TECTONICS, VOL. 19, NO.
4, PAGES 649-668 AUGUST 2000
Low-temperature thermochronology of the northern Cordillera
Real, Ecuador: Tectonic insights from zircon and apatite
fission track analysis
RichardA. Spikings,Diane Seward,Wilfried Winkler, and Geoffrey M. Ruiz
GeologischesInstitut, Eidgen6ssischeTechnischeHochschule-Zentrum,Z0rich
Abstract. The post Early Cretaceoustectonic development
of the northern Andean segment (north of 5øS) is loosely
constrainedby a series of partially and fully reset K/Ar ages.
New apatite and zircon fission track data from three traverses
acrossthe Cordillera Real of Ecuadorreveal distinct periods of
acceleratedcrustal cooling during the Cenozoic. Fission track
agesrange from 65 to 14 Ma (zircon) and 44 to 8 Ma (apatite),
with apatite mean track lengths ranging from 14.6 to 12.1 }am.
These results record rapid cooling rates during - 43 - 30 Ma,
23 - 15 Ma, and 10 - 0 Ma occurring at temperaturesbelow -
275øC.The events reflect up to - 9 km of crustalexhumation
in various regions of the Cordillera in response to relative
changes in the kinematics of the Farallon, Nazca, and South
Americanplates.The exhumationhlstory of the Cordillera "phases"for the central Andes of Peru, Bolivia, and northern
Real was not continuous but rather evolved during separate
phases. These phases persisted for- 10 Myr and are partly
coincident with tectonic phasesof the central Andes, although
extend for longer time periods, possibly as a result of
isostatically driven crustal exhumation. Large spatial
variations in the zircon and apatite fission track data within
the Cordillera Real indicate that local fault-bounded
have experienced different thermal histories since -43 Ma.
Major variations are not restricted to the regional scale and
exist within individual terranes. Faulted slivers within
demonstratehighly variable exhumation histories, suggesting
that deformation was not dominated by terrane-bounding
faults. Additionally, N-S variations in exhumation depths
suggestthat - NE-SW trending faults have been active since -
10- 9Ma.
1. Introduction
The Ecuadoriancontinentalmargin, situatedin the northern
Andean sector (north of 5øS), has been active since the late
Middle Jurassic (- 160 Ma), initially within the Tethyan
spreading system and afterward in the eastern Pacific
subductionsystem [Pilger, 1983; Pardo-Casasand Molnar,
1987; Gallagher, 1989; Jaillard et al., 1990, 1995]. The
EcuadorianAndesrepresenta compositeorogenic belt, which
assembledduring several Mesozoic-Cenozoic accretionary
events.The polydeformedCordillera Real (Figure 1) forms the
easternmostmountain chain and originated during the Early
Cretaceousaccretionof allochthonouster•anes[Feiningerand
Bristow, 1980] at - 140- 120 Ma, otherwise referred to as the
Copyright2000 by the AmericanGeophysical
Union.
Paper number 2000TC900010.
0278-7407/00/2000TC900010512.00
Peltetec Event [Litherland et al., 1994]. Progressive
cratonwardpropagation and building of the Cordillera Real
since the Peltetec Event [e.g., Litherland and Aspden, 1992]
have led to the current exposure of polydeformed, greenschist
facies and lower-grademetamorphic rocks [e.g., Davila and
Egaez, 1990; Litherland et al., 1994] (Figure 1). The post-
Peltetec geological evolution of the Cordillera Real is only
loosely constrained by a series of partially and completely
reset K/Ar ages from metamorphic micas [Litherland et al.,
1994].
Steinmann [1929] and numerous more recent studies (see
reference list in the work of Noblet et al., 1996) have
established a scheme of post Early Cretaceous tectonic
Chile. This was achieved by constraining the timing and
geographical extent of deformation using the regional extent
of angular unconformities in sedimentary and volcanoclastic
sediments.Steinmannpostulatedthat the main phases(re/erred
to as the Peruvian, Incaic, and Quechua phases) involved the
entire Peruvian Andean margin, or at least parts of it, at the
massifs Cordillera scale [e.g., Mdgard, 1984; Sdbrier et al., 1988;
Sdbrier and Soler, 1991]. Previous fission track studies in the
central Andes appear to corroborate the tectonic phase
terranes chronology [e.g., Benjamin et al., 1987; Laubacherand
Naeser, 1994]. However, the central Andes did not experience a
history of Mesozoic and Cenozoic accretion of oceanic
terranes, and several workers [Noblet et al., 1996; Lavenu et
al., 1995] suggest that tectonism in the northern Andean
segmentwas more continuousthan and possibly diachronous
with the central Andean phases.
We present the first results of zircon and apatite fission
track analysis from three traverses across the northern
Cordillera Real (Figure 1). These data provide a quantitative
framework for the thermal and exhumation history of the
Cordillera Real during the Cenozoic. Such a framework
providesconstraintson the unroofinghistory of the Cordillera
and provides a means to test the applicability of the well-
established central Andean tectonic phases to the northern
segment,acrossthe Huancabamba
Deflection locatedat-• 5øS
[Gansser, 1973]. Additionally, further insightsinto the timing
of fault activity at the intra-Cordillera scale are revealedwhich
providecluesto the mechanismof orogenic growth during the
Cenozoic.
2. Geological Framework
ß
Early Cretaceousto Recent convergencebetween the Pacific
oceanic and South American continental plates has given rise
to a series of distinguishable tectono-stratigraphic regions
649
650 SPIKINGS
ETAL.:THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHEECUADORIAN
ANDES

t•2ø 80ø 7•ø

_2 ø
I
I
I
I
I

COLOMBIA

-0ø,•b•b(::•'
Carnegie
.Quito

Ridge

ORIENTE

Ecuador
Brazil

ca. 200 km Cordillera Real (Ecuador)

t Quaternary volcanics Sub-Andean

sediments
and zone
EasternCordillera (Ecuador,Peru)•
(Colombia)
Guarnote
Terrane
,,,'t
Neogene
foreland
basin
sediments •/'/• Alao
Terrane
.,..,...,...•Metamorphics ofCentral
'-.'-.'-.'-.ICordillera(Colombia)and
'i'!• Tertiary
sediments Western Cordillera(Peru)
I I Løja
Terrane
..,•-• Mesozoic
volcanics
and
sediments Inter-Andean Valley (Ecuador, • Salado
Terrane
•'-"-"-"1 underlain byChaucha Terrane)
and Cauca Valley (Colombia)
main
faults
• ElOro
Metamorphic
Belt • traverses
described
in present paper

Figure 1. Simplified
geological
mapof Ecuador,
northern
Peru,andsouthern
Colombia
(compiled
after
Baldock[1982],Litherland
andZamora [1991], Toussaint andRestrepo [1994],Litherland
et al. [ 1993],and
ComisionCartaGeologica NacionalPeru[1964]).The tectono-stratigraphic terranes
of the Ecuadorian
Cordillera
Realareshown[afterLitherlandet al., 1994],aswellasthelocation
of the Sub-Andean Zone(SAZ)
andOriente region.
Oft:shore
bathymetry highlights theposition of theCarnegie Ridgeandthelocation of
the Peru-Ecuador-Colombia
trenchis shown(depthcontours
in meters).Labelsa, b andc identifythe three
sampledtraverses
across
theEasternCordillera
(a,JulioAndfade- LaBonita; b, Papallacta
- Baeza;andc:
Barios-Puyo).BF,Barios
Fault;CF,CosangaFault;IN, Ingapirca
Fault;LF,Llanganates
Fault;PF,Peltetec
Fault.
 SPIKINGS ET AL.: THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES 651

