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Transmission electron microscopy study of copper–carbon nanocomposite

Article  in  Materials Science and Technology · June 2006

DOI: 10.1179/174328406X84058

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Transmission electron microscopy study of
copper–carbon nanocomposite
P. A. Carvalho*1, I. Fonseca1, M. T. Marques2, J. B. Correia2 and R. Vilar1
A Cu210C nanocomposite has been synthesised by high energy milling of elemental powders,
followed by annealing at 873 K. Phase identification and microstructure characterisation have
been carried out with transmission electron microscopy. Copper grain size ranged from 10 to
120 nm for the as milled material and from 10 to 150 nm after annealing. No graphite reflections
could be detected by electron diffraction in either the as milled or annealed samples.
Nevertheless, both conditions contain clusters of carbon of ,10 nm, which could be of benefit
for sliding wear applications. The lattice parameter measured after milling is compatible with a
carbon solubility in the copper matrix ,0.1 at.-%. The synthesised material showed excellent
structural stability at 873 K, which is proposed to be dependent on solute drag effects resulting
from boundary segregation. In fact, no grain boundary pinning by nanoparticles has been
detected while a decrease in lattice parameter occurred during annealing.
Keywords: Transmission electron microscopy, Mechanical alloying, Copper, Carbon, Nanocomposite

Introduction measured microhardness of the as milled material,

Thermal stability of fine grained and nanostructured
copper is low even at moderate temperatures. For
instance, the 50% recrystallisation temperature of 98%
cold rolled 99.999% pure Cu is 360 K.1 The presence of
elements with limited solubility is expected to increase
the thermal stability of ultrafine grained materials
through a solute drag effect resulting from segregation
to grain boundaries.2 Additionally, low solubility
elements tend to produce second phase particles, which
contribute to delayed coarsening by grain boundary
pinning. As the equilibrium solid solubility of carbon in
copper is virtually zero,3 mechanical alloying (MA) in
the Cu2C system seems interesting in that respect.
Preliminary characterisation of a Cu210C nanocom-
posite produced by MA has been carried out by X-ray
diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and microhardness tests as
reported by Marques et al.4 Regarding the as milled
material, the indexed reflections correspond to Cu and
Cu2O at an early stage of milling, and to Cu alone
following 10 h of milling.4 After annealing at 873 K for
1 h, again only copper reflections could be found.
Average grain sizes determined with Scherrer equation
were 23 nm for the as milled condition (10 h) and 28 nm
for the annealed case. A lattice parameter expansion of
0.03% has been determined after 10 h of milling. The
1
Departamento de Engenharia de Materiais, Instituto Superior Técnico,
Departamento de Engenharia de Materiais, Av. Rovisco Pais, 10492001
Lisboa, Portugal
2
Instituto Nacional de Engenharia, Tecnologia e Inovação, Departamento
de Materiais e Tecnologias de Produção Estrada do Paço do Lumiar,
16492038 Lisboa, Portugal
*Corresponding author, email pac@ist.utl.pt
265 HV, remained nearly constant with the heat
treatment. In fact, although the hardness level attained
with the as milled Cu210C system does not represent
a significant benefit over pure as milled Cu (260 HV)
(Ref. 5), the thermal stability of the composite is
remarkable and points to either grain boundary pinning
or solute drag contributions.
Raman spectroscopy revealed the presence of C2C
bonds in the Cu2C milled mixtures (Fig. 1), indicating
that carbon tends to form clusters inside the Cu matrix.
However, even though SEM observations confirmed
that the mechanically alloyed powders had an extremely
fine structure, the presence of carbon clusters could not
be clearly evidenced. The presence of clusters in the as
milled material with 10 at.-%C is a controversial issue
because other works based on the lack of graphite
reflections in XRD patterns and a systematic albeit
modest lattice parameter increase (0.002% per at.-%C),
claim that metastable Cu2C solid solutions with
concentrations up to 25 at.-% can be formed.6–8 On
the other hand, the presence of carbon clusters in the Cu
matrix represents an extremely interesting asset for
sliding wear applications.
The metastable solubility of C in Cu has attracted
much attention owing to fundamental aspects of the
atomic structure, as well as owing to the interesting
properties displayed by this elemental combination and
to its troublesome blending and bonding.6––20
Formation of metastable Cu2C solid solutions with
non-equilibrium compositions arising from processing
has been investigated by techniques, such as MA,6–8
radio frequency magnetron sputter (RFMS) codeposi-
tion of copper and carbon9 and ion implantation of
carbon into a copper substrate.10 In the case of materials

