THE FAMILY
Christensen, Brooks
JOURNAL:
/ ADULT
COUNSELING
CHILDREN OF
ANDDIVORCE
THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / July 2001
v Literature Review—Research
Adult Children of Divorce and Intimate
Relationships: A Review of the Literature
Teresa M. Christensen
Morgan C. Brooks
University of New Orleans
Research that focuses on the long-term effects of divorce indicates a
lower sense of well-being and overall quality of life as well as rela-
tionship problems for those who experience the divorce of their par-
ents as children. Many researchers have shown that parental divorce
affects children long after they are grown and involved in intimate re-
lationships of their own. This article provides a review of research
specific to the effects of parental divorce on adults in terms of rela-
tionship issues. Specific purposes of this review are to (a) explore re-
search specific to intimacy and marital attitudes in adult children of
divorce, (b) inform couple and family counselors of the complex and
pervasive effects of parental divorce, and (c) relay implications for
effective treatment and future research.
O ver the past 30 years, the incidence of divorce and mari-
tal separation has escalated throughout the United
States at an alarming rate. The National Center for Health Sta-
tistics reports that one out of every two marriages ends in
divorce (Wendel, 1997). The effect of such separation on chil-
dren has received theoretical and empirical attention for many
years (Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1978; Kurdek & Berg,
1983; Wallerstein & Blakeslee, 1989; Wallerstein & Kelly,
1980). Yet, research specific to the long-term effects of paren-
tal divorce on adults has received scant attention (Franklin,
Janoff-Bulman, & Roberts, 1990). Although adolescents
might cope with stress and adapt well during their early years,
they will more than likely be confronted with issues of love
and marriage anxiety that stem from their concern about
betrayal, abandonment, and not being loved (Glenn &
Kramer, 1987; Wallerstein, 1991). Furthermore, researchers
have indicated that adult children of divorce (ACD) also expe-
rience interpersonal problems including areas regarding con-
trol and submission (Bolgar, Zweig-Frank, & Paris, 1995).
Authors’ Note: Correspondence regarding this article should be
sent to Teresa M. Christensen, University of New Orleans, 348 Edu-
cation Building, New Orleans, LA, 70148-2515.
THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES, Vol. 9 No. 3, July 2001
© 2001 Sage Publications
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Within the past 10 years, there has been an increase in
ACD research and literature that addresses factors such as
trust, intimate relationships, and attitudes toward marriage
(Arditti, 1999; Gabardi & Rosen, 1992; Johnston & Thomas,
1996; Tasker, 1992; Westervelt & Vandenberg, 1997). There
is evidence that scholars and clinicians are increasingly inter-
ested in both detrimental and favorable outcomes of parental
divorce (Gately & Schwebel, 1992; Thomas & Rudolph,
2000). The purpose of this article is to provide a review of
research focused on the implications of parental divorce on
adults’ perceptions of intimacy and marriage as well as impli-
cations for future research and practice.
INTIMACY AND MARITAL ATTITUDES
A review of divorce literature revealed several factors that
contribute to complications that ACD experience in their
interpersonal relationships. Recent attention has focused on
intimacy and attitudes toward marriage as two major prob-
lems for ACD. Researchers have explored (a) gender, (b) age—
developmental level at the time of divorce, (c) length of time
since the divorce, (d) beliefs about trust, (e) extent of family
conflict, and (f) frequency of sexual behavior as factors that
contribute to the negative outcomes of parental divorce on
adults.
Gender
Many researchers have alluded to gender as a predictor for
how children of divorce experience the tumultuous nature of
intimate relationships in adulthood. Specific studies have
indicated that female ACD experience different difficulties
than males. Aro and Palosaari (1992) found that divorce was
associated with a greater incidence of relationship conflict for
young women. Other researchers have indicated that divorce
led to an increase in the number of sexual partners for women
only (Kinnaird & Gerrard, 1986; Sorosky, 1977). However,
other researchers discovered that divorce led to an increase in
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290 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / July 2001
the number of sexual partners for both men and women
(Gabardi & Rosen, 1991). Wallerstein and Blakeslee (1989)
attributed gender differences to developmental issues as
apposed to divorce. They concluded that young boys showed
more signs of trauma than girls in their developmental years
but that girls’ problems became more apparent in young
adulthood. As evidenced by these studies, there is contrasting
data regarding gender as a predictor of how parental divorce
affects adults. However, there seems to be slightly more evi-
dence indicating that women have more difficulty with inti-
macy than men.
