Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

CHAPTER FIVE
TRACTORS AND RELATED EQUIPMENT

TRACTORS 
The primary purpose of tractors is to pull or push loads. They are also used as mounts for
many types of accessories, such as front-end shovels, rippers, bulldozer blades, side booms,
hoes, trenchers, and others. There are sizes and types to fit almost any job for which they are
usable.

Types of Tractors 
Tractors may be divided into two major types:
(i) Crawler (ii) Wheel (Either two wheel or four wheel)
In selecting a tractor, factors to be considered include, but not limited to, the following:
(i) The size required for a given job
(ii) The kind of job for which it will be used – bulldozing, pulling a scraper, ripping, clearing
Land, etc.
(iii) The type of footing over which it will operate, i.e., high-tractive or low-tractive
efficiency.
(iv) The firmness of the haul road.
(v) The smoothness of the haul road
(vi) The slope of the haul road
(vii) The length of haul
(viii) The type of work it will do after this job is completed.

Crawler tractors 
Crawler tractors are usually rated by size or weight and power. The weight is important on
many projects because the maximum tractive effort that a unit can provide is limited to the
product of the weight times the coefficient of traction for the unit and the particular road
surface regardless of the power supplied by the engine.

Crawler tractors with direct drive    

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

The table below gives pertinent information and performance data for tractors equipped with
direct drives.

Approximate operating weight, kN 82 143 210

flywheel kW 69 119 175
Drawbar kW 56 95 139
Ratio, kN per kW 1.19 1.20 1.20
Performance data
Speed, Drawbar Speed, Drawbar Speed, Drawbar
km/h pull, kN km/h pull, kN km/h pull, kN
Gear, forward
1st 2.74 78.36 2.41 147.73 2.41 201.8
nd
2 4.35 47.60 3.53 103.18 3.05 156.82
3rd 5.96 32.22 4.97 68.18 4.35 109.55
4th 8.38 21.22 7.41 42.68 5.61 80.68
5th 10.92 14.50 9.41 30.77 7.41 59.10
6th 10.15 38.41
Gear, reverse
1st 3.38 62.21 2.90 129.41 2.41 198.64
2nd 5.30 37.18 4.00 86.10 3.22 154.10
3rd 7.41 24.73 5.94 56.32 4.35 107.73
4th 10.30 15.82 8.69 34.64 5.80 79.10
5th 7.41 57.72
6th 10.30 37.50

Some manufacturers specify two sets fo drawbar pulls – rated and maximum. The rated is the
drawbar pull that can be sustained for continuous operation, while the maximum is the
drawbar pull that the tractor can exert for a short period while lugging the engine, such as
when passing over a soft spot in the ground.
Some manufacturers rate their engines under standard conditions (100 C & 0 m), while others
use representative conditions (290 C & 760 m).

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Crawler tractors with torque converter and power‐shift transmissions 
These drives eliminate shifting gears and provide an efficient flow of power from the engine
to the tracks by automatically selecting the speed which is most suitable for the load pulled
by the tractor.
The figure below shows the performance curves.

Fig..1. Drawbar pull versus speed for a crawler tractor.

The gear selected should be the highest one that will provide the required pull in order to
operate at the highest possible speed.
The equivalent drawbar pull which a tractor must provide, regardless of whether it is a direct
drive or power-shift type, is the algebraic sum of the pull required by the towed load, the
effect of grade on the tractor, and the effect of increased or decreased rolling resistance on the
tractor.

Example: Consider a tractor whose performance data is illustrated in figure above. The
tractor must provide a drawbar pull of 54.55 kN to tow an attached load upto a 6 percent
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

grade over a haul road having a rolling resistance of 40 N/ kN. Determine the equivalent
required drawbar pull and the maximum speed for the tractor. The weight of the tractor is 240
kN.
The equivalent drawbar is as follows:
1. Required by towed load ------------------------------------------------ = 54.55 kN
2. Required by grade, 240 x 6 x 10 ------------------------------------ = 14.40 kN
Subtotal ------------------------------------------------------------------- = 68.95 kN
3. Reduction in rolling resistance, 240(40 – 55) --------------------- = -- 3.60 kN
Total ------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 65.35 kN
The above figure indicates that the tractor can operate in third gear at a speed of 6. 4 k mph.