(Figure 1). These are terranesof the CretaceousCordillera Real Litherland et al. [1994] attribute this to resetting causedby
[Litherland et al., 1994], Paleocene - Eocene lorearc (Pition shearing and heating during an early Tertiary metamorphic
Terrane), and a Paleocene - Eocene volcanic arc sequence event. However, more detailed work is requiredto elucidate the
(MacuchiTerrane)which comprisesthe present-dayCordillera details of the geological history during the Tertiary.
Occidental[Lebrat et al., 1985; Egaez et al., 1988; Daly, Cenozoic sedimentary rocks within the Cordillera Real are
1989]. The Macuchi Terrane is suturedagainst the Chaucha confined to restricted Mio-Pliocene nonmarine basins
Terrane [Egl;iezet al., 1988; Litherland et al., 1994], which i s [Baldock, 1982; Bristow and Parodiz, 1982]. Cenozoic
believedto form the basementto the Inter-Andeanregion, and volcanic rocks have been assigned to tour divisions, which
this in turn is suturedagainst the metamorphic terranesof the span the Paleocene-Quaternary period [Barberi et al., 1988;
Cordillera Real. Mio-Pliocene intermontane basins [e.g. Lavenu et al., 1992]. Undeformed and unmetamorphosed
Steinmann et al., 1999] are located within the Inter-Andean intrusive bodies have been recognized along the Cordillera
valley. Real which yield late Cretaceous(-80 Ma) to Quaternary K/Ar
The proximal Amazon Foreland Basin to the east of the ages (Figure 2) [Kennerly, 1980; Herbert and Pichler, 1983;
Cordillera Real is composedof steeply dipping thrust slices Litherland et al., 1994].
within a series of frontal foothill highs (Napo and Cutucu
antiforms), which are commonly referred to as the Sub-Andean
3. Thermochronology
Zone (Figure 1). Within the Sub-AndeanZone, conspicuous
tectonic uplift is evident, exposing Paleozoic to Tertiary A useful approach for documenting long-term exhumation
basement,cover, and foreland basin formations. A major fault of a region is to study its thermal history [e.g., Brown et al.,
separatesthe Sub-AndeanZone from flat-lying Late Cretaceous 1994; Spikings et al., 1997; Spikings, 1999]. Zircon and
-Recent sedimentary rocks of the foreland basin, otherwise apatite fission track analyses (ZFT and AFT, respectively) are
referred to as the "Oriente" region (Figure 1). two methods which have the advantage of providing
At least four metamorphic terranes, composedof Paleozoic quantitative information on the spatial variation of thermal
and Mesozoic sequencescompose the Cordillera Real (Figures histories both at an interterrane scale and at an intraterrane
1 and 2) [Litherland and Zamora, 1991; Litherland et al., scale. A combination of knowledge of the thermal history and
1994]. The Salado Terrane is the easternmost division of the the evolution of the geothermal gradient over the time period
Cordillera and is juxtaposed against the Sub-Andean Zone revealed by the data set permits estimates of the timing and
acrossthe Sub-AndeanFault (Figure 1). Metamorphosedmafic amount of crustal exhumation that has occurred over the same

volcanic rocks, metasedimentaryrocks, and carbonateunits of period. The use of the term "exhumation" here follows the
the Upano,Cerro Hermoso,and Cuyuja sequencescomprisethe definition of England and Molnar [1990] as being the vertical
terrane [Litherland et al., 1994] as well as metamorphosed motion of rocks with respect to the surface.
Upper Jurassic- Lower Cretaceousmetaplutonic rocks of the The temperaturesat which fossil fission tracks within the
N-S trending Azafran Batholith (Figure 2) [Litherland et al., apatite and zircon mineral groups partially anneal (i.e., partial
1994]. isotopic resetting) are not sharply defined but are progressive
Westward, the Salado Terrane is in tectonic contact, across [Green et al., 1986]. The temperaturerange where partial track
the Llanganates Fault, with Paleozoic -Triassic sequencesof annealing occurs is known to be a function of the phase
the Loja Terrane (Figure 1). The steeply dipping, composition [Green et al., 1986; Carlson and Donelick,
metamorphosed, Paleozoic sedimentary rocks and 1993], cooling rate, and possibly the symmetry group of the
amphibolites are the oldest exposed rocks in the Cordillera mineral [Kohn and Foster, 1996].
Real. These, combinedwith the gneissicTriassic Tres Lagunas Unannealed track lengths in apatite group mineral phases
Granite and Sabanilla Migmatite, comprise the Loja Terrane range between - 14.5 and 15.5 !amrelative to standard Durango
(Figure 2). apatite [Gleadow et al., 1986], and hence samples that have
The Loja Terrane is in tectonic contact with Jurassic mean track lengths in this range, combined with narrow track
metavolcanic and metasedimentaryrocks of the Alao Terrane length distributions, experienced rapid cooling from
across the Barios Fault, which is manifested in the field as a temperaturesof _>120ø- 100øCto temperaturesof •- < 60øC at
major shear zone - 2 km wide (Figure 1). The Alao Terrane is the time indicatedby the AFT age [Laslett et al., 1987]. Broad
composedof the Alao-Paute,E1 Pan, and Maguazo sequences, track length distributions with shorter mean lengths suggest
which are believedto representoceanicarc sequences(Figure that the sample has experienced a more complex thermal
2). No plutonic phase is associated with this division. The history, spending a significant amount of time, relative to
terrane is juxtaposed against Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous their AFF age within the partial annealing zone [Gleadow et
quartzites and slatesof the Guamote Terrane to the west via a -• al., 1986]. Similar principles apply to the interpretation of
2 km wide, vertical ophiolitic zone which defines the Peltetec ZFT data; however, the lack of a suitable description of the
Fault (Figure 2) [Aspden and Litherland, 1992]. In southern annealing kinetics of tracks within zircon inhibits the
Ecuadorthe Peltetec Fault juxtaposes Jurassicmetamorphic determination of a thermal history from the track length
basement with Upper Cenozoic volcanic and sedimentary distributions. Additionally, wide-ranging values for the
rocks [Winter et al., 1990; Litherland et al., 1994] and was temperaturebounds for the partial annealing zone have been
thus active in Cenozoic times. published. Yamadaet al. [1995] suggestedtemperaturelimits
Almostall K/Ar ages from the pre-Cretaceous metamorphic of- 390 ø - 170øC whereas Tagami and Dumitru [1996] and
rocks of the Tres LagunasGranite, Sabanilla Migmatite, and Tagami et al. [1998] suggestedtemperaturelimits of- 310øC -
Agoyanand UpanoUnits lie between90 and 50 Ma (Figure 3). 230øC. For the purposeof this study, the average value of
652 SPIKINGS ET AL.: THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES

?'+•'+•'.j Late Cretaceousand

•'L
• Tertiary
granite
intrusions
GUAMOTE TERRANE Jurrasic - E. Cret.

•• Pun,n
andCebadas
units
(slates,quartzites) Julio

ALAO TERRANE Jurrasic - E. Cret.

i eltetec
unit
(ophiolitic
tectonicmelange) 0 ø 30'
La Bonita
• Maguazo unit(metaturbidites,
andesires,cherts,marbles)

• Alao-Paute
andesires, unit
(metabasalts,
metasediments)
SALADO TERRANE Jurrasic - E. Cret.