Age
Researchers have also indicated that the age of the child at
the time of his or her parents’ divorce has a significant effect
on whether these children struggle with interrelationship
problems when they enter adulthood. However, according to
Thomas and Rudolph (2000), “relating risk to age when
exploring the negative impact of divorce on children has also
been rather contradictory” (p. 442). Oderberg (1986) con-
ducted a study at the University of California at Santa Cruz in
which 4 men and 8 women were randomly selected out of 32
undergraduates. All participants were between the ages of 5
and 17 when their parents got divorced and had lived with one
parent for more than 3 years prior to leaving for college.
Results indicated that the younger the age at the time of
divorce, the more problems the person had with intimate rela-
tionships in adulthood. Oderberg attributed this finding to
children’s inability to understand and deal with divorce at a
young age. Younger children also have a lack of social sup-
port outside of the family (friends, peer groups, schoolmates,
etc.). Oderberg’s findings were supported by the earlier work
of Hetherington et al. (1978), who indicated that younger
children suffer more severe long-term effects of a divorce.
However, based on a 10-year follow-up investigation of chil-
dren from divorced families, Wallerstein (1984) indicated
that younger children suffer less long-term trauma because
they remember less.
Other researchers claim that the length of time since the
divorce serves as a major predictor of how ACD will deal with
interpersonal relationship issues. Gabardi and Rosen (1992)
found that the greater the number of years since the divorce,
the greater the risk of ACD forming unrealistic beliefs about
relationships in general. According to Gabardi and Rosen,
parental divorce leads to unrealistic beliefs regarding the
underlying meaning of disagreements in relationships. Ado-
lescents and adults who had lived for years with the aftermath
of parental divorce often interpreted disagreements as an
intense experience that may lead to divorce. Likewise, these
individuals possessed misperceptions about needing multiple
or the one “perfect” sexual partner to be satisfied. Whereas
factors such as time since divorce and developmental level
address negative outcomes of divorce and coping mecha-
nisms, numerous other factors are thought to influence the
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manner in which ACD function in their interpersonal
relationships.
Trust
In a study conducted with 60 young adults from divorced
families, Johnston and Thomas (1996) explored risk, trust,
and family conflict as factors affecting ACD. Participants
were comprised of two groups, young adults whose parents
were divorced and those whose parents were still married
with low-conflict marriages. None of the participants were
married, and all were involved in monogamous heterosexual
relationships that had lasted for at least 3 months. Each partic-
ipant completed (a) the Perceived Risk Scale, (b) the Dyadic
Trust Scale, (c) a demographic questionnaire, and (d) the
Parental Conflict Scale. Based on the responses from all four
scales, Johnston and Thomas discovered that ACD possess an
overall lack of trust when it comes to intimate relationships
and marriage. As ACD expect to have failed marriages, their
perceived relationship risk is high. Thus, adult children of
divorce are more likely than adults from intact and low-con-
flict families to experience lower levels of trust in their rela-
tionships and partners. As a result, intimate relationships are
hindered due to a fear of rejection and a lack of trust.
Family Conflict
Family conflict is an obvious factor that influences many
ACD. Westervelt and Vandenberg (1997) conducted a study
with 91 male and 133 female undergraduate students that
focused on young adults’ capacities for intimacy. Of the 224
participants, 111 were from intact families and 113 were from
divorced families. Subjects were asked to complete (a) a
demographic questionnaire, (b) the Family Environment
Scale, and (c) the Psychological Intimacy Questionnaire.
Westervelt and Vandenberg (1997) found that parental sta-
tus was not significantly associated with intimacy but that
conflictual parental relationships accounted for difficulties
with intimacy. Based on these results, a majority of the prob-
lems that ACD experience with intimacy are directly related
to family conflict. Westervelt and Vandenberg asserted that chil-
dren learn inappropriate behavior, poor conflict management
skills, and dysfunctional patterns from their parents. They
then create similar environments and practice the same behav-
iors that they observed while growing up in high-conflict fam-
ilies and high-risk relationships.
In their investigation of differences between college stu-
dents from divorced and intact families, Gabardi and Rosen
(1991) also found parental conflict to be a strong predictor of
intimacy problems and negative attitudes toward marriage for
ACD—especially when the parental conflict continued after
the divorce. Gabardi and Rosen emphasized that parents’ inti-
mate relationships seem to be a significant element in how
young adults resolve their own personal struggles with inti-
macy and marriage.