ß 2006 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
Received 17 May 2005; accepted 22 August 2005
DOI 10.1179/174328406X84058 Materials Science and Technology 2006 VOL 22 NO 6 673
Carvalho et al. Transmission electron microscopy study of Cu–C nanocomposite
1 Raman spectra of Cu–10C powders milled for 36 ks
and annealed at 873 K as well as spectrum of syn-
thetic graphite used as elemental powder4
6
prepared via MA, either with attrition milling or with
planetary milling,7,8 indirect evidence supporting the
formation of solid solutions is given by the absence of
graphite reflections in X-ray diffractograms for long
milling time up to an estimated saturation value of
,25 at.-%C and by a proportional increase in the lattice
parameter of copper with carbon content. Lattice
parameter expansion has also been reported for RFMS
codeposited films, where transmission electron micro-
scopy (TEM) has revealed no evidence of carbon based
phases.9 In contrast, the presence of amorphous carbon
and nanometre sized graphite particles (in the range of
125 nm) in ion implanted films10 has been inferred from
TEM observations and Raman spectra. Nevertheless, in
this situation the self-annealing effect of the method
should be taken into account in its ability to originate
metastable solid solutions. The ion implanted structure
has been clearly identified as a nanoscale composite10
with a potential for reduced friction applications
provided by the lubricating properties of carbon.
On a larger microscale, Cu2C powder compacts are
commercially available for sliding electrical contact
applications (such as carbon brushes for automobile
starter motors11), which require low friction and wear
rate in addition to high electrical conductivity. Further-
more, it has been shown that carbon fibres in a Cu
matrix can provide stiffness and prevent ductile frac-
ture,12 while the combination presents interesting
electrical properties and potential to reduce sliding
friction. However, wetting of carbon particles/fibres by
Cu is extraordinarily poor,13,14 and as a result interfacial
bonding is extremely weak.15 To overcome this obstacle,
strategies, such as impregnation with other metals,
matrix alloying, carbon coating and resin binding, have
to be used.11,15,21 Nevertheless, an SEM study has
shown that after heat treatment for 1 h at 1373 K, the
Cumatrix/Cfibre interface becomes ill defined, presenting a
minute layer of an apparent Cu2C interstitial solid
solution (,50 nm) (Ref. 14). Based on these observa-
tions, extensive theoretical work has been carried out on
the Cu2C bonding character, on the atomic structure
and stability of Cu2C solid solutions, and on diffusivity
of C in Cu.17–20
According to the authors’ best knowledge, nanos-
tructured copper–carbon composites produced by mechan-
ical alloying have not been investigated by TEM before.
Therefore, the purpose of the present research was to use
this technique to evaluate the grain size and phase
morphology of the Cu210C nanocomposite, as well as
674 Materials Science and Technology 2006 VOL 22
to characterise structural defects and deformation struc-
tures present. Furthermore, the absence of crystalline
carbon reflections in XRD patterns required corrobora-
tion by the higher spatial resolution and sensitivity
allowed by electron diffraction. In addition, peaks
corresponding to C2C bonds in the Raman spectra
(Fig. 1) suggested the presence of carbon clusters,
raising the question on whether the remarkable thermal
stability resulted from grain boundary pinning by
carbon particles. Both the presence of carbon clusters
and a preference for occupying positions near or at grain
boundaries demanded verification.
Experimental procedure
The nanocomposite has been prepared by mechanically
alloying 10 at.-% synthetic graphite with copper in a
Retsch PM400 planetary ball mill operated at 400 rpm.4
The container was filled with argon to prevent oxida-
tion. The material has been milled for 10 h and annealed
at 873 K for 1 h in a tubular furnace under an argon
atmosphere. Both conditions, as milled and annealed,
have been characterised by TEM using a Hitachi H-8100
instrument with a point resolution of 0.27 nm at 200 kV.
Powder samples produced by the milling operation (and
subsequent annealing) were embedded in an epoxy resin
using 3 mm disc moulds, followed by grinding to
100 mm thickness, double side dimpling to 20 mm and
ion milling to electron transparency with a Gatan duo
mill, operating at an accelerating voltage of 4 kV with
an incident angle of 14u until a small opening was
obtained, after which an incident angle of 12u was used
to obtain larger electron transparent areas. Powder
electron diffraction patterns were indexed using cards
number 04–0836, 26–1079 and 05–0667 of the
International Centre for Diffraction Data.
Results and discussion
The as milled and annealed materials exhibited similar
features. In fact, grain sizes determined by dark field
imaging were comparable, ranging from 10 to 120 nm
for the as milled condition and from 10 to 150 nm for
the annealed case, with estimated averages around 70–
80 nm. This indicates that the microstructure is stable at
the annealing temperature, in agreement with the results
previously reported by Marques et al.4 Regions of
elongated grains were frequent in the as milled condition
as well as in the annealed condition (Fig. 2), owing to
the intense localised deformation imposed. In both
conditions, copper grains often presented concave and
irregular surfaces and showed a mottled contrast
characteristic of a high degree of elastic deformation.
Moreover, grain boundaries were generally ill defined
and displayed a diffuse contrast. This type of behaviour
has also been observed in other systems produced by
intense straining.22–25 The present results indicate that
the Cu2C nanocomposite is in a high energy non-
equilibrium state even after annealing.
Twins could be observed within copper grains in both
the as milled and annealed materials (Fig. 3). These
defects and any existent subgrains have contributed to
the apparently lower average grain size determined with
XRD by Marques et al.4 (20–30 nm). The present results
on the Cu2C system further support recent reports on
the importance of twinning as a deformation mechanism
NO 6
 Carvalho et al.
a as milled material; b annealed material
2 Bright field images presenting elongated copper grains
in fcc nanostructured materials that on a larger scale
tend to deform by other mechanisms.26–31 In fact,
although on a larger scale copper does not deform by
twinning, twins are typical deformation structures in
milled material owing to the few independent slip
systems available for general deformation in each
nanocrystallite.32 Twins present in the annealed condi-
tion do not seem to have resulted from recrystallisation,
but rather appear to be remnants of the deformation
process, because similar configurations were observed in
the as milled material and an increase in twinning level
has not been detected.
Electron diffraction patterns obtained from regions of
,3 mm2 in as milled and annealed samples are shown in
Fig. 4. The large number of spots arranged in rings
confirms the presence of high angle grain boundaries,
and is in agreement with a random crystallographic
orientation, i.e. there is no evidence for crystallographic
texture in the nanostructure. The reflections present
correspond essentially to Cu crystallites; no graphite
reflections have been detected, indicating that any
carbon clusters present are in an amorphous state.
This result is consistent with the extensive broadening
of the C2C peaks in Raman spectra4 (Fig. 1).
a in as milled condition; b after annealing
3 Bright field images showing twinned copper grains
Transmission electron microscopy study of Cu–C nanocomposite
Furthermore, published results on ball milled graphite
show that amorphisation is induced by MA.33 Some
weak rings in the electron diffraction patterns could be
indexed to Cu2O: a 111 Cu2O ring was present in
patterns of the as milled material (10 h) and 110, 111
and 220 Cu2O rings could be observed in the annealed
material patterns (see magnified insets in Fig. 4). It
should be noticed that extreme care was put in ensuring
a non-oxidising atmosphere during milling and heat
treatment. In fact, the presence of Cu2O in the starting
powder mixture has been detected by XRD,4 reflecting
an initial surface oxidation of the copper powder used.
At early milling stages, Cu2O could still be discerned in
X-ray diffractograms but has not been found after 10 h
of milling or after subsequent annealing. This implies
that Cu2O crystallites have suffered severe fragmenta-
tion and/or amorphisation (or even have been partly
reduced by carbon) during MA, rendering this phase
undetectable by XRD. Electron diffraction was however
able to show the presence of crystalline Cu2O in the
nanostructured material. Moreover, the fact that more
and better defined rings could be found after annealing
suggests that some of the Cu2O phase present in the
as milled material was in an amorphous state and
Materials Science and Technology 2006 VOL 22 NO 6 675
Carvalho et al. Transmission electron microscopy study of Cu–C nanocomposite

