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Electric Charges and Fields
 Charge

An intrinsic property of matter.

Attractive force
A charged body exerts a force on other charged bodies near it.
Repulsive force
There are two types of charges:
𝑞

Unit of Charge: 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏(𝐶),

Dimensions of charge: [𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 1 𝐴1 ]

Opposite charges attract one another

Similar charges repel each other

 Electron

Neutron

Proton
Atom

Electron1
Heading Proton 1
Heading Neutron1
Heading
Negative Charge: Positive Charge:
𝑒 − = −1𝑒 = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 𝑝+ = +1𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 No Charge
Note:
Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Charge can only be transferred from one body to another.
The charge on a proton/magnitude of charge on an electron is also known as Elementary
charge or Fundamental charge.
Charge on any object is an integral multiple of 𝑒 𝑞 = ±𝑛𝑒 (𝑛 = 0,1,2 … . )
Charges on a body can be algebraically added (or
subtracted) to get the net charge on that body 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 − 𝑞3 − 𝑞4 + 𝑞5
 A body has acquired a charge of 80 𝐶 through a particular process. What
T
is the difference between the number of protons and electrons in the
body?

𝑞 = 80 𝐶

𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑒

Applying quantization of charge principle,

𝑞 = 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑒 𝑒

⇒ 80 = 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑒 × 1.6 × 10−19

∴ 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑒 = 5 × 1020

Note:
Charge observes relativistic invariance, i.e., its measured value
is independent of the frame of reference.

Charging by
Conduction
Can charge only conductors
Actual contact is needed
Free electrons are needed
Methods of Charging
Charging by Induction
Ground
Can charge both conductors and
Actual contact not needed
Neutral object needs to be
grounded
Initial charged body can be
insulator
Charging by Friction
insulators
Used for charging
insulators
Heat energy generated by
rubbing is used by the
electrons to be freed and
thus transferred.
 Triboelectric Series

Air Positive Nickel, Copper Positive

Human body Gold, Platinum
Glass Natural rubber
Nylon Sulfur
Wool Acetate

Decreases
Decreases
Lead Polyester
Aluminium Celluloid
Paper Polyurethane
Cotton Polyethylene
Steel Vinyl
Wood Silicon
Gelatin Negative Teflon Negative
Note:
Two substances farther apart in the series makes a better charging pair
 Coulomb’s Law
“The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two stationary point charges is directly
proportional to the product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of
separation between them.”
Coulomb’s law states that: 𝐹 ∝ 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝐹 ∝ 1/𝑟 2 𝐹Ԧ12 = 𝐹Ԧ21 = 𝐹

+𝑄1 −𝑄2
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝐹Ԧ12 𝐹Ԧ21
Combining, we get, 𝐹∝
𝑟2 𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑟
𝑟

Electrostatic Force Gravitational Force

Nature Attractive or repulsive Always Attractive
Mathematical Expression 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝑘 𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2 𝑟2
Strength Comparison Stronger Weaker
Nature of Proportionality Depends on the medium Universal
Constant
 Coulomb’s Constant (𝒌)

𝑄1 𝑄2
|𝑄1 𝑄2 | 𝐹=𝑘 2
|𝐹Ԧ12 | = |𝐹Ԧ21 | = 𝑘 𝑟
𝑟2

1
𝑘= = Coulomb’s constant
4𝜋𝜀
𝐹Ԧ12 𝐹Ԧ21
𝜀 = Permittivity of the medium 𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐

= 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟

𝜀𝑟 = Relative Permittivity of the medium

Ex : 𝜀𝑟 = 81 for water
For vacuum (𝜀𝑟 = 1) The net electrostatic force in water reduces
to 1/81 times as compared to vacuum
⇒ 𝜀 = 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2

1 9
𝑁𝑚2
𝑘= = 9 × 10
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐶2
 Coulomb’s Law in Vector form

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑟
𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑦
𝐹Ԧ21 = 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ2 − 𝑟Ԧ1 𝑟
𝑟Ԧ 2

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑟Ԧ
𝐹Ԧ21 = (𝑟)Ƹ 𝐹Ԧ12
𝑟2 +𝑄1 +𝑄2 𝐹Ԧ21
𝑟Ԧ1
Magnitude Direction 𝑟Ԧ2