Sexual Behaviors and Emotional Neediness
Parental divorce has also been known to affect the sexual
behaviors of young adults. In another study conducted in
1992, Gabardi and Rosen used 107 male and 193 female stu-
dents between the ages of 18 and 25 at Colorado State Univer-
sity to explore the differences among intimate relationship
characteristics between college students from divorced and
intact families. All participants were asked to complete a
series of questionnaires that asked for information on demo-
graphics, dating status, relationship beliefs, intimacy, sexual
behaviors, attitudes toward marriage, and self-esteem.
Results indicated that students from divorced families had
significantly more sexual partners and desired more sexual
behavior than did students from intact families. In addition,
the fewer the number of years since the divorce, the more sex-
ual behaviors were desired. Gabardi and Rosen (1992) pro-
vided two theoretical explanations linked to heightened sex-
ual behavior—(a) that heightened sexual behavior may be
due to conflict between parents before or after the divorce,
thus children of divorce are more needy of physical/sexual
affection; and (b) that heightened sexual behavior may be due
to a desire to have a better relationship and a myth that sexual
intimacy would lead to love or a healthier relationship. In con-
clusion, Gabardi and Rosen indicated that heightened sexual
behavior may in fact be evidence of lower levels of intimacy
for adult children of divorce as opposed to children from
intact families.
The findings of Gabardi and Rosen (1992) correspond
with a longitudinal investigation on the marital attitudes of
adult children of divorce (Amato, 1996). In 1980, Amato
(1996) conducted a telephone study using random-digit dial-
ing with 2,033 married persons nationally. Respondents were
questioned on variables such as parental divorce, explanatory
variables that included age of marriage, prior cohabitation,
couple’s education level, husband’s income, wife’s income,
wife’s employment, prodivorce attitudes, and interpersonal
behavior problems. Then in 1983, 1,592 of the original
respondents were contacted and an additional 150 respon-
dents were reached by mailed questionnaire asking about
marital status. This was followed by interviews with 1,341
original respondents and an additional 94 in 1988. Finally in
1992, 1,189 original respondents were interviewed for the
third time, and an additional 45 people were added to the sam-
ple. The 1983, 1988, and 1992 interviews included questions
on whether the participants had divorced, separated, or lost a
spouse to death since the last interview. The study measured
the intergenerational transmission of divorce or the way in
which divorce affects future generations within the family.
Results indicated that ACD marry at an earlier age, espe-
cially when both spouses came from divorced families.
Amato (1996) attributed the eagerness of ACD to marry to the
overwhelming emotional needs of adults from divorced fami-
lies. Consequently, Amato believed that ACD suffer emo-
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Christensen, Brooks / ADULT CHILDREN OF DIVORCE 291
tional deficits due to the failed marriages of their parents.
Thus, they seek intimacy and committed relationships with
the hope that such relationships will fulfill their emotional
and physical needs for affection.
Factors Specific to Marital Attitudes
Although considerations such as gender, age, length of
time since the divorce, trust, family conflict, sexual behavior,
and emotional neediness shed light on the implications of
parental divorce on adults’ perceptions of intimacy and mar-
riage, other factors are specific to the sanction of marriage.
Cohabitation and the realization that divorce is an option were
two factors that specifically influenced the marital attitudes of
ACD.
Cohabitation
Cohabitation, in which two people who are not married
live together, seems to be a factor in ACD attitudes toward
marriage. Tasker (1992) conducted a study with 331 Cam-
bridge, U.K., teenagers who were from both intact and
divorced families. Each participant filled out a questionnaire
that asked about their (a) desire for marriage in the future,
(b) reasons for their decisions about marriage in the future,
and (c) whether they would consider living with someone out
of wedlock. Tasker found that adults from divorced families
prefer cohabitation over marriage. Furthermore, ACD were
more likely to say that they did not want to marry in the future
as compared to adults from intact families. Tasker also found
that although children of divorce have a more negative view of
marriage, they are more likely to put themselves in situations
that promote marriage. Such situations include leaving
school, leaving home, and being in steady intimate relation-
ships. Results from Tasker’s study indicated that regardless of
the negative views that ACD possess about marriage, they
more often put themselves in situations that promote it. Thus,
ACD are more likely to enter marriage based on circumstance
as opposed to choice.