4 Electron diffraction patterns of a as milled and b

annealed materials obtained from area of 3 mm2: con-
trast was enhanced in magnified insets to turn visible
weak Cu2O rings; no graphite reflections have been
found; expected position of highest intensity graphite
peak is indicated

underwent a process of crystallisation during the heat

treatment.
The presence of Cu2O in the nanostructure has been
confirmed by dark field imaging. Figure 5 shows an
image of the annealed material obtained using an
aperture enclosing only Cu2O reflections. Indeed, even
though the weak intensity of the reflections prevents
high contrast, it is possible to identify severely frag-
mented Cu2O particles with sizes below 25 nm.
Careful inspection revealed that in bright field
imaging under strongly diffracting conditions, thin
Cu crystallites at the specimen edge exhibit internal

6 Bright field images of strongly diffracting Cu grains

situated at edge of a as milled, b and c annealed spe-
cimens: dispersion of low mass particles below 10 nm
is indicated

dispersions of low mass contrast regions (Fig. 6). These

5 Dark field image revealing presence of Cu2O nanoparti-
cles and corresponding diffraction pattern where
reflections used are circled
structures with sizes below 10 nm tend to be distributed
within Cu grains, showing no preference for occupying
positions near grain boundaries and present similar
features in both the as milled and the annealed
materials. A comparison of the finer scaled low mass
regions with the specimen edge contour indicates that a
localised higher rate of material removal during sample
preparation is not likely to be in the origin of the low
mass structures. In fact, this type of contrast has not
been reported in mechanically alloyed pure Cu after ion