Wheel tractors  
One of the primary advantages is the higher speed that it can attain compared with crawler
tractors. However, in order to attain a higher speed a wheel tractor must sacrifice pulling
effort.
The traction developed by a wheel tractor is expressed in kN of rimpull.

Performance data for wheel tractors 
Performance data will be presented for both types (power shift and direct drive types).
Representative specifications for two-wheel tractors.
Approximate weight, kN 145.60 80.50
Engine, kW 205 134
Ratio, kN/kW 0.71 0.60
Tire sizes, mm 610 x 738 534 x 635
Performance data
Speed gear Speed, Km/h Rimpull, kN Speed, Km/h Rimpull, kN
1st 3.48 113.80 5.50 71.75
2nd 6.73 77.85 11.70 33.80
3rd 11.50 45.60 20.35 19.45
4th 19.60 26.70 35.90 11.00
5th 32.20 16.20 56.35 7.00
Reverse 4.49 113.80 7.00 56.50

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

The figure below is a rimpull chart for wheel tractor and scraper with power shift
transmission. Usable rimpull will depend on traction available and total weight of tractor
drive wheels.

0 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2 km/h

Fig..2. Rimpull-speed chart for a wheel tractor and scraper with power-shift transmission.
Usable rimpull will depend on traction available and total weight of tractor drive wheel.

The above information may be provided by the manufacturer. The unit consists of a two-
wheel tractor and a two-wheel scraper having the following specifications:

Engine fwkW, 186

Scraper capacity:
Struck, 10.55 cum
Heaped, 13.56 cum
Weight of unit, kN Tractor Scraper Total
Empty 153 67 220
Loaded 226 185 410
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Distribution loaded 55% 45% 100%

The tractor is equipped to permit torque divider drive, direct drive, or overdrive in each gear
range. When an engine is capable of providing the required rimpull, the overdrive should be
used in order to make use of the higher speed.
The above figure is a performance chart whose purpose is to enable the user of the unit to
determine the maximum possible speed for a given load and haul condition.
Example: Determine the maximum speed for the tractor of figure 2 for the stated
conditions.
Gross vehicle weight loaded, 400 kN
Grade ------------------------------ = 6%
Rolling resistance, 40 N per kN = 4%
Total resistance ---------- = 10%
Required rimpull, 400 x 0.10 = 40 kN
The figure reveals that this rimpull can be provided by any one of the three gear ranges.
However, the maximum speed, 12.80 kmph, is obtained in the second range using direct
drive.

Gradability 
Gradability is defined as the maximum slope, expressed as a percent, up which a crawler or
wheel-type prime mover may move at a uniform speed. It may be specified for any desired
gear.
The forward motion of a prime mover is limited by the following factors:
(i) The power developed by the engine available as drawbar pull or rimpull.
(ii) The rolling resistance of the haul road.
(iii) The gross weight of the prime mover and its load.
(iv) The grade to be negotiated. Adverse grade adds to the resistance, while favorable grade
subtracts from the resistance.
The gradability of a crawler tractor is determined by subtracting from the available drawbar
pull the total pull required to overcome the rolling resistance on the unit and any load that it
will pull. The surplus drawbar pull, if it is less than the coefficient of traction multiplied by
the weight of the tractor, is then available to negotiate a grade. The drawbar pull is usually
based on a rolling resistance of 110 lb per ton; any rolling resistance in excess of this amount
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

should be applied to the weight of the tractor. The entire rolling resistance on the towed load
should be used. In order to provide a reasonable factor of safety, not more than 85 percent of
the rated drawbar pull of a tractor should be used in determining the gradability of the unit.