Recognizing Divorce as an Option
Children of divorce often hold the belief that marriage
does not last a lifetime and that divorce is always a choice or
way out of a bad relationship. Arising from this belief is a
decrease in the stigma surrounding divorce (Glenn & Kramer,
1987). As ACD believe that there are fewer stigmas related to
divorce, they are more likely to get divorced. In fact, research
has shown that college-age students from divorced families
have higher divorce rates (Booth, Brinkerhoff, & White,
1984; Kitson, 1992). As Johnston and Thomas (1996) com-
mented, when children of divorce experience problems in
adult relationships, they are often more reliant on divorce as
an option rather than working on the relationship. This atti-
tude that marriage can be dissolved rather than worked on
may very well be a large contributor to the rise in divorce rates
over the past three decades.
292 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / July 2001
IMPLICATIONS
As indicated throughout this review, there is a great deal of
controversy among existing empirical reports on the
long-term implications of parental divorce on adults’ inter-
personal relationships. This leads to various implications for
future research. Based on opposing views regarding gender
and age as predictors of ACD interpersonal relationship
issues, future research could explore each of these issues (Aro
& Palosaari, 1992; Gabardi & Rosen, 1991; Kinnaird &
Gerrard, 1986; Sorosky, 1977). There is also contradictory
information pertaining to ACD’s negative attitudes toward
marriage and their high tendency to get married and put them-
selves in situations that lead to marriage. Future research
addressing this issue might illuminate information about how
to intervene with this cycle.
Although researchers have provided some insight into the
effects of parental divorce on adult children, interpersonal
relationship problems can be quite complex and difficult to
measure. At this phase of discovery, qualitative research is
necessary to illuminate new information from the perspective
of research participants (adult children of divorce). Literature
supports this contention, as Arditti (1999) asserted the need
for more qualitative research pertaining to adult children of
divorce. Arditti further articulated the value of qualitative
methods when she explained that naturalistic inquiry would
allow her to explore the meaning and process of how ACD
experience problems in intimacy and develop negative atti-
tudes toward marriage. Furthermore, Arditti indicated that
qualitative research would provide a method by which she
could explore the influences of intimacy and marital attitudes
on ACD from their perspectives. There is clearly a call for
qualitative research related to the effects of divorce on chil-
dren when they reach adulthood, not to mention the treatment
strategies specific to this population.
Johnston and Thomas (1996) illuminated that previous
research has focused on marital relationships yet little empiri-
cal attention has been devoted solely to premarital relation-
ships. Due to the fact that premarital relationships provide the
experiences in which ACD reaffirm or disconfirm their
beliefs about intimacy and marital attitudes, Johnston and
Thomas expressed the need for research specific to premarital
relationships.
Future research also needs to address outlying variables
that contribute to negative perceptions of intimacy and mar-
riage as experienced by ACD. While noting the vast contribu-
tions of Wallerstein and Blakeslee’s (1989) work, Second
Chances, in a recent interview, Arnold Lazarus also criticized
their work (Christensen, 2001 [this issue]). Lazarus (personal
communication, October 16, 2000) believes that Wallerstein
and Blakeslee failed to adequately acknowledge existing
characteristics or outside factors unrelated to divorce that
may influence the resiliency or coping skills of ACD. Such
outside factors include but are not limited to (a) societal and
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cultural norms regarding marriage and intimacy; (b) the
struggle for today’s women between career, marriage, and
family; (c) the epidemic of sexually transmitted diseases;
(d) the egocentrism of today’s young adults; and (e) the socio-
economic status of our world.
A last implication for research regarding ACD and inter-
personal relationship issues pertains to a fairly new concept in
divorce literature (Gately & Schwebel, 1992), “favorable out-
comes of divorce on children.” Future research might focus
on a comparison of unfavorable and favorable outcomes. In
addition, clinicians and researchers should explore how to
capitalize on the strengths and resiliency that some children
of divorce gain.
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS
Concern among counseling practitioners to find appropri-
ate interventions for working with adult children of divorce
has been and continues to be an issue (Hage & Nosanow,
2000; Zill, Morrison, & Coiro, 1993). By understanding fac-
tors related to the interpersonal relationship problems often
experienced by adult children of divorce, clinicians can begin
to generate interventions and treatment strategies specific to
the needs of this population. For example, Hage and Nosanow
(2000) developed a model for group work with young adults
from divorced families by using a psychoeducational group
intervention. Based on their awareness of long-term issues of
parental divorce, Hage and Nosanow focused on topics such
as assertiveness, communication skills, self-esteem, trust,
intimacy, and enduring significant relationships. Although
this approach provides an example for clinicians who work
with individuals in a group setting, it also serves as an exam-
ple for family and couple counselors.