_•• Azafran unit(deformed

granodiorite,
diorite)

•• Cerro Hormoso
meta-sediments, unit(marbles
skarns)

•• Cuyuja unit
graphitic (schists,
schists) gneiss, 0 ø 00'

iliii::;•11!!i;l:;i!•
I Upano unit(meta-andesites, /
-greywackes, schists)
/
LOJA TERRANE Paleozoic - Triassic

Tres Lagunas
(variably Granite
foliated)

[... j schists,
Agoyan unit (graphitic
paragneiss)

i: t black
Chiguina unt
phyllite) (qartzite,
0 ø 30'

Cenozoic thrust faults

Mesozoic thrust faults

transcurrent faults

/
- 20 km /
1ø00.......]-..............
/
Quaternary /
volcanos

77ø30 '

FORELAND BASIN
(SUB-ANDEANZONE & ORIENTE)

1 ø 30'
J ] Fms.
Pliocene/euaternary
(not differentiated)
Arajuno/Curaray Fms.
Recent - Eocene
(sandstones,argillites)
Chalcana Fm. (red beds,
fine sandstones)
Tiyuyacu Fm. (sandst.,
conglomerates,shales)
Hollin, Napo and Tena
Paleocene-
Middle •
Cret. Fms.
(qtz.-arenites,
limestones,
red
beds)
2 ø 00' Jurassic pyroclastics,volcaniclastics)
78o30 ' 78o00 ' • Abitagua
L•'•.,"•.,' and
Florida Rosa
granitoids
Figure2. Simplifiedgeological
mapof thenorthern
Cordillera
RealandSub-AndeanZone,Ecuador
[after
Litherland
etal., 1993,1994;Rosero,
1997].Thelocation
of thesampled
traverses
ishighlighted
inFigure1.
Geological
crosssections
andsample
locations
areshownin Figure5.
 SPIKINGSET AL.' THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES 653

1
K/Ar ages Formati0,n Ages
h: hornblende
1
m: muscovite
1 b: biotite

1
w: whole rock

c- 1

Alao Upano
Unit Unit

•b•
Azafran Granite

b,,mim,
20 30
Tertiary
40 50 60 7O
' 0'0'
90 1
Cretaceous ' iI
110 1 0 130 1 0 150 160 170
Jurassic
180 190 200 210
I
220 230

Time ( M a)

Figure 3. A comparisonof K/Ar ages [Kennerly, 1980; Herbert and Pichler, 1983; Lavenu et al., 1992;
Litherland et al., 1994] and formation ages [Litherland et al., 1994] from Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
metamorphicrocks and undeformedTertiary plutons of the Cordillera Real. A majority of K/Ar ages are less
than 100 Myr old suggestingthat they have been reset to varying degrees.

275øCwill be plotted againstthe ZFT age in orderto producea 3.2. Analytical Methods
single temperature (T) -time (t) point on a thermal history
path. Whole rock samples were crushed and apatite and zircon
grains were recovered by conventional heavy liquid and
3.1. Previous Fission Track Thermochronology magnetic methods. Samples from the northernmost traverse
(Figures 1 and 3 and Table 1) were recovered using the
Previous fission track (FT) investigations within Ecuador floatation techniquedescribedby Hejl and Ney [1994]. Both
have been restricted to the central and southern Inter-Andean apatite and zircon were irradiated at the High Flux Australian
region(Figure 1). ZFT and AFT agesfrom stratifiedtuffs within Reactor (HIFAR), and neutron fluxes were monitored with the
middle-late Miocene basins [Hungerb•ihler, 1997; Steinmann, CN5 (apatite) and CN1 (zircon) standardglasses.
1997; Steinmann et al., 1999] tightly define the Fossil tracks were revealed in apatites by etching in 5N
chronostratigraphy of the sedimentaryseries and provide a HNO3•aq
) at 20øCfor 21 seconds
andin zirconby etchingin the
framework for the younger evolution of the Cordillera eutecticmixtureof NaOH/KOH at 210øC for periodsbetween 5
Occidentaland the Inter-Andean valley region since-- 15 M a. and 30 hours. Induced tracks were revealed in muscovite

Steinmann et al. [1999] record a period of marine externaldetectors

sedimentationduring-- 15 - 9 Ma (Coastal Pacific Stage)
which terminatedbecauseof exhumation starting at -- 9 M a.
Terrigenoussedimentationwas then restrictedto local regions,
which were partly sourcedfrom the rising Cordillera Occidental
to the west for the first time (Intermontane Stage). These
studies concluded that the central and southern
region was exhumedat rates of-- 0.4 km/Myr during -- 9 - 0
Ma.
Other fission track studies in the Eastern Cordillera
[Laubacher and Naeser, 1994], Bolivia [Crough, 1983;
Benjamin et al., 1987], and Argentina [Coughlin et al., 1998]
in the central Andean segment and Colombia [Andriessen,
1996] and Venezuela [Shagam et al., 1984] in the northern
Andean segment highlight specific periods of post early
Cretaceouscooling in those regions (Figure 4). These are
referred to in section 5.
by etchingin 40% HF•aq)
at 20øCfor 45 min.
Fission tracks were counted at a magnification of x1250
(apatite) and x1600 (zircon, dry objective) using computer-
controlled Zeiss microscopes and the Kinetec stage. Only
those grains mounted in the plane of the c-axis for both
mineral types were counted. Lengths of horizontal confined
Inter-Andean tracks were measuredin apatite grains lying in the plane of the
crystallographic c axis using a drawing tube and digitizing
tablet. It was not possible to measuremany lengths. Because
of Peru of generally low uraniumconcentrations, and consequentlyin
most cases less than 40 measurements were made (Table 1).
Maximum fissiontrack etch pit diametersorientedwithin 5ø of
the c axis were measured(magnification x2000) in order to
estimate the compositional influence • on fission track
annealing [Carlson et al., 1999]. Analytical proceduresfor
ZFF and AFF analysis followed the external detector method
describedby Gleadow [1981]. Ages were calculatedusing the
654 SPIKINGSET AL.' THERMOCHRONOLOGYOF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES

zeta calibration method [Hutford and Green, 1983], and errors traverse, between the towns of Barios and Puyo, crossed the
were calculated according to conventional methods [Green, Alao, Loja, and Salado Terranes, as well as the Sub-Andean
1981]. All samples were counted by R. Spikings with zeta Zone, including the Abitagua granite.
values of 387+_17 (apatite, CN5 glass) and 130+_3.1 (zircon,
4.1. Julio Andrade-La Bonita Traverse
CN 1 glass).
The Julio Andrade- La Bonita section yielded the youngest
4. Results: Fission Track Data fission track ages (Figure 4). Three samplesfrom the Azafran
Granite of the Salado terrane, located in the immediate footwall
In this section we present FF data from three traverses, two of the Llanganates Fault, yielded apatite ages of 15+_11 Ma
of which lie approximately perpendicularto the Andean trend (98RS46), 8+_2Ma (98RS48), and 12+_7Ma (98RS49; Figure
and structural strike of the region (Figures 1 and 2). The 5a). The large errors are attributed to very low uranium
northernmost traverse between the towns of Julio Andrade and concentrationswithin the apatite grains (< 6.6 ppm; Table 1).
La Bonita crossed the Salado Terrane and an along-strike The agescan not be resolvedwithin 1(• error, and the data from
section of deformed Misahualli Unit volcanic rocks within the sample 98RS48 is taken to be representativeof this location
Sub-AndeanZone. Southward,the traversebetweenPapallacta becauseof its smaller analytical error. A long mean track
and Baeza crosses the Loja and Salado Terranes and length of 14.6+_0.2 rim was obtained from sample 98RS48.
sedimentaryrocks of the Sub-Andean Zone. The southernmost Further eastward, a sample of diorite from a fault-bounded

Cordillera Real and the western SAZ' Ecuador Northern/Central

Andes

J. Andrade-La
BonitaPapallacta-Baeza Barios- Puyo Previous Work
lOO
Ap Zr Ap Zr Ap Zr N of 5øS S of 5øS

80 --

,.

60

..

40 .. •1• ••"
..

.. i..
20
- .. l•I•I
•-.

..
''
[] .-"
I
1 3
!i5

0 10 2o 3o 4o

Analysis
5o
•Ji
Zi.rco
nI Apat
ite
Figure 4. The absolute spread in apatite and zircon fission track ages (+_l{Jerror) from the Quito- Baeza,
Barios - Puyo and Julio Andrade- La Bonita traverses across the northern Cordillera Real, Ecuador, and the
westernSub-AndeanZone (SAZ). Ap, apatite;Zr, zircon. Previouswork is from basement rocks in (1) Eastern
Cordillera of Colombia [Andriessen, 1996], (2) Venezuelan Andes [Shagam et al., 1984], (3) Eastern
Cordilleraof Peru [Laubacherand Naeser, 1994], (4) EasternCordillera of Bolivia [Crough, 1983], (5) Eastern
Cordilleraand Aliiplano of Peru [Benjamin et al., 1987], and (6) SierrasPampeanas,Argentina [Coughlin et
al., 1998].
SPIKINGS
ETAL.'THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHEECUADORIAN
ANDES 655

ß .

