ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

 Technically, the brain is called encephalon

COVERAGE: which has four (4) divisions: cerebrum,
cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem.
I. General Features of the Brain
II. Cerebrum: General 1. Brainstem (stalk of the mushroom)
Characteristics and Functions a. Medulla Oblongata
III. Diencephalon: General b. Pons Varolli
Characteristics and Functions c. Midbrain
IV. Cerebellum: General 2. Diencephalon
Characteristics and Functions a. Thalamus
V. Medulla Oblongata: General b. Hypothalamus
Characteristics and Functions 3. Cerebrum – this constitutes about 7/8 of the total
VI. Pons: General Characteristics weight of the brain.
and Functions 4. Cerebellum – this is inferior to the cerebrum and
VII. Midbrain: General posterior to the brainstem.
Characteristics and Functions
VIII. Cranial Nerves

I. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE BRAIN

BRAIN
 is a mushroom-shaped organ
 one of the largest organs of the body
 its normal weight in adults is 1300 grams (3 lbs.)
 it is housed inside the cranial cavity
 It controls all functions of the body, interprets
information from the outside world, and
embodies the essence of the mind and soul.
Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory
are a few of many things governed by the brain.

 it receives information through our five senses:

sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing – often,
many at one time. It assembles the messages in
a way that has meaning for us and can store that
information in our memory.
 The brain controls our thoughts, memory and
speech, movement of the arms and legs, and the
function of many organs within our body.
A. CRANIAL MENINGES
1. Dura Mater is the outermost cranial matrix and
consists of two (2) fused layers:
a. Inner Dura Mater is continuous with the
spinal dura mater and extends into the fissure

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that divides the left and right hemispheres of the
cerebrum (falx cerebri), and reaches into the
fissure between the cerebrum and cerebellum
(tentorium cerebelli).
b. Outer Dura Mater is actually the periosteal
layer of the skull bones.
 is a tough, fibrous layer containing
veins and arteries that nourish the bones.
2. Arachnoid Membrane – is the middlemost layer
of the meninges found between the dura mater and
pia mater.
 is made up of delicate connective tissue.
 In between the arachnoid membrane
and the pia mater is the subarachnoid
space which contains the cerebrospinal
fluid and blood vessels.
3. Pia Mater – is the delicate innermost meningeal
layer.
 it directly covers, and is attached to, the
outer surface of the brain, and dips
down into the fissures between the
raised ridges of the brain.
 This has a large number of small blood
vessels
B. VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN
 These are spaces/cavities in the brain
that communicate with each other, with
the central canal of the spinal cord and
with the subarachnoid space.
 These ventricles include:
 Lateral ventricles (2)
 Third Ventricle (1)
 Fourth Ventricle (1)
 Interventricular Foramen (1)
 Cerebral Aqueduct (1)
C. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
 Is a clear, colorless fluid of watery consistency,
which is essentially an ultrafiltrate of blood.
 Chemically contains proteins, glucose, urea and
salts.
 This formed by the filtration from the network
of capillaries (choroid plexuses) located in the
ventricles; and may be formed also by
ependymal cells.
 The entire central nervous system contains
about 124 ml. (4 oz.) of cerebrospinal fluid.
FUNCTIONS:
1. In the subarachnoid space, this provides a
special environment in which the brain floats,
cushioning it against hard blows and sudden
movements; or provides a protective buoyancy
for the brain.
2. Maintenance of homeostasis by helping to
control the chemical environment of the central
nervous system; and
3. It conveys excess components and unwanted
substances away from the extracellular fluid
and into the venous portion of the blood
circulatory system.
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II. CEREBRUM
A. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. The largest and most complex structure of the

nervous system.
2. Consists of two cerebral hemispheres, the right
and left halves or hemispheres. These are
separated by a deep groove called longitudinal
fissure.
3. Composed of outer gray matter (cerebral cortex)
and inner white matter.