Example:
Determine the gradability of a crawler tractor pulling a high-pressure rubber-tired self-
loading scraper and its load. The following information is available:
Tractor horsepower = 135 kW
Weight of tractor = 202 kN
Drawbar pull in 1st gear = 153 kN
Weight of loaded scraper = 395 kN
Haul road, rutted, uneven earth
Rolling resistance for tractor = 80 N / kN
Rolling resistance for scraper = 105 N /kN

Solution:
Available drawbar pull = 0.85 * 153 = 130 kN
Rolling resistance of tractor = 202 * (80 – 55) = 5.05 kN
Rolling resistance of scraper = 395 * 105 = 41.48 kN
Combined rolling resistance = 46.53 kN
Drawbar pull available to overcome grade:
Maximum available drawbar pull = 130 kN
Required for rolling resistance = - 46.53 kN
Pull available for grade = 83.47 kN
Combined weight of tractor and loaded scraper = 202 + 395 = 597 kN
Pull required per 1% grade for the total load = 10 * 597 = 5970 N = 5.97 kN
Maximum possible grade = 83.47 / 5.95 = 14%

For the tractor alone the maximum possible grade will be:
Max. available drawbar pull = 130 kN
Pull required for rolling resistance = -5.05 kN

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Pull available for grade = 124.95 kN

Pull required per 1% grade = 10 * 202 = 2020 N = 2.02 kN
Maximum possible grade = 124.95 / 2.02 = 61.86%, provided the trucks do not slip.

The gradability of a wheel-type tractor or a truck can be determined in the same manner as
for a crawler tractor. However, if the manufacturer’s specification furnish sufficient
information, the gradability for any gear can be determined from the equation

K = (972 * T * G) / (R * W) - N/10
Where K = gradability, %
T = rated engine torque, kN- m
G = total gear reduction for particular gear selected
R = rolling radius, the radius of the loaded driving wheels, in., measured from center
of axle to surface of ground
W = gross weight of complete unit, kN
N = rolling resistance, Nper kN.

BULLDOZERS 

The term bulldozer may be used in a broad sense to include both a bulldozer and an
angledozer. These machines may be further divided, on the basis of their mountings, into
crawler-tractor- or wheel-tractor-mounted. Based on the method of raising and lowering the
blade, a bulldozer may be classified as cable-controlled or as hydraulically controlled.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Bulldozers are versatile machines where they may be used for such operations as:
1. Clearing land of timber and stumps.
2. Opening up pilot roads through mountains and rocky terrain.
3. Moving earth for haul distances upto approximately 100 m
4. Helping load tractor-pulled scrapers.
5. Spreading earth fill
6. Backfilling trenches
7. Clearing construction sites of debris
8. Maintaining haul roads
9. Clearing the floors of borrow and quarry pits
Bulldozers push the earth forward, while angle dozers push it forward and to one side. The
size of the bulldozer is indicated by the length and height of the blade.

Crawler‐mounted Versus wheel‐mounted Bulldozers 
The following are advantages of crawler-mounted bulldozer.
1. Ability to deliver greater tarctive effort, especially in operating on soft footing, such as
loose or muddy soil.
2. Ability to travel over muddy surfaces.
3. Ability to operate in rocky formations, where rubber tires might be seriously damaged.
4. Ability to travel over rough surfaces, which may reduce the cost of maintaining haul roads.
5. Greater flotation because of the lower pressures under the tracks.
6. Greater use versatility on jobs.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Among the advantages claimed for wheel-mounted bulldozers are the following:
1. Higher travel speeds on the job or from one job to another.
2. Elimination of hauling equipment to transport the bulldozer to a job.
3. Great output, especially when considerable travelling is necessary.
4. Less operator fatigue.
5. Ability to travel n paved highways without damaging the surface.

The Output of Bulldozers 
Under certain conditions bulldozers are satisfactory machines for moving earth for such jobs
as excavating ponds for stock water, trench silos, and highway cuts, stripping the top soil
from land or deposits, constructing low levees, backfilling trenches, spreading material on
fills, etc. In general haul distances should be less than 300 ft.
The output of a bulldozer will vary with the conditions under which it operates. During the
first passes over a given lane most of the initial earth will spill of the ends of the blade to
form a windrow on each side of the lane. After these windrows have been built up to form a
trench, further end spillage will be reduced or eliminated, with a substantial increase in
output.
The blade of a bulldozer has a theoretical capacity which varies with the class of earth and
the size of the blade. If the capacity of a blade is known, one can determine the approximate
output of a machine by estimating the number of passes it will make in an hour.