• o o c5 o c5 +1 o c5 c5
ß
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 c• +1 +1 . •

oo•o•
• o ß •oo . • 'o
....o o oo
•••
...... • • o • o•
•ooo
• • •
656 SPIKINGS
ET AL.'THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHEECUADORIAN
ANDES

+1 +l +1

+1 +1 +1

+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
+1+1 +1+1+1+1+1+1•:• +1+1 +1

0 0 0 ß --
• ddd•• •

--, • --, 0•1 --, ,,-- -- -'- 0•1 0•1

o o c:• o o o o o o o o o

c.-3 c.-3 o
 SPIKINGS
ETAL.:THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHEECUADORIAN
ANDES 657

LU

LU

LU

LU

O•
zz

•LL ILl
Z

o
o
o
o
E
ff• ff• o o o o
0d .v- o
658 SPIKINGS
ET AL.:THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHEECUADORIANANDES
block of the Upano Unit within the SaladoTerrane (98RS62)
yielded an AFT age of 15.6_+1.9 Ma and a mean length of
13.6_+0.2gm (Figure 5a and Table 1).
Three samplesof rhyolite from a faulted sliver (boundedby
the La Sofia and Cosanga Faults) of the Misahualli Unit yield
AFT ages(Figure5a and Table 1) of 12_+4Ma (98RS59), 15_+1
Ma (98RS55), and 10_+3 Ma (98RS56). AFT lengths from
sample98RS55 yield a mean value of 12.4+0.3 gm, which is
significantly shorter than other samples from this traverse
(typically 13.5-14.5 gm; Table 1). Sample 98RS55 also
yielded a ZFT age of 14_+2Ma, which is statistically equivalent
to the AFT age, althoughit is significantlyyoungerthan other
ZFT agesfrom the CordilleraReal (Table 1).
4.2. Papallacta-Baeza Traverse
Zircon and apatite FT ages from the Papallacta - Baeza
traverse range between -65 and-39 Ma and-41 and-12 Ma
respectively (Figure 4). ZFT ages of 65_+4 Ma (98RS18) and
39_+3 Ma (98RS19) were obtained from different fault-bounded
units of diorite and granite of the Loja Terrane (Figure 5b and
Table 1). With the exception of sample 98RS18, AFT ages
from various units of the Loja Terrane are concordant within
their 1 intervals about a mean value of -30 Ma
distinguishably younger than ZFT ages from the same
samples. An AFT age of 12_+1Ma (98RS18) is recordedin a
fault-bounded block of Agoyan diorite (Table 1)which is
distinctly younger than other regions of the Loja Terrane in
this traverse (Figure 5b). Samples 98RS18 and 98RS19 from
the Loja Terrane yielded intermediate AFT mean lengths and
broad length distributions (Table 1). These length
distributions are broader than those obtained from
tectonostratigraphicunits in the Barios - Puyo traverse to the
south.
AFT ages from gneisses,granites, and schists of the Salado
Terrane range between - 41 and 27 Ma (Figure 5b). The
apatites have low uranium concentrations (e.g., < 2.5 ppm,
Table 1), which lead to large analytical errors and a reduction
in the resolution of the data set. Apatite from the graphitic
schist 98RS14 has the highest uranium concentration (13
ppm) within the Salado Terrane samples and yields a mean
fission track length of 14.2_+0.2 gm with a standarddeviation
of 1.11 gm.
4.3. Bafios-Puyo Traverse
Apparent ZFT ages from within the Cordillera Real along
the Barios- Puyotraverseshow significantvariation (Figure 4
and Table 1). A singleZFT age of 36_+5Ma was obtained from
schists of the Alao Terrane, west of the Barios Fault (sample
98RS22; Figure 5c). East of the BariosFault, ZFT agesincrease
from 28 Ma adjacentto the LlanganatesFault to 58 Ma within
deformed Cretaceous sedimentary rocks adjacent to the
Cosanga Fault. East of the Cosanga Fault, ZF:F ages from
sedimentary rocks within the Sub-Andean Zone (Tena
Formation) and the Abitagua Granite are discordantwith each
otherand rangebetween33 Ma adjacentto the CosangaFault
and 67 Ma within the batholith (Figure 5c).
ApparentAFT agesfrom the CordilleraReal rangefrom - 44
to- 9 Ma, mean fission track lengths range between 13.7 and
14.1 gm, and track length standarddeviations range between
1.22 and 1.67 gm, reflecting narrow length distributions
(Table 1). No geographictrends can be identified within the
data.The youngestAFT ages,of- 11 - 9 Ma, occuradjacentto
the BariosFault (98RS23 and 98RS24; Table 1), within schists
of the AgoyanUnit, and from faultedblocksin westernregions
of the Azafran Granite, respectively (Figure 3c). The oldest
AFT agesare foundin faultedblocks juxtaposedagainst these
"young"regionsand are recordedin the Tres LagunasGranite
and also the western Azafran Granite. Apatite grains from
Mesozoic sedimentaryrocks incorporatedinto the Cordillera
Real (Napo Formation; Table 1) have very low uranium
concentrations and numerous lattice detects, leading to AFT
ageswith largeanalyticalerrors.Consequently,AFT agesfrom
this region can not be distinguishedfrom other parts of the
Cordillera.A singlesamplefrom the AbitaguaGranite, within
the Sub-AndeanZone (Figure5c), recordedan AFT age of 24_+5
Ma (98RS41).
5. Interpretation and Discussion
5.1. Periods of Cooling: Apatite Fission Track
Analysis
and are
AFT agesin this studyrange between44 and 8 Ma (Table 1
and Figure 4), suggestingthat the present land surfacewas
variably cooling through the-110øC isotherm during and
prior to this time period. Many samples have exceptionally
low apatiteuraniumconcentrations(typically < 5 ppm; Table
1), and hence few or no track lengths were measured per
sample.However,severalsamples,with AVF agesof- 10, -
the same
20, and- 40 Ma, have long mean track lengths (relative to
standardapatite samples, e.g., Durango apatite) and narrow
length distributions(e.g., 98RS14 and 98RS48; Table I and
Figure 6). This implies that the Cordillera Real was cooling
rapidly at thesetimes [e.g., Gleadow et al., 1986].
However, a majority of samples have mean track lengths
that are < 14.5 gm and have standarddeviations of > 1.4 pm
(Table 1 andFigure6)and hence have been partially annealed.
In order to producethese partially annealedtrack lengths, the
samplesmusthaveresidedfor long periodsof time within the
apatite partial annealing zone (APAZ), i.e., at temperatures
between- 110ø and 60øC. Therefore the AFT ages in the
correspondingsamplesdo not record specific cooling events.
The wide spreadin AFT ages (Table 1 and Figure 4) within
and between traversesmay be a consequenceof variations in
apatite composition as well as differing Cenozoic T-t paths.
In order to estimate the influence of compositional variation,
fission track etch pit diameters have been measuredand
comparedto the corresponding AFT ages(Table 1). The lack of
any particulartrendover the bulk of the data set suggeststhat
compositional influence, which may amplify or reducethe
spatial variation of AFT ages, is minor [Carlson et al., 1999]
and has hence been ignored in this study.
The AFF data set was modelled [e.g., Foster and Gleadow,
1996; Spikings et al., 1997] to quantify the timing and
amount of cooling at specific sample locations. Modeling
followed the approach of Gallagher [1995], using the
quantitativedescription of AFI' annealing kinetics described
by Laslett et al. [1987]. The modeling procedurefollows a
controlled random search algorithm that identifies those
 SPIKINGS
ETAL.:THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHEECUADORIAN
ANDES 659

15
ß Julio Andrade - La Bonita traverse
A
n Papallacta - Baeza traverse
#48 ß Barios- Puyo traverse

26A
.

,
35

......

.........

::::::::::::::::::::::: ..........................................
..................