For example, when working with families and couples
affected by divorce, counselors could devote specific atten-
tion to topics such as trust, intimacy, abandonment, loss,
betrayal, commitment, communication, assertiveness, and
self-esteem. Not only will this allow family counselors to
assist parents and children in understanding the ramifications
of divorce, together they can begin to generate solutions to
such relationship problems. Essentially, once identified,
counselors can help couple and family members shed ineffec-
tive behaviors and make healthier interpersonal relationship
choices.
Family and couple counselors might also choose to focus
on prevention and early intervention. Accordingly, counsel-
ors would focus on treatment strategies that attend to current
issues as well as explore possible difficulties that may arise in
the future. Such a prevention program might include (a) fam-
ily or couple sessions including specific discussions about
how parental divorce is and will influence ACD interpersonal
relationships; (b) psychoeducational groups of more than one
family (multiple family groups at various stages of adjust-
ment) to use each others’ circumstances as tools for learning,

practice effective communication skills, and experience open
discussions about feelings related to divorce; and (c) initiat-
ing counseling with children whose parents are divorcing
prior to, during, and after the divorce. Likewise, psycho-
educational groups made up of couples in which one or both
partners have been affected by parental divorce might provide
a rich environment for the processing of issues related to com-
mitment, intimacy, sex, trust, and so on.
Furthermore, family counselors can assist divorced par-
ents in understanding the effect of their behaviors and inter-
actions on their children now and as they become adults. It is
essential for parents to understand and help their children
move through multiple and tumultuous transitions that
accompany divorce. Parents need to be aware of their behav-
iors between one another and toward their children. Ideally,
parents create new civil relationships with one another and
work as a parental team as opposed to adversaries. Coun-
selors can help parents learn how to (a) communicate effec-
tively, (b) be consistent with children and each other, (c) en-
gage in other healthy interpersonal relationships, (d) refrain
from aggressive and open expressions of discord and hostility
about and toward each other, and (e) be willing to listen to
children’s concerns and fears.
CONCLUSION
As the frequency of divorce increases, so does the neces-
sity for couple and family counselors to be knowledgeable
and skilled at helping those affected by divorce. Researchers
and clinicians have responded to this need by providing
empirically grounded information and treatment strategies
specific to helping children deal with divorce. However, there
has only been minimal coverage of the lifelong complications
experienced by adult children of divorce specifically in the
area of interpersonal relationships.
As parental divorce in and of itself does not lead to adult
problems in interpersonal relationships, it is of primary
importance that couple and family counselors become more
aware of the factors that contribute to the negative effect of
divorce. Factors that influence the effect of parental divorce
on adults’ intimate relationships and marital attitudes include
(a) gender, (b) age at the time of divorce, (c) trust, (d) family
conflict, (e) sexual behaviors and emotional needs, (f) cohabi-
tation, and (g) recognizing that divorce is an option.
Although there has been a bit of research related to the
effect of parental divorce on adults, there remains a lack of
empirical attention specific to the utility of therapeutic inter-
vention with ACD. Of that which does exist, researchers are
quick to point out the need for further inquiry. Accordingly, it
was hoped that this review would shed light on an under-
exposed aspect of divorce. Maybe this is a sign of times to
come—innovative treatments and future research pertaining
to adult children of divorce.
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Christensen, Brooks / ADULT CHILDREN OF DIVORCE 293
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Teresa M. Christensen received her Ph.D. in 1999 from Idaho State
University in counselor education and counseling. She is currently
an assistant professor at the University of New Orleans, where she
specializes in child and adolescent counseling, play therapy, group
work, clinical supervision, and qualitative research. In addition, she
has a small private practice at Pastoral Counseling Center in New
Orleans. Her clinical and research interests include children and
adolescents, trauma, group work, clinical supervision, and qualita-
tive research. She is a licensed professional counselor-supervisor
(in Louisiana), a registered play therapist-supervisor, and a nation-
ally certified counselor.
Morgan C. Brooks received her M.Ed. in 2000 from the University
of New Orleans in counselor education and human services counsel-
ing. She is currently a doctoral student in the counselor education
program at the University of New Orleans. Her clinical and research
interests include working with couples, divorce issues, mediation,
and college counseling. She is a licensed professional counselor in-
tern in Louisiana and a nationally certified counselor.