Example
Estimate the approximate output of a bulldozer for the following conditions:
Material, sandy loam topsoil.
Weight = 15.7 KN/m3, bank-measure.
Swell = 25 %
Haul distance = 30.5 m, over level ground, with bulldozer operating in a slot.
Crawler tractor, 53.7 drawbar KW.
Mouldboard size, 2.9 m long, 0.9 m high.
Rated mouldboard capacity, 2.75 m3 loose volume.
Net mouldboard capacity, 2.75 / 1.25 = 2.20 m3 bank-measure.
Operating factor, 50 min per hr.
Probable round-trip time:
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Pushing, 30.5 m @ 2.4 km/hr = 0.758 min

Returning, 30.5 m @ 5.6 Km/hr = 0.324 min
Fixed time, loading and shifting gears = 0.320 min
Total time = 1.402 min
Trip per hr, 50 / 1.402 = 35.7
Output per hr, 35.7 trips @ 2.20 m3 = 78.5 m3, bm

FRONT – END LOADERS 

General
Front-end loaders are used extensively in construction work to handle and transport bulk
material, such as earth and rock, to load trucks, to excavate earth, as bulldozers, etc. They are
both satisfactory and economical when used for such purposes.
There are basically two types of front end loaders, the crawler-tractor-mounted type and the
wheel-tractor-mounted type. They may be further classified by the capacities of the buckets
or the weights that the buckets can lift. Wheel-mounted units may be steered by the rear
wheels, or they may be articulated.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Operating Specifications
Representative operating specifications for a wheel-tractor loader furnish information such as
that listed below.
Engine flywheel kW @ 2300 rpm, 90
Speeds, forward and reverse:
Low, 0 to 36.25 kmph
Intermediate, 0 to 17.76kmph
High, 0 to 47.20 kmph
Operating load (SAE), 31 kN
Tipping load, straight ahead, 79 kN
Tipping load, full turn, 96 kN
Lifting capacity, 85 kN
Breakout force, maximum, 136 kN

Bucket selection chart

SAE capacity, cum Weight of materials#, Weight of material,
Struck Heaped* kN per cum kN
30.26
3 3.40 8.90

1.88 2.26 13.05 29.50

1.70 1.88 16.02 30.12
1.50 1.70 17.80 30.26
1.32 1.50 19.58 29.37

* The heaped capacity is based on a slope of 2 : 1, as approved by the Society of Automotive

Engineers (SAE).
#
These are loose-measure weights

Production Rates for Wheel-tractor Loaders

The production rates for wheel units should be higher than for crawler units under favourable
conditions.
Consider a wheel unit with a 1.88-cum heaped capacity bucket, handling material weighing
16 per cum loose volume, for which the swell is 25 percent. This unit, equipped with a torque
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converter and a power shift transmission, has the following speed ranges, forward and
reverse:
Low range, 0 to 6.25 kmph
Intermediate range, 0 to 17.75 kmph
High range, 0 to 47.20 kmph
When hauling a loaded bucket, the unit should travel at an average speed of about 80 percent
of its maximum speed in the low range. When returning empty, the unit should travel at an
average speed of about 60 percent of its maximum speed in the intermediate range for
distances less than 30 m, and at about 80 percent of its maximum speed in the same range for
distances of 100 ft and over. The average speeds should be as follows:
Hauling, all distances, 0.8 x 6.25 = 83 meter pm
Returning, 0 to 30 m, 0.6 x 17.75 = 177.5 mpm
Returning, 30 m and over, 0.8 x 17.75 = 236.7 mpm
If the haul surface is not well maintained, or is rough, these speeds should be reduced to
realistic values.
Cycle time
Haul distance, m 7.5 15 30 45 60
Fixed time 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35
Haul time 0.09 0.18 0.36 0.55 0.73
Return time 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.19 0.26
Cycle time, min 0.49 0.62 0.84 1.09 1.34
Trips per 45-min hr 92.0 72.6 53.7 41.2 33.6