•;;•:•;¾;;,.2.,::;:•:•.,,;.½•:,,.•::':'•'"-•:•'---..--
-•:•'

12 ß

0 10 20 30 5O

Apatite fission track age (Ma)

3.0 '
B

1.5

14

1.0

0.5

0.0 , i ß i , i , i ,
0 10 20 30 40 50
^patite fission track age (Ma)

Figure 6. Relationshipbetweenthe apatite fission track (AFD age, (a) meantrack length and (b) standard
distribution. Relationshipis shownfor all sampleswhich yielded adequatelength data (all errors are l cD.
Shadingshowsthe generaltrendof the data.Longtracklengths(>14 pm) and small standarddeviations(<1.5
pm) define distinctivecoolingepisodesat -- 10, 20, and 40 Ma duringwhich time the CordilleraReal cooled
rapidly through-- 110ø -60øC. Sample numbersare shownfor the 98RSxx series.

thermal historiesthat most closely reproducethe fission track matched. It is more valid to consider an envelope of thermal
age and length data. The results of thermal modeling of nine history solutions that fit the observedAFT parameterswithin
samplesare presentedin Figures7a - 7c, along with graphical the limits of statistical acceptancerather than a single best
representationsof the observed AFT data that was being solution.
660 SPIKINGS ET AL.: THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES

5.1.1. Julio Andrade-La Bonita traverse. ZFq' 5.1.3. Bafios-Puyo traverse. The modeledthermal
ages, combined with modeled thermal histories from the Julio history envelopesfrom the Barios- Puyo traversereveal three
Andrade-La Bonitatraverserevealthreedistinctperiodsof distinct periodsof cooling sincethe early Eocenethat are more
cooling sincethe early Miocene: tightly defined than those of the other two traverses:
1. Samples
98RS55and98RS62,locatedon oppositesides 1. Combining the ZIZT age with the modeledT-t path of
of the La SofiaFault(Figure5a), experienceda similar thermal sample98RS28 from the SaladoTerrane(Figure 7c) reveals a
historyduringthe early- middleMiocenewhenthey cooled distinctperiodof coolingof up to ---240øC during---40- 32 Ma,
200ø - 35øCduring--->19- 15 Ma at coolingratesof up to which occurredat ratesof--- 30øC/Myr.
50øC/Myr(Figure7a),followed
by thermalstabilityduring15 2. Samples 98RS26A and 98RS35 (Figure 7c), situated
-5Ma.
within the Loja and SaladoTerranes(Figure 3c), yield similar
2. The long meantracklength of sample98RS48, located AFT data(Table 1), andtheirT-t envelopesreveal cooling of
in the immediatefootwallof theLlanganates
Fault(Table 1 and 35ø - 40øCduring-20 - 17 and-23 - 17 Ma, respectively,
Figure5a)impliesthat the samplecooledrapidlythrough> correspondingto cooling ratesof---6 ø - 13øC/Myr. However,
110ø- ---60øCat---8 Ma (asindicatedby its AFFage).Thisis this early- middle Miocene cooling period is not clearly
supportedby themodeled T-t envelopefor this sample(Figure revealed in the T-t envelope of sample 98RS28, which
7a), whichsuggests thatup to 50øCof coolingoccurred during experiencedmost cooling to temperatureslower than 60T;
---8.5 - 7.5 Ma at rates< 50øC/Myr. during the Eocene(Figure 7c).
3. T-t envelopes for all threemodeled samples(Figure7a) 3. Similar to the Papallacta- Baezatraverse,cooling of
follow a generallyisothermal positionduring---7.5 - ---5 Ma,
--50ø- 60øCduring---10- 0 Ma at a rateof ---6øC/Myrcanbe
andthisis followedby renewedcoolingduring-5 - 0 Ma of identifiedfrom the modeledT-t envelopesof all three samples
40ø- 60øC,corresponding to coolingratesof < 12øC/Myr. (98RS26a, 28, and 35; Figure 7c). However, the relatively
This period of cooling is not recognizedin the other two young Ab-T ages (e.g., 9- 11 Ma) of unmodelledsamples
traversesto the south(Figure 1). (Table 1) located in the footwall of the Barios Fault (Table 1
No cleargeographictrendsin coolingratesexist alongthe and Figure 5c), suggestthat they probably cooled at rates
JulioAndrade-La Bonitatraverse. However,the youngerAFT greaterthan 6øC/Myr since ---10Ma.
ages,whichrelateto greateramountsof coolingduringthe late
Miocene- Pliocene,are locatedcloserto major fault zones 5.2. Periods of Cooling: Zircon Fission Track
(e.g., LlanganatesFault and Cosanga Fault) than those Analysis
sampleswith olderAFT ages(Figure5a). ZFT agesfrom all threetraversesrangebetween---67 and 14
5.1.2. Papallacta-Baeza traverse. Two distinct Ma (Table 1). Rough estimates of thermal histories can be
periodsof acceleratedcooling can be identifiedfrom modeled madeby comparingZFT andAFT agesfrom the samesample.
T-t envelopesfrom the Papallacta- Baezatraverse: Samples98RS18, 37, 38, and 44, from the Papallacta-
1. T-t envelopes fromsamples 98RS14and98RS19(Figure BaezaandBarios- Puyo traversesyield ZF-Fageswhich range
7b) reveala periodof coolingof up to 60øCduring ---43 - 30 between---67 and53 Ma andare olderthan the AFF agesfrom
Ma and37 - 32 Ma, respectively. Thesecorrespond to cooling all other sampledregions (Table 1). The ages lie within the
ratesof--- 5ø - 10øC/Myr. Cooling duringthis periodis not range of partially reset K/Ar ages from the Cordillera Real
preservedwithin the youngestsample (98RS18) becauseit (Figure 3) and may recordan early Paleocene,greenschist
residedat temperatures >110øCafter30 Ma (Figure7b). grade, metamorphic event. The form of the Late Cretaceous-
2. A common featureobserved
in themodeled T-t envelopes Palaeocene T-t pathcannot be derivedfor any of the analyzed
for samples98RS14 and98RS19 (Figure7b) is the onsetof samplesfrom the currentdata set. However,the preservationof
increasedcoolingratesat ---10 Ma, resultingin the coolingof these older ZF-Fages may suggestthat they residedwithin
---40ø- 70øCduring--- 10- 0 Ma, corresponding to average fault-boundedblocks that experiencedthe least amount of
coolingratesof 7ø-4øC/Myr.Thegreatest
coolingduringthis exhumation since the Late Cretaceous and have resided at
period was experiencedby the youngestsample(98RS18; temperaturesless than - 200øC since that time.
Table 1). Sample98RS18yieldsa complexT-t envelope, Other samples (98RS28 and 34, Salado Terrane; 98RS55,
whichsuggests
thatcoolingduring---10- 0 Ma wasnot linear SAZ) yield concordantZF-Fand Ab-Tages within a lo error
andthat mostof the cooling duringthis periodmay have interval(Table 1 andFigure4). Proposed
T-t paths for someof
occurredsince---7 Ma at ratesup to 14øC/Myr. these samples are presentedin Figure 7. The concordancein

Figure7. Envelopes of modeled thermalhistories

forvarioussamplesof theCordillera
Realestimated
by
forward
modelingof theapatite
fission
trackparameters:
(a)JulioAndrade-La Bonita,
(b) Papallacta
- Baeza,
and(c)Barios
- Puyo.Eachenvelope highlightstheareadefinedby 25 thermalhistorypathswhoseAFF
parameters
mostcloselymatchtheobserveddata.Periodsof distinctincreases
in coolingratearehighlighted
andarediscussed
in thetext.Theapatite
partialannealing
zoneis withinthetemperaturelimitsassigned
to the
standard
"Durango
apatite"
byLaslen
etal. [1987].Square
boxes
constrain
thetemperature
- time(T-t)space
permitted
forthemodeled paths.Corresponding
apatitefissiontracklengthhistograms
andsingleapatite
grainageradialplotsarealsopresented.
L, meantracklength(_+lc•);
c•,standard
deviation
of thetracklength;
N, number
of tracklengthsmeasured. Thethermalhistoryenvelopes for samples
98RS28and98RS55have
beenextendedintothezirconpartialannealing
zone[Yamadaet al., 1995;TagamiandDumitru,1996].
 661
SPIKINGS
ETAL.'THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHEECUADORIAN
ANDES