8. The sulci that divide the cerebral hemisphere

into lobes are
- Central sulcus or fissure of Rolando
(separating the frontal lobe from parietal lobes)
- Lateral cerebral sulcus or fissure of Sylvius
(separating the frontal lobe from the temporal
lobe); and
- Parieto-occipital line (found between parietal
lobe and occipital lobe).
4. Composed of upfoldings called
gyri/convolutions; deep downfoldings called
fissures; and shallow downfoldings called
sulci/sulcus.
5. Internally, the two hemispheres are connected
by a large bundle of transverse fibers composed
of white matter called corpus callosum.
6. Its longitudinal fissure between the
hemispheres is an extension of cranial dura
mater called falx cerebri.

B. GENERAL FUNCTIONS

1. Governs all mental activities;

7. Each cerebral hemisphere is subdivided into
lobes by fissures or sulci, namely – frontal,
parietal, temporal, occipital lobes.
2. Organ of associative memory;
3. Seat of reason, intelligence, will and
consciousness;
4. Interpreter of sensations;
5. Investigator of voluntary acts; and
6. Controlling force on reflex acts.

III. DIENCEPHALON
A. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
FUNCTIONS

1. The deep part of the cerebrum

2. Connects the midbrain with the cerebral
hemispheres.

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3. It houses the third ventricle
4. Is composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Thalamus
- Is composed of two egg-shaped masses of gray
matter covered by a thin layer of white matter.
- It is located in the center of the cranial cavity;
directly beneath the cerebrum and above the
hypothalamus.
- Functionally, this is the intermediate relay point
and processing center for all sensory impulses
(except the sense of smell) ascending to the
cerebral cortex from the spinal cord, brainstem,
cerebellum, basal ganglia and other sources.
HYPOTHALAMUS
- Lies directly under the thalamus
- It is a small region (about the size of a lump of
sugar and only 1/300 of the brain’s total volume)
located in the floor and part of the lateral walls
of the third ventricle.
- Extending from the hypothalamus is the
pituitary gland (hypophysis) which is neatly
housed within the cells of sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone.
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
1. Integration with the autonomic nervous system.
- The hypothalamus adjusts the activities of other
regulatory centers, such as the cardiovascular
center in the brain stem.
2. Temperature Regulation.
- The hypothalamus plays a vital role in the
regulation and maintenance of body
temperature.
3. Sleep-wake Patterns
- It is integrated with the neutral circuitry that
regulates sleep-wake patterns and the state of
awareness.
4. Water and Electrolyte Balance
- The hypothalamus has “thirst center” and a
“thirst satiety (satisfaction)” center that help to
produce a balance of fluids and electrolytes in
the body.
- These centers regulate the intake of water
(through drinking) and its output (through
kidneys and sweat glands).
5. Endocrine Control
- The hypothalamus produces the hormones
oxytocin and ADH released by the posterior
lobe of the pituitary gland.
6. Sexual Responses
- It responds to the sexual stimulation of the
genital organs. The sensation of an orgasm
involves nerve activity within this division of
the brain.
7. Behavioral Responses Associated with Emotion
- The subjective feelings of emotion (pleasure,
pain, anger, fear, love) activate the autonomic
nervous system by way of the hypothalamus)
- The autonomic nervous system, in turn, is
responsible for changes in the heart rate and
blood pressure, blushing and etc.
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IV. CEREBELLUM
A. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. This is a butterfly-shaped organ located behind
the pons in the posterior cranial fossa.
2. It is the second largest part of the brain and is
separated from the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum by a fold of dura mater called the
tentorium cerebelli and by the transverse
cerebral fissure.
EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE CEREBELLUM:
1. Vermis is a worm-like part and is the midline
portion;
2. Flocculonodular Lobes (2) or Vestibular
Cerebellum are the smaller lobes; and
3. Lateral Lobes (2) or Cerebellar Hemispheres
are the larger lobes.
- These are considered as the lateral wings
and are separated by an extension of
cranial dura mater called Falx Cerebelli.
INTERNAL PARTS OF CEREBELLUM
1. Cerebellar Cortex – is the surface layer of gray
matter that covers the lobes of the cerebellum.
2. Arbor Vitae (white matter tracts) – is a
branched arrangement of white matter beneath
the gray matter.
3. Cerebellar Nuclei – are masses of gray matter
deep within the white matter.
B. FUNCTIONS OF CEREBELLUM
1. The flocculonodular lobes and the vermis play
a role in maintaining muscle tone, equilibrium
and posture;
2. Smooths out the action of each muscle group by
regulating and grading muscle tension and tone
in precise and delicate way; and
3. Continuously monitors sensory input from
muscles, tendons, joints and vestibular (balance)
organs.
V. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1. This is an expanded continuation of the spinal
cord, extending slightly forward and upward
from the level of the foramen magnum to the
pons.
2. The organ is the lowermost portion of the
brainstem and is situated in the inferior part of
the cranial activity.
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B. FUNCTIONS OF MEDULLA OBLONGATA

