STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF
STRUCTURES
• SHELTER
Shelter protects people from the weather, shields
them against wild animals and insects, and
provides a place to rest.
• FORMS OF SHELTER
Housing
Bomb shelters, bus shelters, tents, trailers and
even houseboats.
 EVOLUTION OF SHELTERS
• Stone Age
• Natural environment
• Trees
• Cave
• Man-made shelter
• Stones and tree branches
• Huge stone slabs, bones, and even animal hide
• Earth- sundried bricks
 Stone age

A shelter made from bones

A cave formed within a

mountainous rock
 Ancient Civilizations

• Egyptians started building flat-topped houses

made out of sun-dried bricks around 3100BC.
• The idea of sun-dried bricks was improved
upon by the Assyrians almost 600 years later,
when they discovered that baking bricks in fire
made them harder and more durable.
• The ancient Greeks lived in well-made stone
houses with slanted roofs that let snow and
rain slide off.
EGYPTIAN HOUSE
 Ancient Civilizations

• Greek structures were built using sun-dried

clay bricks or wooden framework filled with
fibrous material such as straw or seaweed
covered with clay or plaster
• Romans introduced the concept of central
heating to tide them thru cold weather.
GREEK HOUSE
 Chinese Architecture

• the foundation platform, the timber frame,

and the decorative roof
• packed earth as well as sun-dried clay bricks
• typically used within wood frames and formed
the foundation of the structure
• roofs and ceilings were constructed without
nails, only held together via layering the
different pieces in interlocking bracket sets.
 Chinese Architecture
The Songyue Pagoda, one of the few surviving
sixth-century pagodas, was made of bricks.
 Middle Ages

• Germans and Scandinavians built buildings

supported by frameworks of heavy timber or
wood, and spaces between the wood were
filled with clay.(AD 400)
GERMAN HOUSE
 Middle Ages
• 15th century, Europeans began building half-
timbered houses, stone or brick foundations
• Tree trunks are placed at corners of the houses,
and strong wooden beams were used to support
the house
• they fastened crossbeams at the top and bottom
of the beams and added slanting braces.
• covered the walls with lath, or thin wooden
strips, plastered with a mixture of clay and straw.
MEDIEVAL AGE EUROPEAN HOUSE
 Early Modern Period

• Glass was used extensively in this period, and

altered the facade and window construction
details considerably.
• design and architecture of the building
• appreciation of aesthetics and design
• mass production
• iron beams
• Brick was also mass produced in factories
• wood to be manufactured in a standard size and
nails became cheap
Early Modern Period
 Contemporary Era