A
98RS48 Salado Terrane
age: 8+_2 Ma 45

?
ß 4o_ ;•:.,.:•.'•..'?'
•..•..•,.• [:
(•: 14.6
1.11 pmP(X•):
96% 3o •
•'-- 60 - .................. ,-• •
.I
•"
• .•."
•; -__
_ ....
....... 40 . • ß
$ - 0
• 80 .'- -•-
15
½'100-
120-
Time(Ma) 10
.............
•":•........
•.........
5
•......
__
0 TrackLength(pm)
0 10 20
(• •
0
1'6
98 RS55 SAZ
Precision (1/(•)
20-

40
40,-
•:12.4
pm 15+_
1Ma •40 30

60
•_(•:
1.83 +2 50%ß 25
100
80
20
-2
0
f ..%.1rß
ß
ß

. 10
120
0 10 20 0 15 30
140

160

180

200

220

240
Zircon
260 Partial
! --
280 Annealing
Zone
300

320
,

i i i i ! i i

20 15 10 5 0

98RS62 Salado Terrane

20 •:.•.-•.....•.....•,
.•.-•.•=
'
•: 13.6 pm 1 6+_2Ma
0ø
6o-r
1
..... •-rI ,.---; --r....... ••••...... ' 40
(•: 1.64
. +2 85%
20
ß •ee•ee
e

f "
8o-I •
0 •%'.. ß

,::_•"•'".v:... . .
20 10
-2
I ''.'. .....
20 15 10 • 0 10 20 0 10 20

B
98RS14 Salado Terrane
20- L: 14.2 pm 41+_3 Ma •145
5
(•: 1.11
40 ' "'•":" ':• '•' 9%
70

40IN:
32t
_

60 - +2 z•5

80- -2
0f -•' ;. 20

100
__.-:....:•..--_>
':_- •i• ....... , 0 10 20 2b
40 3• 20

Figure 7.
662 SPIKINGS ET AL.: THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES

agesimpliesrapid coolingratesat a time correspondingto the [Hungerbiihler,1997] suggestthat this region may also have
age.Linear interpolation of the thermal history path between been uplifting during this time interval (Figure 8). Further
the modeledapatite T-t path and the ZFT age (positioned at evidence for exhumation in the Cordillera Real is documented

275øC;Figure7) revealsa periodof significantcooling of > by fluvial sedimentary series in the Quingeo Basin (-42 - 33
200øCduring- 40- 30 Ma (Figure7). This corresponds to Ma) of southern Ecuador, which was sourced from the
averagecoolingratesof- 50ø - 33øC/Myr. Cordillera Real to the east [Steinmann, 1997].
Finally, samples 98RS22 (Alao Terrane) and 98RS26a, 36 Within the Amazon Foreland Basin the time period between
(SaladoTerrane;Table 1) yield ZF]' agesof- 40 Ma (Table 1 -43 and 30 Ma correlates with late stages of deposition of
and Figure 5b). These samples did not yield AFT data and coarse alluvial/fluvial clastics of the Tiyuyaku Formation and
thereforeit is difficult to assessthe significance of the ZFI'
the brackish to shallow marine facies of the Orteguaza
ages.However,the modeledT-t pathsof other samplessuggest Formation (Figure 2) [Tschopp, 1953; Canfield et al., 1982].
that they probably relate to a period of rapid cooling These facies imply that the loreland accommodationvolume
commencing at - 43 Ma. was rising, which was probably driven by an increase in the
orogenic load of the Cordillera Real on the South American
5.3. Crustal Exhumation continental plate.
Tectonic activity during- 43 - 30 Ma is documented
In orderto quantifyexhumationin termsof spaceandtime, throughoutthe northern Andean chain and corresponds,within
knowledge of the variation in heat flow and thermal Ecuador, with the oblique accretion of the oceanic Pition
conductivityof the crust is required.However, no heat flow Terrane onto the Ecuadorian margin [Feininger and Bristow,
measurements have been made within the Cordillera Real 1980; Daly, 1989; Jaillard et al., 1995]. The collision event
although Henry [1981] recorded present-day geothermal correspondsto a change in the rate of convergenceof the
gradients between- 20 ø and 40øC/km within the Eastern SouthAmericanand oceanicFarallonplatesduring42 - 37 Ma
Cordillera of Bolivia. In this study, exhumation rates have [Pilger, 1983; Pardo-Casas
andMolnar, 1987]. Additionally,
been calculatedassuminga constant average geothermal rapid spreadingrates in the equatorial Atlantic Oceanbetween
gradient of 30øC/km. However, these rates are maximum values - 43 and 39 Ma are also coincident with this time period
as the cooling may be a consequence of thermal relaxation [Brozena , 1986; Sdbrier and Soler, 1991].
following igneous events, as well as crustal exhumation. Exhumation of the Cordillera Real during 43 - 30 Ma
Distinct periods of increased rates of exhumation can be correlateswith the "Incaic 2" tectonic phase in the Peruvian
recognized from the entire data set. However, not all of the Andes[e.g.,Mggard, 1984; Noble et al., 1990]. Additionally,
sampledfault blocks were exhumedduringevery period, and ZFF ages of- 40 Ma from the Eastern Cordillera of Peru and
the amountof cooling that occurredalong individualtraverses Bolivia [Benjamin et al., 1987; Laubacherand Naeser, 1994]
andbetweentraverses differs at any particulartime. Periodsof maybe a resultof increasedexhumationratesduring- 43 and
relativelyhigh exhumationratescan be placedinto three broad 30 Ma.
groups which are discussed in sections 5.3.1 - 5.3.3. 5.3.2. 23-15 Ma. The secondperiodspans- 23 - 15
5.3.1. 43-30 Ma. The oldestAFT ages(> 30 Ma) from Ma duringwhich time exhumationrates, recordedby the AFT
the Papallacta- Baeza and Barios - Puyo traversesrecord data, may have been as high as -0.4 km/Myr within the Tres
increased exhumationratesduring- 43 - 30 Ma which range LagunasGranitealong the Barios- Puyo traverse(Figure 8).
between- 0.2 km/Myr (e.g., 98RS14; Figure 7b) and 1.0 However, ZFF ages from the Barios -Puyo traverse are
km/Myr fromfaultedblocksof the AzafranandTres Lagunas generallyolderthan25 Ma (Table 1), suggestingthat samples
granites (Figure 8). Greater depths of exhumation in the were at temperaturesless than - 200øC prior to the onsett of
northernmost traverse since - 15 Ma have removed the late rapid cooling during 23 - 15 Ma.
Eocene- OligoceneFT record.Those regions which still Combiningboth ZFT and AFT data from the Julio Andrade-
preserve the older ages experienced the least amount of La Bonita traverse suggests that a fault-boundedsliver of
coolingandexhumation
since-• 30 Ma (Figure7). deformedrocksof the MisahualliUnit may have been exhumed
A middleEocene- late Oligocenesedimentaryhiatus and at ratesof- 1.7 km/Myr. Early - middle Miocene exhumation
contemporary volcanic pyroclastic deposits in the Inter- is not identifiedin the T-t modelsfrom the Saladoand Loja
Andeanvalley [Nobletet al., 1988; EgiiezandNoblet, 1988] Terranesof thePapallacta- Baezatraverse.However,AFT ages
of southern Ecuador (e.g., Loma Blanca Formation) of the unmodelledsamples98RS13 and 98RS16 (Table 1) from