676 Materials Science and Technology 2006 VOL 22 NO 6

 Carvalho et al.
milling,32 while it has been observed in C implanted Cu
films.10 The dispersions of low mass regions correspond
therefore to carbon agglomerates responsible for the
C2C peaks in Raman spectra (Fig. 1). As no graphite
reflections have been found in the electron diffraction
patterns the carbon clusters are proposed to be
amorphous.
Inclusion of C clusters in Cu grains can result from
cold welding processes occurring at the many deforma-
tion events that produce convolutions and Cu subgrain
recombinations. This type of behaviour is common in
oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys produced by
MA and a review on how second phase non-soluble
particles can form dispersions in ductile grains can be
found in Ref. 34. Analogous dispersions of amorphous
carbon clusters in both the as milled and annealed
materials (Fig. 6) are in agreement with the fact that no
evidence for particle coarsening and/or reversion to a
‘crystalline’ state could be detected in the C2C Raman
peaks, which have remained essentially unchanged upon
annealing (Fig. 1).
The presence of amorphous carbon clusters explains
the apparently modest increase in lattice parameter
reported by several authors in mechanically alloyed
Cu2C systems.4–8 In effect, the variation in lattice
parameter obtained from the Cu210C (at.-%) mixture
after milling for 36 ks (DaCu50.00011 nm) (Ref. 4)
corresponds to an expansion of ,0.03%, which are
two orders of magnitude lower than the one expected for
a true interstitial Cu210C (at.-%) solid solution.4 On a
first approximation, admitting an expansion behaviour
similar to that observed for Fe based austenite,35 a
solubility of ,0.1 at.-%C can be roughly estimated from
the measured variation. Therefore, both the complete
solubility proposed for RFMS codeposited films with
16 at.-%C (with a lattice expansion of only ,0.15%)
(Ref. 9), and a maximum solubility value of 25 at.-%C
in mechanically alloyed Cu2C mixtures (with a lattice
expansion of only 0.08%) (Ref. 7) seems excessive.
The dispersed nanoparticles show no preference for
occupying positions near grain boundaries; therefore,
the remarkable thermal stability of the as milled
material cannot result from grain boundary pinning.
Consequently, another stabilisation mechanism, such as
a solute drag effect must be operative. No significant
changes in the number or size of the amorphous carbon
regions could be observed by comparing the annealed
with the as milled condition. On the other hand, the Cu
lattice parameter decreased to the starting material
value, 0.36148 nm (Ref. 4), which points to a segrega-
tion of dissolved carbon to the grain boundaries during
the heat treatment. This segregation may result in a
stabilisation effect similar to the one induced by bismuth
atomic layers at the boundaries of Cu2Bi nanocompo-
sites, which is efficient even for incomplete mono-
layers.36 No drastic changes in atomic configuration
result from Bi segregation, as this atom simply sub-
stitutes Cu at atomic sites in the boundary core, and its
influence is essentially at the electronic structure level.37
However, in the case of interstitial carbon, significant
atomic rearrangement can be expected.
A qualitative comparison with the deformation
structures reported in Ref. 32 shows that the twin
density in the Cu210C material is lower than the one
observed in ball milled copper. This result seems in
Transmission electron microscopy study of Cu–C nanocomposite
contradiction with the fact that the twinning level is
generally enhanced by lower stacking fault energy and
that for a given metal the stacking fault energy decreases
with the addition of solutes.38 However, the discrepancy
may be related to the mechanism responsible for
generating deformation twins in nanostructured fcc
materials, which involves the emission of single
Schockley partial dislocations from grain boundaries
with trailing stacking faults behind them.27 If the
dislocation emission process is hindered by carbon
atoms present at the grain boundary structure, a lower
twin density may result. It is worth noticing that a lower
density has been reported for annealing twins in RFMS
codeposited Cu216C (at.-%) films as compared with
pure Cu films.9
Conclusions
Similar copper grain sizes have been obtained under
both conditions, ranging from 10 to 120 nm for the as
milled material and from 10 to 150 nm after annealing.
The occurrence of twinning partly justifies the
lower grain sizes determined by XRD (20230 nm).
Deformation structures present indicate that the Cu2C
nanocomposite is in a high energy non-equilibrium state
even after annealing. Cu and Cu2O phases have been
identified by electron diffraction in the as milled and
annealed samples but no graphite reflections could be
detected. Nevertheless, both conditions exhibit a disper-
sion of amorphous carbon clusters of ,10 nm expecting
to be of benefit for sliding wear applications. No grain
boundary pinning by nanoparticles has been detected
and the high structural stability at 873 K is proposed to
be dependent on solute drag effects.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge Fundação para a Ciência e
a Tecnologia, project POCTI/CTM/40892/2001, for
financial support.
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