragmentation and discontinuous forms that create the impression of a human figure.
Nonetheless, this fragmentation of the body to create an abstract representation of a
human body is explored, to certain extent, in my photomontages, given that the
superposition of layers and photographs results in the cutting or hiding of certain areas
that give the impression of a fragmented body, especially in the hands.
Similarities
We both use color symbolism to portray the
concepts in our pieces, as Klein uses blue to
depict the transition between material and
Sandro Botticelli (1510), The Birth of Venus immaterial realms, and I use pink to
(1485–1486), Tempera, Uffizi Gallery
represent the stereotypical perception of
femininity.
Similarities Both pieces explore the breaking of the
The hands tend to
Purpose and function: Both pieces sought to represent get a fragmented human figure to create illusions of perfectly
the ideas of femininity during the context of their
appearance based depicted bodies.
on their level of
creation, Hellenistic Greece and the 21st century. exposition The body gets a fragmented
Nonetheless, both representations are quite different, as appearance because model's body
did not fully touch the paper
the Aphrodite sought to represent the idealized image of Differences
the epitome of female beauty, while my piece sought to Klein plays with negative space to create a sense of color contrast between the
represent a critique to these normative perceptions and fragmented human figure and the background, thus creating strong contour lines;
representations of women. while my piece’s transparent layering creates fading and crossing lines.
Audience: Both pieces seek to generate a deep sense of Klein’s intention for the Anthropometries was never to explore the female figure
reflection related to the human morals and ethics within nor matters related to femininity, as all that concerned him was a material depiction
the audience; the Aphrodite focused on a male audience of the remains of an immaterial experience, while my intention was always to
who were were discovering the sexual facet of their explore human form and the different ways of showing it partially to explore ideas
lives, while mine is intended to a universal audience, related to femininity.
since gender normativity and performativity is an issue Function and purpose: Klein’s deep spiritual character and influences from
that concerns all people, from all ages, genders, and practices like Judo made his main goal to explore the physical properties of
nationalities. immateriality, thus the function of his pieces is mainly conceptual, representative,
Both pieces use expressive and strong drapery to and symbolic; while my pieces always intend to create strong visual narratives that
capture intriguing light and shadows. explore deeply rooted social issues regarding gender normativity, thus making their
The drapery is used to cover the female figure. main function creating a critique.
Joan: Connection with the Venus de Milo
The representation of cultural and religious beliefs has been done by artists for Connection with Klein's Anthropométrie de l’Époque Bleue
centuries, as our spiritual facets define an enormous part of who we are no matter
what we believe in. The Aphrodite’s profound retrospection and representation of Klein’s profound spiritual influences led him to explore themes and concepts that surpass our
religious, cultural, and historical beliefs connects with my work in the sense I comprehension, and his depiction of them was extremely spontaneous and diverse. His connection or
sought to embody a set of beliefs that have shaped our history and shaped our influence in Joan is related to the exploration of the spiritual facet of the human being and how it has
vision of reality till this day. shaped our perception of reality, mine focusing on the gender norms that emerge from certain religious
beliefs and his to the release of a material burden.
Visual, conceptual, and contextual comparison and contrast
Visual, conceptual, and contextual
Similarities
comparison and contrast
Both pieces use religiously traditional drapery to partially cover the body of a
woman to allude to a set of cultural beliefs that shaped the understanding of Similarities
reality during a determined period of time. Both are inspired in beliefs that originate in the
Both pieces are deeply related to the spiritual aspects of the human being, as human’s need to explore their spiritual character.
the Aphrodite represents a divine figure related to sexuality, erotism, and love; Both pieces depict a reduced version of a female
and my piece portrays the female version of a figure that is seen as the body; Klein through fragmented and incomplete
representation of divinity on Earth. forms that create the impression of a female
Both pieces explore themes of sexuality and erotism, as I sought to dress the body, and my piece through a shadow of a
image
female pope using clothes that are seen as “too revealing”, such as crop tops, by me reduced female silhouette underneath the robe.
to critique the Church’s stigmatization of a woman’s sexuality.
The shadow formed underneath the pallium (the
Differences Venus de Milo (130 - 100 BC), robe) resembles Klein's anthropomorphs, one
The drapery in my piece covers the Parian marble (H. 202 cm), can only see partially the woman wearing it, as
Musée du Louvre image
the shadow only shows the torso, legs, and
woman’s shoulders and part of her chest Joan (2022) by me arms. This figure, nonetheless, does not look
and lower body, leaving her feet visible to Artwork by fragmented into separate pieces like Klein's.
the audience. me, Ecoline
Function and purpose: Both pieces ink on textile, Differences
explore rather similar themes, however, 50 x 150 cm The partial showing of the human form in both pieces is quite
their functions defer because the pieces different, even if at a simple glance they might look alike, as Klein’s
were created with different intentions. The partial showing is a result of the technique he used, while mine is an
Aphrodite was created in a time where the effect created intentionally by coating the body with a light fabric.
cult and mysticism was crucial for human Theme and function: In my piece my main intent was always
development and functioning, thus it was
image
by me
exploring and criticizing matters related to gender normativity and
created to serve a decorative function so its enforcement, while Klein sought to explore concepts related to
the young men of Melos could express immateriality and how these could be represented through a physical
Yves Klein (1928), ANT 82 (1960), remain of a deeply spiritual event. Thus, the functions of both pieces
their adoration; while my piece seeks to
Pure pigment and synthetic resin on defer, as Klein sought to create a piece with a symbolic and
criticize what the Venus represented
paper mounted on canvas conceptual function, while mine had a political and expressive one.