Figure 7. (continued)Envelopesof modeledthermalhistoriesfor varioussamplesof the CordilleraReal

estimatedby forwardmodelingof the apatite fission track parameters:(a) Julio Andrade- La Bonita, (b)
Papallacta-Baeza,and (c) Barios- Puyo. Eachenvelopehighlightsthe areadefinedby 25 thermalhistory
pathswhoseAFT parameters mostcloselymatchthe observeddata.Periodsof distinctincreasesin cooling
ratearehighlightedandarediscussed in thetext. The apatitepartial annealingzoneis within the temperature
limits assigned
to the standard
"Durango
apatite"by Laslettet al. [1987]. Square
boxesconstrainthe
temperature - time (T-t) spacepermittedfor the modeledpaths. Correspondingapatite fission track length
histogramsandsingleapatitegrainageradialplotsare alsopresented. L, meantrack length (+1(5);(5, standard
deviationof the tracklength;N, numberof tracklengthsmeasured. The thermalhistoryenvelopesfor samples
98RS28and98RS55havebeenextended intothe zirconpartialannealingzone[Yamadaet al., 1995; Tagami
and Dumitru, 1996].
 663
98RS18 Loja Terrane

20
40
j.•!ß4ør•:o:12.5
2.25 . 12_+1
!•m 7%
Ma
ø ß ß
ß
ß

60..........................
80 ...... ,.:?;
" ß 20
+2
-2f
0 ß
ß,p-.2o.
ß ß

100 •:., ..z.... 5

10
• I 0 10 20 0 40 80
20 10 0
98RS19 Loja Terrane
2O

40 I
6O

8O :;'!i;::
•..... -• -... r3o
lOO
'"-L•
.•.,•?
'4 "': ' - ßß ß 25

120 '" i 0 10 20 ' 2'5 5'0•20

4O 3O 2O 10 0
c
98RS2 8 Salado t errane

'•: 13.8pm 36_+4

Ma .-120
40_
(•:1.31 11% •.17050
-2f ß ' '"
100

120
8O
20

0
ß +2*** •150
10 20
o **.1,'•%.** ß 30

• 1'0 2'0
0

140

160

180

200 •:••.
220
__

240

260 Zircon
Part ial
28O -.-.
.....
Annealing
300 -
Zone
i i i i i i i i

40 30 20 10 0
98RS35 Salado Terrane

•: 13.7 pm 20+.•.Ma
4O

6O ......................

40
r•:1.67+02
31% 70 45

100

120
80

! !
0
N:L••L'_
10
oo__
ß20 0 15 30

30 20 10 0
98RS26a Loja Terrane 18+_1 Ma 70

20 •: 14.1
!•m + 6% ß ß
55
40

40 40
I-(•:
1.22 • ßßß
'*%" -'
'*
ß

'
25
15
80 20 _

lOO

, o lO 20 8 16
30 20 lO o

Figure 7. (continued)
664 SPIKINGS ET AL.' THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES

• + g enLIoono I.enLtoono g o!eOUl

I!111111111111111
!1111111111111111111111111111
IIIit1111111111111I

E E

E E

E E

......................................... •

E
E E

eueoo!p•
i
 SPIKINGSET AL.:THERMOCHRONOLOGY
OFTHE ECUADORIANANDES
the Salado Terrane may relate to increased exhumation rates
during- 23- 15 Ma.
Within the Inter-Andean region of southern Ecuador this
period (23 - 15 Ma)is characterizedby intensive volcanic
activity (Saraguroand Santa Isabel Formations) and erosion
giving rise to significant hiati (Figure 8) [Hungerbiihler,
1997; Steinmann et al., 1999]. Cooling of the present-day
surfacemay be partly a result of thermal relaxation, following
a period of elevatedgeothermal gradients. However, AFT data
from the Quingeo Basin series, located in central Ecuador,
reveal a pronouncedcooling event at--18 Ma, which was
probably driven by crustal exhumation during compressive
deformation [Steinmann, 1997; Steinmann et al., 1999].
Noblet et al. [1996] summarize a large quantity of data relating
to early- middle Miocene instability within the northern and
central Andes. However, it is relevant to note that
chronostratigraphiccorrelations are not fully compatible with
more recentlyacquiredZFT data [e.g., Steinmannet al., 1999].
Within the Amazon Foreland Basin the early - middle
Miocene period is recordedby fine-grained red beds of the
ChalcanaFormation, which progradestoward the east over the
brackish/continental Orteguaza Formation (Figure 2) [e.g.,
Tschopp, 1953; Balkwill et al., 1995]. This facies is not
indicative of an uplifting sourceregion and does not provide
independent evidence for elevated exhumation rates in the
northern Cordillera Real.
The onset of increased exhumation rates in the Cordillera
Real correlateswith the break up of the Farallon plate into the
Nazca and Cocos plates and a change of the subducting plate
vector at the Ecuador trench from ESE to east at -- 25
[Pilger, 1984;Pardo-Casasand Molnar, 1987]. Compressional
events have been dated between 25 and 15 Ma in the Peruvian
and Bolivian Andes [Sgbrier et al., 1988; Sempgrdet al., 1990;
Laubacher and Naeser, 1994] and the Sierras Pampeanas of
Argentina [Coughlin et al., 1998] (Figure 4), indicating that
major plate rearrangements at - 25 Ma affectedboth the central
and northern Andean segments.
5.3.3. 10-0 Ma. All three traverses experienced
significantly increasedexhumation rates during-- 10- 0 Ma.
Maximum exhumationratesof up to 1.7 km/Myr were achieved
at-- 8.5 Ma and up to -- 0.7 km/Myr at - 5 Ma in the
northernmost traverse (Julio Andrade- La Bonita). This is
consistent with deeperand steeperlandscapeincision in this
region, comparedto more southern regions. Additionally,
thermal relaxation following the deposition of volcanic units
suchas those depositedduring the "Pisayambo" event (Figure
8) suggeststhat the exhumation rate may be an exaggerated
value. However, the stratigraphic position of the Pisayambo
volcanicsis only loosely defined, and it is tentatively placed
within the broadtime periodof- 16- 5 Ma by Litherland et al.
[1993].
Accordingto Noblet et al. [1996], there has been a large
spatial and temporal dispersionof tectonic events within the
central and northern Andean chain since - 22 Ma. Crustal
extensionprevailed in southernEcuadorduring - 16 - 10 Ma,
which resulted in the deposition of marine Pacific Coastal
Stagedeposits(labeled 1 in Figure 8) [Steinmannet al., 1999].
The same period is characterizedby the sedimentation of the
Arajuno Formationin a low-energy,meanderingfluvial system
in the Amazon Foreland Basin. These observations
665
consistentwith relatively slow or no crustalexhumationin the
Cordillera Real during - 16 - 10 Ma. Structural and
sedimentologicalevidencein the EcuadorianAndessuggests
that distinct periodsof tectonic compressionhave occurred.
Hungerbiihleret al. [1995], Hungerbt;ihler[1997], Steinmann
[ 1997], and Steinmann et al. [ 1999] recognized
synsedimentary compressive deformation within the
IntermontaneStage fluvial and alluvial sedimentsduring- 10
- 8 Ma in the southern Ecuadorian Andes (labeled 2 in Figure
8). This event also correlateswith the onset of coarsealluvial
fan/fan delta sedimentation in the Amazon Foreland Basin
(ChambiraFormation;Figures 2 and 8), which in turn suggests
uplift of the CordilleraReal to the west[Tschopp,1954].
Pasquar•et al. [1990]documenta phaseof foreland-directed
pure thrusting within the Cordillera Real during the late
their Miocene, which providesfurther corroborative evidence for
increasedexhumation rates since - 10 Ma. Pilger [1984] and
Daly [1989] speculatedthat the subductionof the Carnegie
aseismic ridge at -- 8 Ma may have driven compression in
Ecuadorsincethat time. However, compressional eventsat - 9
Ma have also been identified within Venezuela, Colombia,
Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina (see Figure 2 for
references),which suggeststhat larger-scaleprocessesmay be
responsible. Brozena [1986] reports a short period of
increasedhalf spreadingratesin the equatorialAtlantic at - 8
Ma. The subsequent increasein westwardvelocity of the South
American plate may have resulted in increased rates of
convergenceof the Ecuadorianmarginwith the subductingslab
and hencea compressionalregime within the continent.
Ma
5.4. Fault Displacement
Distinct variations in the AFT ages of juxtaposing faulted
units at the intraterraneand interterrane scale (Figure 5) imply
a lateral variation in exhumation history, which in turn
suggestsa degreeof vertical fault displacement[Foster and
Gleadow, 1996; Spikings et al., 1997]. The major Jurassic-
Early Cretaceousterrane-boundingfaults of Litherland et al.
[1994] did not solely accommodatethe strain associatedwith
the changingstressfield. Rather, increasedstresseswithin the
Cordillera were accommodatedby the reactivation of smaller
scale local faults, which bound individual massifs. Therefore
the terranes of Litherland et al. [1994] did not exist as rigid
entities during the post-Paleocene.
Thermal modelsof samplesanalyzedin this study(Figures
7a - 7c) suggestthe youngestsampleswere at temperatures of --
100øCat-- 9 Ma (e.g., 98RS48; Figure 7a) whereasthe oldest
samples were at temperaturesof -- 50øC at - 9 Ma (e.g.
#98RS14; Figure 7b). Assuming a geothermal gradient of
30øC/km, this implies that a differenceof -- 1.7 km of crustal
exhumationhasoccurredbetweenthese samples since -- 9 Ma.
Therefore, within the Loja terrane (Barios - Puyo traverse) the
30 Ma age difference between juxtaposed faulted units
(98RS24, 32; Figure 5b and Table 1), combined with an
elevationdifferenceof--300 m, suggeststhat-- 1.0- 1.5 km
of vertical reversefault displacementhas occurredwithin this
terrane since - 9 Ma. Similar differences in age and
exhumation depths (since - 9 Ma) are seen across the
LlanganatesFault in the western Salado terrane in both the
are Barios- Puyo and Papallacta- Baeza traverses(Figure 7). No
666 SPIKINGS ET AL.: THERMOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ECUADORIAN ANDES