• High-rise buildings
• Concrete or steel
• Steel frame as a structural element.
• Bricks
• Glass
• Lightweight concrete
• Use of pumps
• Industry standard for the construction of
buildings and shelters
 Evolution Of Structures
• The Egyptian architect (3000 B.C. --1st century A.D. ) was limited by the
fact that he had to use massive walls and closely spaced columns with
lintels supporting a stone roof, as the method of construction . Lack of
wood and abundance of stone and sun dried bricks dictated his main
building materials. Spans were therefore limited by stone material. The
result was constantly repeated rectangular forms of massive block walls
and columns which gave a look of simplicity and solidity but denied the
design of large spaces uninterrupted by supports. The Greeks (650- -30 B.
C. ) also used post and beam construction which basically was similar to
the construction employed by the Egyptians. The use of a trussed wooden
roof with sloping rafters permitted slightly greater spans. The exterior,
however, was a pedimented roof supported on a series of columns and
walls. The stone lintel and column system used during these periods was
strong in compression but weak in tension.
• The Romans (300 B. C. --365 A. D.) demonstrated a great construction ability by
understanding the structural principles involved in the construction of the true
arch, vaults, dome and roof truss, as well as use of concrete. The Roman
civilization, with its greater stress on social life, the selective form of government
and desire for glorification of its rule, required large uninterrupted spaces for
public buildings (such as theatres, bathhouses, basilicas, assembly halls, etc.). The
true arch principle, continued from the Etruscan period, made possible the larger
spans, which in turn generated a variety of structural forms (Plate I, Fig. 4; Plate II,
Fig. 1, 2, 3). The horizontal projection of the arch formed a barrel vault, which
could be used to cover wide rectangular areas (Plate I, Fig. 4), whereas the cross
vaults (which were formed by the intersecting of two barrel vaults) permitted
more flexible development of space (Plate II, Fig. 1). Hemispherical domes were
developed over a circular plan (Plate 11, Fig. 2) to permit assembly of large groups
without being hindered by supports. The structural principle which permitted
utmost flexibility in the use of the dome was developed in Byzantine architecture
(330 A. D. -- 1453 A. D,). "Pendentives" (spherical triangles) were developed (Plate
II, Fig. 4) to permit a dome to be erected on a square bay. This was one of the main
contributions of the Byzantine civilization. This type of con- struction permitted
the dome to become a predominant feature.
• During "Romanesque" times {7th century A. D. --12th century A. D. ). there was a need to develop
techniques to span increasingly larger rectangular spaces as the Christian church developed in the
West. These areas also needed a fire-resistant roof which eliminated wood the roof truss for
construction. Roman cross vaults were heavy and difficult to construct, and were gradually replaced
by "rib and panel" vaulting. This \ new method of construction allowed a framework of ribs to be
erected first and later filled in with panels (consisting of beds of mortar laid in with dressed stones
of comparatively small size) (Plate III, Figs. 1, 2) which gave a modular construction. The use of
semicircular arches for ribs, usually limited spans to square bays. The diagonal rib, starting from the
same level and having the largest span, rose to a greater height than the transverse and longi-
tudinal ribs. This gave an uneven effect by awkward waving of the ribs. This construction also relied
on heavy walls to resist thrust and allowed only small window openings in the walls. Around the
twelfth century, the church ritual was highly developed and the needs for loftiness and delicacy
were urgent in church architecture. Gothic architecture (1200 A. D. --1600 A. D. ) satisfied this need
by devel- oping a pointed arch to sustain the ribbed vault construction (Plate III, Fig. 3). This
marvelous architectural form was developed from the heavy, rather clumsy, Romanesque. A Gothic
structure consisted of a skeleton of piers, buttresses, arches and ribbed vaulting, all held in
equilibrium by the combination of
• ve rtical and oblique forces neutralizing each other. Walls practically- disappeared. A church became a glass house.
The use of the pointed arch is regarded as the chief visible characteristic of Gothic architecture. Pointed arches
made possible the equalization of the vertexes (regardless of the span) and the crown of all arches could now be
at the same height. Gothic architects understood dynamic construction. This structural technique illustrates the
highest development of arcuated construction. About the fifteenth century civilization in western Europe changed
completely. Medieval man turned his back on Gothic society and began to consider his great classical past.
Renaissance architecture (1500 A. D. -- 1900 A. D. ) reflected the grand construction of spatial formis and scale
which were needed to build for the nationalistic attitudes of developing countries. Instead of developing Gothic
form, Renaissance architecture reverted to Roman. The Gothic pointed arches and ribbed vaults were abandoned
for the semicircular Roman arch and dome. The domical vault and dome on pendentives were developed further
and used in a variety of old as well as new ways. Renaissance architects raised the dome on a drum to
accommodate windows and to give this motif a more dominant appearance. Domes were composed of double or
triple shells; the out- side dome was usually crowned with a lantern (Plate III, Fig. 4). The objective analysis of the
historical development of architec- tural form shows (among other influences such as social, religious and climatic)
that both building materials and the progressive knowledge of construction methods played important parts. The
post and lintel or beam construction generated predominantly rectangular architectural forms of limited span in
Egyptian and Greek architecture. The adoption and development of the arch principle by the Etruscans and
Romans per- mitted the development of larger spaces. These evolved into the pointed arch and vault with strong
ribs and exterior bracing during later Gothic times. These structural principles (post and beam, arch, vault, and
dome) were developed to a very high degree of efficiency (using bricks and stone) by these former civilizations but
until the mid -nineteenth cen- tury, building materials had not changed; only techniques developed. Only after the
development of steel, the elevator and the pump, could the archi- tect and engineer answer the economic
demands of our modern civilization for taller structures.
 Importance of structural system
• Architectural design and structural engineering are
complementary fields in the study of architecture. The
architect and the engineer, in order that each may take
his rightful place in the creative art of architecture,
must acquire a knowledge of his own field plus an
understanding of the other's field. The engineer,
beyond structural theories and engineering
computations, must be sensitive to form; and the
architect like wise to structure. This will provide
essential mutual understanding of the principles and
problems which govern each other's work.
 WALLS
• Wall, structural element used to divide or enclose, to
form the periphery of a room or a building
• The traditional load-bearing wall of masonry is of a
thickness proportional to the forces it has to resist: its
own weight, the dead load of floors and roofs, and the
live load of people, as well as the lateral forces of
arches, vaults, and wind. Such walls are often thicker
toward the base, where maximum loading
accumulates. They can be thickened along their entire
length or only at particular points where the force is
concentrated; the latter method is called buttressing.
 WALLS
• Doors and windows weaken a wall and divert
the forces above them to the parts on either
side, which must be thickened in proportion
to the width of the opening. The number of
openings that can be used depends on the
strength of the masonry and the stresses in
the wall. Usually windows must be placed one
above the other in multistory buildings to
leave uninterrupted vertical wall masses to
transfer loads directly to the ground.
LOAD BEARING WALLS
 WALLS
• Nonbearing walls, used where loads are
carried by girders, beams, or other members,
are called curtain walls; they are attached to
the frame members. Any durable, weather-
resisting material—glass, plastic, metal alloy,
or wood—may be used, since nonbearing
walls are freed from the limitations of
structural requirements.
NON LOAD BEARING WALLS
wall
WALLS
 Structure types