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑟Ԧ
𝐹Ԧ21 = 𝑟Ԧ ∵ 𝑟Ƹ = 𝑥
𝑟3 𝑟

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹Ԧ12 = − 𝑟Ԧ 𝐹Ԧ12 = −𝐹Ԧ21 Newton′s third law
𝑟3
 Two balls of same mass 𝑚 and carrying equal charge 𝑞 are hung from a
fixed support of length 𝑙. At electrostatic equilibrium, assuming that the
angles made by each thread with the vertical are very small, the
separation 𝑥 between the balls is proportional to:

Solution :
at Equilibrium: 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑇 sin 𝜃 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃

𝐹𝑒 𝑞2 𝑙 𝜃 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = = 𝜃 𝑇 cos 𝜃
𝑚𝑔 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2 × 𝑚𝑔

𝑥/2
tan 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃 = 𝑇 sin 𝜃
𝑙 +𝑞 +𝑞𝜃 𝐹𝑒
𝑥/2 𝑞2
= 𝑥
𝑙 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2 × 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝑙𝑞 2
𝑥3 =
2𝜋𝜀0 × 𝑚𝑔
𝑥 ∝ 𝑙1/3
 Superposition Principle

𝐹Ԧ12
−𝑸𝟐

𝐹Ԧ15 𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝟑 𝑸𝟒

𝐹Ԧ13
𝑸𝟓
𝐹Ԧ14
𝑸𝟏
𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹Ԧ12 + 𝐹Ԧ13 + 𝐹Ԧ14 + 𝐹Ԧ15

The net electrostatic force acting on a given charge is equal

to the vector sum of electrostatic forces exerted on it by all
the other charges in its surroundings.
 Four particles 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 having charge +𝑞, +𝑞, −𝑞 and +𝑞 respectively, are
placed on the vertices of a square having sides of length 𝑎. Find the resultant
force acting on particle 𝐶.

Solution : 𝑦

𝑘𝑞 2
A D
Force exerted by charge 𝐵 and 𝐷 on charge 𝐶 : |𝐹Ԧ𝐶𝐵 | = |𝐹Ԧ𝐶𝐷 | = 𝑎2 𝑎
+𝒒 +𝒒
𝑘𝑞2 𝐹𝐶𝐷
Force exerted by charge 𝐴 on charge 𝐶 : |𝐹Ԧ𝐶𝐴 | = ( 2𝑎 )2 2𝑎

𝑘𝑞 2 𝑘𝑞 2 𝑘𝑞 2 𝑘𝑞 2 𝑎
Σ𝐹Ԧ𝑥 = − 2 − 𝑖Ƹ Σ𝐹Ԧ𝑦 = + 𝑗Ƹ 𝐹𝐶𝐴
𝑎 2 2𝑎 2 𝑎2 2 2𝑎2 𝐹𝐶𝐴 sin 45∘
2 2 𝑘𝑞 2 𝑘𝑞 2 45°
|𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 | = |𝐹Ԧ𝑥 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑦 | = 𝐹Ԧ𝑥 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑦 = 2. + +𝒒 −𝒒 𝑥
𝑎2 2 2𝑎2
B 𝐹𝐶𝐵 𝐹𝐶𝐴 cos 45∘ C
𝑘𝑞 2 1
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = + 2
𝑎2 2
 Five balls, numbered 1 to 5, are suspended using separate threads. Pairs
(1,2), (2,4) & (4,1) show electrostatic attraction, while pairs (2,3) and (4,5)
show repulsion. Therefore charge on ball 1 must be -

Solution :
3, 𝐴
Like charges repel each other, 2, A

Balls (2,3) & (4,5) must be of same nature.

1
Unlike charges attract each other, 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙
4, 𝐵
Balls (2,4) must have different types of charges.

Ball 1 has to be neutral to be attracted by both balls 2 & 4.

5, 𝐵
 Two charge particles, each having charge 𝑞 and mass 𝑚, are distance 𝑑
apart from each other kept in vacuum. If two particles are in equilibrium
under the gravitational and electrostatic force, then the ratio 𝑞/𝑚 is of the
order

Solution :
Both the particles are in equilibrium under the
gravitational and electrostatic forces.
𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑘𝑞 2 𝐺𝑚2
⇒ 2 = 2
𝑑 𝑑