during that time: the ideal woman
Joan: Connections with Differences
The partial showing of the human form in both pieces is quite different, as
Tompkins' Women Words Tompkins purposefully covers the whole figure to erase it from the composition,
I believe that, once again, Tompkins was the prime artist to influence my and thus from the art history canon, using paint and an irregular pattern of words
work out of the three artists I focused on for this study because the themes and phrases, while I covered the human form using textile and left various parts
and purpose I intended to explore in Joan align the best with the concept, completely and purposefully showing, for instance, the chest.
imagery, and purpose of her series Women Words. Tompkins’ exploration The imagery and symbolism in both pieces is monumentally different, as
of the silencing of women in art history influenced my exploration of the Tompkins sought to use language as her main symbol to represent the oppressive
role the Church has had throughout history in the obstruction of the liberty and unfair perception and behavior towards women and, at the same time, to
to explore one’s identity as a woman because we both sought to present a critique these issues. And, in my piece, I privileged religious symbols and
raw truth about these issues to break with the narratives that pretend to imagery, such as crosses and patterns inspired in the Church's stained glasses to
define a woman's identity and value based on their own beliefs. embody the essence of this institution and create a critique when making a
woman wear a pallium only meant for men.
Visual, conceptual, and contextual comparison and contrast In formal terms, Tompkins’ pieces tend to be monochromatic, Women's Words
Similarities itself privileges the use of pink, while my pallium uses an extremely wide range
Both pieces recur to the adaptation of a previous work or symbol to of hues to allude to the stained glass windows.
create a critique to the way these represent an oppressive and normative
narrative. In Women Words, Tompkins adapts art pieces, and in Joan I
adapt the pope’s pallium and garment.
Betty Tompkins
Both pieces recur to erotic elements within the composition to
(1945), Women
purposefully go against the sitmgatization of a woman’s sexuality;
Words Artemisia
Tompkins uses partially shown nude figures in Womens Words and
Gentileschi #3
pornographic
hhhhh imagery in her paitings and photographs, while I use a crop top and a (2018), Acrylic on
Betty Tompkins (1945), Women Words
low cleavage. Even if my use of erotic elements is significantly less graphic and book page, P.P.O.W
Da Vinci #1 (2018), Acrylic on book
shocking, considering the piece is inspired by Catholic art and narratives, these Gallery New York
page, P.P.O.W Gallery New York
elements present a strong point against the Church’s constant critiques on how
women should dress.
Purpose and function: Both pieces seek to critique an oppressive narrative that images by me
has prevented women from exploring and developing their potential; Tompkins
approaches it through the silencing of women artists and I through the archaic and
sexist values and behaviors the Church has promoted for centuries. Thus, both
pieces have the function of addressing political issues related to gender normativity
and inequality to express the artist's feelings of disapproval, anger, and frustration.
Both pieces are connected through the concept of "erasing", as both address a
problematic rooted in a relationship with a power dynamic between women and an
institution, the Church and the art galleries, that seeks to take relevance away from
their achievements and desire to break from the established definition of what a
woman should be.
 Conclusions
Despite coming from monumentally distinct contexts and exploring mildly related themes, the Venus de Milo, Yves Klein’s Monique
and Anthropométries de L'Époque Bleue, and Betty Tompkins’ Women Words coincide in their use of partially shown human figures
to challenge our anthropomorphic comprehension. The intention of the three artists to explore concepts that represent “bigger” truths
has led them to use tacit and covered subjects to embody a complex conceptual narrative, resulting in their privilege of the
conceptual facets of the piece over anything else.

Throughout the study I was able to learn about the different ways partial depiction can be used by artists to portray highly complex
concepts, and how these “incomplete” visual narratives sustent an artist’s idea in ways a completely shown figure could not. This
conceptual exploration of the incompleteness was used, however, in various and even dichotomous ways by the artists, given that the
Betty Tompkins (1945), Women Words main main purpose of each piece differs considerably: the Aphrodite sought to praise the idealized concept of
Ingres #2 (2018), Acrylic on book page, femininity through the portrayal of the divine figure of love and erotism, Klein sought to represent
P.P.O.W Gallery New York materially the remains of an immaterial experience and event, and Tompkins sought to create a terse
critique to the normalized oppressive behavior towards women and the normative conception of
femininity. The difference between purpose of each piece relies on each artist’s individual background and
experiences, as the pieces were done to address relevant issues of their time and to follow the political
an Hellenistic Greece, the need to redefine the perception of reality after the traumas
inflicted by the Second World War, and the desires of liberty and independence after
centuries of oppression and normativity towards women.
Venus de
Milo (130 -
Likewise, as I analyzed and compared the three pieces I chose, I found fascinating how
100 BC),
this contexts and purposes for each piece deeply impacted the way the artists explored
Parian marble
(H. 202 cm), the partial showing of the human body, as each showed the evolution of conceptual art
Musée du practices through the evolution of the practice of covering the human body in a
Louvre Yves Klein (1928), Monique ANT 57 conscious and intentional way. Thus, I believe that it was crucial for my process to be
(1960), Pure pigment and synthetic
open minded and reflexive, as the complexity of the themes explored by these artists is
resin on paper mounted on canvas
hidden by their “simple” and “incomplete” compositions.

In this sense, the same tendency to partially show and cover the human body became a conceptual and visual motif in my pieces because
I am drawn to the idea of creating intellectual challenges for the audience through incomplete visual narratives that give the pieces a
sense of ambiguity, leave space for the viewer’s own interpretation of each piece, and that embody historical and cultural narratives to
address deeply rooted contemporary issues.