• Post-and-beam structures
• Most architectural structures are of the post and-
beam type and consist of horizontal spanning
elements supported on vertical columns or walls.
• Post and beam is a general term for building with
heavy timbers. More specific types of post and
beam framing are: Timber framing - Traditional
timber framing, often simply called timber
framing, is an ancient traditional method of
building using wooden joinery held together with
pegs, wedges and rarely iron straps.
POST AND BEAM
POST AND BEAM WITH TRUSS
 Post-and-beam structures
• Most architectural structures are of the post and-beam type and consist of
horizontal spanning elements supported on vertical columns or walls.
• A characteristic of this type of structure is that the horizontal elements
are subjected to bending-type internal forces under the action of
gravitational load (normally the primary load on an architectural
structure).
• This has two consequences. Firstly, it requires that the structural material
be capable of resisting both tension and compression (e.g. steel,
reinforced concrete, timber).
• Secondly, it is an inefficient type of structure (larger volumes of material
are required to support a given load than are necessary with other types
of structure).
• The post-and-beam structure has the great advantage that it is simple and
therefore cheap to construct. This group of structures can be subdivided
into the two categories of 'skeleton-frame' structures and 'panel'
structures. The latter are also load bearing-wall structures.
 HISTORY OF POST AND BEAMS
• scientific progress
• development of technological principles
• development of buildings.
• The Egyptian architect (3000 B.C. --1st century A.D. )
• method of construction
• massive walls
• closely spaced columns
• lintels supporting a stone roof
• Lack of wood
• abundance of stone and sun dried bricks
• Spans were therefore limited by stone material.
• constantly repeated rectangular forms of massive block walls and columns
• simplicity and solidity
• denied the design of large spaces uninterrupted by supports.
• The Greeks (650- -30 B. C. ) also used post and beam construction
• similar to the construction employed by the Egyptians.
• use of a trussed wooden roof with sloping rafters permitted slightly greater spans.
• The exterior, however, was a pedimented roof supported on a series of columns and walls .
• The stone lintel and column system used during these periods was strong in compression but weak in tension
 ARCHES
• An arch is a vertical curved structure that spans an
elevated space and may or may not support the weight
above it, or in case of a horizontal arch like an arch
dam, the hydrostatic pressure against it.
• Arches may be synonymous with vaults, but a vault
may be distinguished as a continuous arch forming a
roof.
• Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC
in Mesopotamian brick architecture, and their
systematic use started with the ancient Romans, who
were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of
structures.
 ARCHES
• An arch is a soft compression form. It can span a
large area by resolving forces into compressive
stresses and, in turn eliminating tensile stresses.
This is sometimes referred to as arch action. As
the forces in the arch are carried to the ground,
the arch will push outward at the base, called
thrust. As the rise, or height of the arch
decreases, the outward thrust increases.[5] In
order to maintain arch action and prevent the
arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be
restrained, either with internal ties or external
bracing, such as abutments.
A masonry arch
Keystone
Voussoir
Extrados
Impost
Intrados
Rise
Clear span
Abutmen
 HISTORY OF ARCHES
• The Romans (300 B. C. --365 A. D.) demonstrated a great
construction ability
• by understanding the structural principles involved in the
construction of the true arch, vaults, dome and roof truss,
as well as use of concrete.
• The Roman civilization, with its greater stress on social life,
the selective form of government and desire for
glorification of its rule, required large uninterrupted spaces
for public buildings (such as theatres, bathhouses, basilicas,
assembly halls, etc.).
• The true arch principle, continued from the Etruscan
period, made possible the larger spans, which in turn
generated a variety of structural forms
 VAULT
• Vault is an architectural term for
an arched form used to provide a space with a
ceiling or roof.
VAULT
Vault
 Vaults and domes