𝑞 𝐺
⇒ =
𝑚 𝑘

𝑞
≈ 10−10 𝑞/𝑚 is called specific charge.
𝑚
 Lami’s Theorem

If three concurrent, coplanar and 𝐹Ԧ1

non-collinear forces 𝐹Ԧ1 , 𝐹Ԧ2 & 𝐹Ԧ3 are 𝐹Ԧ2
in equilibrium, 𝛾
⇒ 𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝐹Ԧ2 + 𝐹Ԧ3 = 0, then
𝛽
𝛼

|𝐹Ԧ1 | |𝐹Ԧ2 | |𝐹Ԧ3 |

= =
sin𝛼 sin𝛽 sin𝛾

𝐹Ԧ3
 Two identical balls, each having a density 𝜌 are suspended from a
T common point by two insulating strings of equal length. Both the balls
have equal mass and charge. In equilibrium each string makes an angle
𝜃 with vertical. Now, both the balls are immersed in a liquid. As a result of
immersion in the liquid, the angle 𝜃 does not change. The density of the
liquid is 𝜎. The dielectric constant of the liquid is -

Solution :

𝜃 𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
𝑇 𝑇′
𝐹 90° − 𝜃 𝐹′ 90° − 𝜃
Applying Lami’s theorem, Applying Lami’s theorem,
when in vacuum, when in liquid,
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇 𝐹 𝑊 𝑇′ 𝐹′ 𝑊′
= = = =
sin90° sin 180° − 𝜃 sin 90° + 𝜃 sin90° sin 180° − 𝜃 sin 90° + 𝜃

𝑊 sin 90° + 𝜃 𝑊′ sin 90° + 𝜃

⇒ = ⇒ =
𝐹 sin 180° − 𝜃 𝐹′ sin 180° − 𝜃
 𝑊 sin 90° + 𝜃 𝑊′ sin 90° + 𝜃
⇒ = ⇒ =
𝐹 sin 180° − 𝜃 𝐹′ sin 180° − 𝜃
𝜃
𝜃
Weight of charge when immersed in liquid, 𝑇
𝐹 90° − 𝜃
𝑊 ′ = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝑏

⇒ 𝑊 ′ = 𝑉𝜌𝑔 − 𝑉𝜎𝑔
𝑊

Force between charges when immersed in liquid,

𝐹
⇒ 𝐹′ =
𝐾 𝜃
𝜃
𝐹𝑏 𝑇′
𝑊 𝑊′
⇒ = ′ 90° − 𝜃
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹′

𝑉𝜌𝑔 𝑉𝜌𝑔 − 𝑉𝜎𝑔 𝜌

⇒ = ⇒ 𝐾= 𝐾, 𝜎
𝐹 𝐹 𝜌−𝜎
𝑊
𝐾
 T Three charges 𝑞1 = 1 𝜇𝐶, 𝑞2 = −2 𝜇𝐶 and 𝑞3 = 3 𝜇𝐶 are placed on the vertices
of the equilateral triangle of side 1.0 𝑚. Find the net electric force acting
on charge 𝑞1 .

Solution : Magnitude of force between 𝑞1 & 𝑞2

𝑞3
9 × 109 × 1 × 10−6 × 2 × 10−6
𝐹1 = ⇒ 𝐹1 = 1.8 × 10−2 𝑁
1 2 𝑑 =1𝑚

Magnitude of force between 𝑞1 & 𝑞3

⇒ 𝐹2 = 2.7 × 10−2 𝑁 𝐹Ԧ1
9 × 109 ×1× 10−6 ×3× 10−6 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹2 = 2
1 120°
𝐹Ԧ2 𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 𝑐𝑜𝑠120° 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2.38 × 10−2 𝑁

 Two blocks each of charge 10−7 𝐶 and mass 5 𝑔, stay in limiting equilibrium
T on a horizontal surface. The blocks have a separation of 10 𝑐𝑚 between
them. Assume the coefficient of friction between each block and the table
to be 𝜇. Calculate 𝜇.

Solution : Net force on a block, 10−7 𝐶 10−7 𝐶

𝐹 − 𝑓𝑠 = 0 10 𝑐𝑚
1 𝑞×𝑞
⇒ = 𝜇𝑁 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑 2
𝑁
𝑞2
⇒𝜇=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑔𝑑 2 10−7 𝐶 10−7 𝐶
𝐹 𝑓𝑠
10 𝑐𝑚
𝜇 = 0.18
𝑚𝑔
 Two points charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are 3 𝑚 apart and their combined charge is
T
20 𝜇𝐶. If one attracts the other with a force of 0.525 𝑁. Find the magnitude
of the charges.