Volume hauled per hour, in cubic meter bank measure, by size of buckets
Size bucket, cum One-way haul distance, m
Loose Bank* 7.5 15 30 45 60
1.5 1.1 100 80 58 45 30
2.25 1.6 150 120 87 67 54
3 2 200 150 118 89 73
3.75 2.7 250 200 145 111 92
4.5 3.25 300 235 173 133 108
* Based on a swell of 25 percent and an average load equal to 90 percent of the rated
capacity.
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Because of the greater maneuverability of the wheel loader, its fixed time should be slightly
less than for a crawler-loader. Assumed a fixed time of 0.35 min.
The figure below illustrates the variations in production rates by sizes of buckets and one
way haul distances.

Fig. .3. Production rates for wheel-tractor-mounted loaders.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

SCRAPER 
The scraper is a self loading, transporting and spreading machine predominantly used for
general levelling. It is used to cut on a downward gradient to take full advantage of gravity.
For cutting the bowl is lowered and the apron opened, forward movement of the machine
directs the cutting edge into the soil causing it to boil upward into the bowl. Approximately
50 – 100 m of travel is required to fill the bowl. Excavation is carried out in layers of from
150 to 300 mm in depth; the levelling action is thus achieved as a gradual process. During the
discharging stage ejection takes place whilst the unit is moving: again the height of the bowl
is set to spread the material in a controlled layer and the soil is pushed out of the soil with the
aid of the ejector plate.
In general, towed scraper capacities range from about 8 up to 30 m3 heaped capacity,
motorized scrapers from 15 up to 50 m3 heaped capacity (heaping at a slope of 1:1).

Motorized Scraper  
Unlike the towed scraper the engine is self-contained within the machine and power thus
supplied directly to the wheels. The whole unit is supported on very large volume tires.
Because of loss in traction when using wheels rather than tracks motorized scraper frequently
requires pushing assistance during the loading phase. Haul speeds up to 60 km/h are possible
with well-graded roads, yielding considerable improvement in output. For example, with the
20 m3 heaped capacity scraper bowl output up to150 m3/h hauling over 1 km is possible.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Push loading   
The method is used mainly with the standard scraper. The bulldozer is fitted with a very
robust blade and mounted on to the dozer frame through shock absorbers to take up impact,
while the scraper is stiffened at the rear to form a push block. The pusher is used only during
the loading phase and the scraper moves off under its own power as soon as the bowl is fully
loaded. Generally a pusher serves from three to five scrapers working as a team, so although
in practice high production is possible, the high cost of the scraper and bulldozer team limits
the use of the motorized system to fairly large projects. Several push load systems are in use
and are shown in figure 9 below.

Fig 9. Method of push loading scrapers

As a general rule:
Ts
N =
Tp

Where N = number of scrapers served

Ts = cycle time for scraper
Tp = cycle time for pusher tractor (Table 14 )
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Table 14 Representative pusher tractor cycle times

Pusher Cycle
Method of loading Loading conditions
time(minutes)
*Favourable 1.7
Back track Average 2.5
Unfavourable 3.0
Favourable 1.2
Chain Average 1.6
Unfavourable 2.0
Favourable 1.2
Shuttle Average 1.6
Unfavourable 2.0
* Favourable loading conditions include loading in a large pit or cut, ripping hard rock prior
to loading, loading down grade, maintaining a smooth loading surface, and using a pusher
tractor whose power is matched with the size of the scraper. Unfavourable loading conditions
are the opposite of those for favourable conditions.
Production Data
Ideal output from motorized scraper is given below. In practice, production may vary
considerably from these recommendations and should be adjusted accordingly.