1. Conduction pathway
2. Contains the following vital centers;
- Cardiac Center
- Vasomotor Center
- Respiratory Center (Medullary)
3. Location of the following reflex center:
- Coughing Reflex Center
- Sneezing Reflex Center
- Vomiting Reflex Center
- Swallowing Reflex Center

VI. PONS VAROLLI

The Pons (bridge) is the uppermost portion
of the brainstem and form a connecting bridge between
the medulla and the midbrain.
- It is found in front of the fourth ventricle and
the cerebellum.
- Functionally, this functions as conduction
pathway of impulses and helps control
respiration.
VIII. CRANIAL NERVES
A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1. The 12 pairs of cranial nerve are the peripheral
nerves of the brain. Their names are indications
of some anatomical or functional features of the
nerves and their numbers (in Roman Numerals)
indicate the sequential order in which they
emerge from the brain.
2. The 12 cranial nerves primarily serve the head
and neck. Only one pair, the vagus nerves,
extends into the thoracic and abdominal
cavities.

VII. MIDBRAIN

- The midbrain is a short narrow segment of

nervous tissue that connects the forebrain with
the hindbrain.
- This extends from the pons to the lower portion
of the diencephalon.
- It is therefore, a segment of the brainstem
located between the diencephalon and the pons.
3. Cranial nerves I and II are nerves of the
cerebrum while nerves III through XII are
nerves of the brainstem. (Part of nerve XI
emerges from the cervical spinal cord.)

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10. Vagus Nerve (X) – is the wandering nerve.
Its name because of its extensive distribution
of any cranial nerves, hence the longest of the
cranial nerves. This innervates the structures in
the head, neck, thoracic, and abdomen.
11. Accessory Nerve (XI) – supplies the
sternocleidomastoid muscle and part of the
trapezius muscles.
12. Hypoglossal Nerve (XII) – innervates the
muscles of the tongue.

4. Of the ten (10) brainstem nerves, One (VIII) is

purely sensory nerve, five are primarily motor
nerves (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII), and four are
mixed nerves containing both sensory and
motor fibers (V, VII, IX, X).
5. Olfactory (I), Optic (II) and
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves are purely
sensory nerves.

12 CRANIAL NERVES

1. Olfactory nerve (I) – conducts impulses

related to the sense of smell.
2. Optic Nerve (II) – the nerve of vision
3. Oculomotor Nerve (III) – concerns with the
eye movement
4. Trochlear Nerve (IV) – is the smallest of the
cranial nerves and supplies motor and sensory FUNCTIONS:
fibers to the superior oblique muscle of the
eyeball. 1. The cranial nerves are concerned with the
5. Trigeminal Nerve (V) – is the largest of the specialized (special) senses of smell, taste,
cranial nerves and the great sensory nerves of vision, hearing and balance as well as tho
the head and the face. general sense and other sensory inputs.
6. Abducens Nerve (VI) – supplies the lateral 2. The nerves are also involved with the
muscle of the eyeball. specialized motor activities of eye movement,
7. Facial Nerve (VII) – is the great motor nerve chewing, swallowing, breathing, speaking, and
of the face and is concerned with facial facial expression. The vagus nerve is an
expression. exception since the fibers are projecting to
8. Acoustic Nerve (VIII) – is concerned with organs in the abdomen and thorax.
hearing and with equilibrium.
9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) – is important
in the act of swallowing.

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