• Vaults and domes are structure types in which the dominant feature is an upwards curvature
towards the dominant downward-acting gravitational load .
• They belong to a class of structure in which the internal forces are predominantly axial rather than
of the bending type and, in the case of vaults and domes, this internal force is compressive.
• They are therefore normally constructed in materials which perform well in compression, such as
masonry or concrete.
• The axial-compressive-stress only condition which is associated with vaults and domes has two
important consequences.
• A vaulted structure in reinforced concrete is used here to achieve a relatively long span.
• Large horizontal spans to be achieved with materials, such as masonry or unreinforced concrete,
which have little tensile strength
• Large-span interiors can be created in masonry only by the use of domed or vaulted structures.
• This was the principal reason for the use of this type of arrangement prior to the invention of
modern materials such as steel and reinforced concrete which allow large spans to be achieved
with post-and-beam forms due to their ability to resist bending effectively.
• Secondly, and perhaps more importantly for the buildings of today, it allows loads to be resisted
with much greater structural efficiency than is possible where bending is the principal result of the
application of load.
• In modern practice, vaults or domes are normally used to achieve high levels of structural
efficiency, either because a very long span is required or because a special requirement must be
satisfied such as the need for a very lightweight structure
 HISTORY OF VAULT
• During "Roman" times {7th century A. D. --12th century A. D. )
• there was a need to develop techniques to span increasingly larger rectangular spaces as the
Christian church developed in the West.
• These areas also needed a fire-resistant roof which eliminated wood , the roof truss for
construction.
• Roman cross vaults were heavy and difficult to construct, and were gradually replaced by "rib and
panel" vaulting.
• This new method of construction allowed a framework of ribs to be erected first and later filled in
with panels (consisting of beds of mortar laid in with dressed stones of comparatively small size)
which gave a modular construction.
• The use of semicircular arches for ribs, usually limited spans to square bays. The diagonal rib,
starting from the same level and having the largest span, rose to a greater height than the
transverse and longtitudinal ribs.
• This gave an uneven effect by awkward waving of the ribs. This construction also relied on heavy
walls to resist thrust and allowed only small window openings in the walls.
• Around the twelfth century, the church ritual was highly developed and the needs for loftiness and
delicacy were urgent in church architecture.
• Gothic architecture (1200 A. D. --1600 A. D. ) satisfied this need by developing a pointed arch to
sustain the ribbed vault construction .This marvelous architectural form was developed from the
heavy, rather clumsy, Romanesque.
 DOMES

• A dome is a rounded vault made of either

curved segments or a shell of revolution,
meaning an arch rotated around its central
vertical axis
• Element that resembles the hollow upper half
of a sphere.
DOMES
 HISTORY OF DOMES
• The horizontal projection of the arch formed a barrel vault, which
could be used to cover wide rectangular areas whereas the cross
vaults (which were formed by the intersecting of two barrel vaults)
permitted more flexible development of space .Hemispherical
domes were developed over a circular plan to permit assembly of
large groups without being hindered by supports. The structural
principle which permitted utmost flexibility in the use of the dome
was developed in Byzantine architecture (330 A. D. -- 1453 A. D,).
"Pendentives" (spherical triangles) were developed to permit a
dome to be erected on a square bay. This was one of the main
contributions of the Byzantine civilization. This type of construction
permitted the dome to become a predominant feature.
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES IN DOMES
BARREL VAULT
GRION VAULT
 Suspended Structures
• High tensile strength of steel combined with
the efficiency of simple tension makes steel
cable the ideal structural element to span
large distances.
 CABLE STAYED ROOF STRUCTURE
• Advantages
• Create Dramatic Structures
• Enclose large volume column free spaces
• Innovative structures
• Reduces the depth of roof members
• Creates thin structures
• Reduces the cost of project
• Cables are flexible so no uneven stresses
• Tensile load is evenly divided among the cable’s strands
 Cables loading
• A cable between two fixed ends with one
single load at midspan
• Under the action of load cable assumes a
symmetrical triangle shape
• The load is carried to each support by simple
tension