Fig. 10. Ideal output of motorized scraper

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Example
A rubber-tired motorized scraper has a capacity of 16 / 23 m3 (struck / heaped). The machine
is operated on firm loam up a gradient of 6 % at an altitude of 900 m where the air
temperature during the day is 300C. The rated power of engine is 335 kW. The gross laden
weight of the unit is 720 kN, made up of 360 kN self-weight and 360 kN payload. The total
load is distributed with 50% on each axle. Determine:
(a) if the wheels will slip;
(b) if sufficient rimpull is available.
Given the traveling speeds for the following gear ratios:
1st gear 5 km/h
2nd gear 12 km/h
3rd gear 18 km/h
top gear 40 km/h
Information
Approximate coefficients of traction are given in table 15. For wet materials the coefficients
are difficult to determine but cohesive materials are especially affected and the coefficient of
traction could be reduced by up to 50%.
Table 16 gives approximate values of percentage rolling resistance for rubber tires and also
tracks operating on different soil types.
Table-15 approximate coefficient of traction
Type of surface (dry) Rubber tires Tracks
Smooth concrete 0.8 – 1.0 0.3 – 0.6
Clay 0.5 – 0.8 0.6 – 0.9
Firm sand / gravel 0.3 – 0.8 0.7 – 0.9
Loose sand 0.1 – 0.2 0.3 – 0.5
Loose gravel 0.2 – 0.4 0.4 – 0.7
Packed snow 0.1 – 0.4 0.2 – 0.6
Firm loam 0.4 – 0.8 0.6 – 1.0
Loose loam 0.4 – 0.6 0.7 – 1.0

Table 16 Rolling resistance

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Rolling resistance (%)

Ground surface condition
Rubber tires Tracks
Concrete 1.5 0
Fine gravel / sand 2.0 0
Loose gravel 10.0 5
Loose sand 10.0 5
Soft mud 16.0 7
Deeply rutted loam 16.0 7
Loose loam 4.0 3
Firm loam 2.0 1
Packed snow 2.5 0

Solution
(a) (i) From Table 6 the coefficient of traction for firm loam is, say, 0.6. The gross laden
weight of the unit is 720 kN of which 360 kN is supported on the drive axles.
Therefore the maximum usable rimpull is 360 x 0.6 kN, which reduces to 216 kN.
(ii) Maximum power supplied from the engine is 335 kW. Typically for this size of
machine, the efficiency in transferring the engine power into rimpull is about 80% and
supplied rimpull (in kN)

3.6 × engine power ( kW ) × efficiency

=
speed (km / h)
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in 1st gear = = 193 kN
5
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in 2 nd gear = = 80 kN
12
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in 3 rd gear = = 54 kN
18
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in top gear = = 24 kN
40

(iii) Approximate reduction in engine horse power for altitude depends upon the
manufacturer engine performance specification but for a four-cycle diesel engine the losses
are approximately:

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Altitude

0 – 300 m ……………………………… no loss in performance

300m and above ……………………… reduces available rimpull by 3% per 300 m.

(iv) Approximate reduction/increase in engine power for temperature

Temperature (0C) -150 00 150 300 450

Reduction (%) +6 +3 0 -3 -5

Therefore total reduction of rimpull = 6% + 3% = 9%.

Available rimpulls corrected for temperature and altitude:

Gear 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Rimpull (kN) 176 73 49 22

Supplied rimpull in first gear = 176 kN. This is less than usable rimpull of 212 kN (see (i)),
therefore the wheels will not slip.

(b) (i) Rolling resistance from table 5-6 for firm loam = 2%.

Supplied rimpull required to overcome rolling resistance

= total weight unit * rolling resistance

2
= 720kN × × = 14.4 kN
100
(ii) Supplied rimpull required to overcome grade resistance

6
= 720kN × = 43.2 kN
100
Therefore total supplied rimpull required = 57.6 kN

The scraper will generate sufficient rimpull in second gear to climb the grade and thus if the
unit is to be operated at heaped capacity the maximum speed along the haul is 12 Km/h.
However, top gear may be engaged where there is no gradient. Should it be necessary to
operate the machine on loading in first gear, on an upward gradient, then clearly the available
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rimpull is 176 – 57.6 = 118.4 kN. In effect this value is the draw bar pull, and is the available
pull which could be exerted on a load that is being towed, for example a box scraper attached
to a crawler dozer.

Note: Repeat the calculation in the unloaded condition.

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