age differencesare observedacrossthe SaladoFault (Figure phases in the central Andes suggeststhat the periods of
7c), implying that the Abitagua Granite and the SaladoTerrane orogenic growth in the northern and central segments were
experienced similar post-Eoceneexhumation histories. synchronous.
The group of distinctly younger AFF ages from the
Cordillera Real in northernmost Ecuador (Julio Andrade- La
Bonita traverse; Figure 4) suggests that the present land 6. Conclusions
surfaceof this region was at greater temperatures(> 110øC),
and possiblycrustaldepths,than more southernregions at - 9
1. Exhumation of the Cordillera Real of northern Ecuador
Ma. This is consistentwith the interpretation of AFF ages
from the EasternCordillera of Colombia [Andriessen, 1996], occurredat acceleratedrates of- 1.8 -0.2 km/Myr during 43 -
whereAFF agesare typically < 10 Ma (Figure4). The highly 30,23 - 15 and 10 - 0 Ma with significant pulsesat - 9 and -
rejuvenatedlandscapein far northern Ecuadoralso implies 5 Ma. However, not all of the analyzed regions were exhumed
increased amounts of crustal exhumation in that region, at the same time, and considerable spatial variation in
relative to more southern regions, during its more recent exhumation rates exists at an intraterranelevel. The periods of
history.NE-SW trendingfaultstruncateTertiary plutons in the exhumation closely correspond with sedimentary
northernSAZ andCordilleraReal (e.g., La Sofia Fault; Figures unconformities [e.g., Steinmann et al., 1999] and facies
1 and 2) and displace the upper Oligocene - lower Miocene variations within the Inter-Andean and foreland basins. High
ChalcanaFormationLate Miocene activity of parts of these exhumationratesduring 43 - 30 Ma and 23 - 15 Ma may have
faults may be responsiblefor increaseduplift and erosion rates been causedby the collision of allochthonousoceanic terranes
in the northern Cordillera. during the Eocene and changing subducting plate vectors
during the early Miocene. Additionally, high exhumation rates
at -- 9 - 7.5 Ma may be a consequence of increasedcompressive
5.5. Tectonic Phases or Tectonic Continuum stressesgeneratedby the subductionof the Carnegie Ridge, as
well as increased spreading rates in the southern Atlantic
Steinmann [1929] proposedthe theory that the Peruvian Ocean.
Andesdevelopedvia tectonicphaseswhich occurredduring 2. Each period of increasedexhumationrates persistedfor -
tightly definedtime intervals (Figure 8), the Tertiary phases 10- 8 Myr, was partially synchronous with the tectonic
being referredto as the Incaic and Quechuanphases. The phases postulated by Steinmann [1929] for the Peruvian
recognition of local and angular unconformities in various
Andes, and outlasted them by --- 5 - 8 Myr. The extended
regions of the central Andes led several workers to confirm the
periods may be partly a result of isostatic rebound following
occurrenceof these phases [e.g., Mdgard, 1984; Sdbrier and unroofing of the Cordillera Real. Additionally, they may also
Soler, 1991]. However, a synthesis of the timing of be indicative of longer periods of tectonism in the northern
development of kilometer-scale synsedimentary folded Andean segment,as compared to the Central Andean segment.
structuresin the central and northern Andean segments led However, the clusteringof elevatedexhumationrates with time
Noblet et al. [1996] to suggest that the Andean chain suggeststhat tectonismwas not as continual as that suggested
developedduring prolonged periods (Figure 8) of tectonic by Noblet et al. [1996].
instabilityand shortperiodsof relative quiescence. 3. Brittle deformation was not restricted to the faulted
Periods of elevated exhumation rates presentedhere are terrane boundaries but was also prevalent at the intraterrane
similar to the tectonic phasesof Steinmann [1929] and other
scale. Significant vertical reactivation of faults with
workers(seeNoblet et al. [1996] for review), although they displacementsup to -• 1.5 km has occurredsince -• 9 Ma within
extend for longer periods by - 5 - 8 Mayr (Figure 8). the Loja Terrane. The Llanganates Fault may have been
Exhumation can be driven by processesother than tectonic
reactivatedwithin a compressiveregime, resulting in a vertical
force, e.g. crustal thickening via magmatic underplating. displacement of _< 1 km during the same time interval.
Additionally,the time requiredfor the crustto achieveisostatic Concordant ZFI' and AFF ages across the Cosanga Fault
equilibriumwill prolongelevatedexhumationratesfollowing suggestthat this fault has not been reactivated with a vertical
a period of compressionaltectonics [e.g., Keller and Pinter, component since at least the middle Eocene. Late Miocene
1996]. It is difficult to determine the component of displacementof-• NE-SW orientedfaults in northernregions of
exhumationcausedby any individual mechanism,although the Cordillera Real may be responsible for greater depths of
isostatic rebound must be partly responsible for increased exhumation in the north since -• 10 Ma, similar to those
exhumation rates continuing beyond the duration of the identified in central Colombia. These observations suggest
elevated, tectonically driven, regional stress field. Therefore that the post middle Eocene structural development of the
we are unable to accuratelyconstrain the periods of tectonic Cordillera Real was not dominatedby displacementalong the
phases. However,it is difficult to reconcilethe clusteringof terraneboundariesof Litherland et al. [1994] but rather by the
increasedexhumation rates during the Miocene - Pliocene orientation of smaller-scale faulted massifs within the
period with a period of continuous tectonism since - 25 Ma evolving stress field.
(Figure 8) [Noblet et al., 1996). Rather, distinct fluctuations in
exhumationratessuggestthat the CordilleraReal wasuplifted
and erodedduring particular time periods that correspondto Acknowledgments. Field sampling benefited from the assistance
and supportof Alfredo Buitron, Cristian Vallejo, and Arturo Egtiez. The
known changesin plate kinematicsand sedimentarypatterns manuscriptwas improvedby the thoroughreviews of JamieToro and an
within the surroundingsedimentarybasins. Additionally, the anonymousreviewer. Funding for the projectwas provided by the Swiss
partial coincidence of elevated exhumation rates with tectonic National ScienceFoundation,project21-050844.97.
 SPIKINGS ET AL.: THERMOCHRONOLOGY
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