Solution : Force is attractive, So one these

𝑄1 𝑄2
charges has to be negative, 𝐹 𝐹

9
3𝑚
1 𝑄1 × 𝑄2 9 × 10 𝑄1 𝑄2
−0.525 = =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑 2 9
⇒ 𝑄1 𝑄2 = −525 (𝜇𝐶)2

⇒ 𝑄1 20 − 𝑄1 = −525

⇒ 𝑄12 − 20𝑄1 − 525 = 0

𝑄1 & 𝑄2 = 35 𝜇𝐶, −15 𝜇𝐶

 A particle of mass 𝑚 carrying a charge 𝑞1 is revolving with a uniform speed
T
around a fixed charge −𝑞2 in gravity - free space along a circular path of
radius 𝑟. Calculate the period of revolution and its speed.

Solution :
𝑞1 is revolving in a fixed orbit, hence 𝑣

𝐹𝑒 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 𝑞1 𝑚
𝐹𝑒
𝑟
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑟 −𝑞2
⇒ = ⇒ 𝑇 = 4𝜋𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑇2 𝑞1 𝑞2

Speed of Charge,

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑞1 𝑞2
= ⇒ 𝑣=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑟
 Two identical point charges +𝑄 are fixed in a gravity-free space at points
T
(𝐿, 0) and (– 𝐿, 0). Another particle with mass 𝑚 and charge – 𝑞 is placed at
the origin. Now, this particle is displaced by a distance of 𝑦 along the 𝑌
− 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and then released. Show that this particle will execute SHM, if 𝑦 ≪ 𝐿.

Solution :
Net restoring force on −𝑞, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐾𝑄𝑞 𝑌
⇒ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =2 𝑦 𝑚 −𝑞 Ԧ
𝑟3 𝐹Ԧ 𝐹
𝑟 𝜃 𝜃
The charge −𝑞 is slightly displaced along +𝑄 𝑦 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 +𝑄
the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, y ≪ L
𝐾𝑄𝑞
⇒ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2 𝑦 𝑜 𝑋
𝐿3 (−𝐿, 0) (𝐿, 0)
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 on the charge −𝑞 is proportional to its displacement
hence it will execute SHM with time period,

𝑚𝐿3
𝑇 = 2𝜋
2𝑘𝑄𝑞
 Electrostatic Equilibrium

Stable Equilibrium
Heading 1 Unstable Equilibrium
Heading 1 Neutral Equilibrium
Heading 1

• When a charge is • When a charge is • When a charge is

displaced from its
equilibrium position, it
always comes back to
its initial equilibrium
position.
displaced from its
equilibrium position, it
has no tendency to
come back to its initial
equilibrium position.
displaced from its
equilibrium position, it
is still in equilibrium
condition.
 Two free charges +𝑄 and +4𝑄 are placed at a separation 𝐿. Find the
T magnitude, sign and the location of the third charge that can make the
system stay in equilibrium.

Solution :
Let the net force be zero on +𝑄 𝑃 +4𝑄
a charge 𝑞 at point 𝑃,
𝐴 𝐵
𝐹𝑃𝐴 = |𝐹𝑃𝐵 |
𝑄𝑞 4𝑄𝑞 𝑥 𝐿−𝑥
=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝐿 − 𝑥)2

𝐿 𝑞 must be placed at a distance 𝐿/3 from

𝑥=
3 𝑄 or at 2𝐿/3 from 4𝑄.

If the system is in equilibrium,

𝑄𝑞 −(4𝑄)𝑄 4𝑄
σ 𝐹𝐴 = 0 as well. 𝐹𝐴𝑃 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0 2 = ⇒ 𝑞=− 𝐶
𝐿 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐿2 9
4𝜋𝜀𝑜
3
 Electric Field
Electric filed is the region surrounding a charge or a distribution of charge in which its
electrical effects can be observed.

𝐹𝑒 • The nature of the electric field produced by a point charge

+𝒒
is non-uniform.

• The direction of the electric field is radially outwards for a

positive source charge and radially inwards for a negative
one.

The electric field strength (electric field) at a point is defined as the electrostatic force 𝐹𝑒 per
unit positive charge at that point.

• Unit : 𝑁/𝐶 𝐹𝑒 1 𝑞
𝐸= =
𝑞𝑜 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
• Dimensional formula : 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −3 𝐴−1
 Superposition Principle

• If 𝑛 number of charges are present in the

space, then the net electric field due to
them at a point 𝑃,

𝐸2
𝐸𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛
𝐸3
𝑃

𝐸1
 Find the net electric field at 𝑃 (at centroid).

𝑞
𝑞 Solution :
𝐴
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸
𝐸3 𝐸2
120°
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑃
𝐸3 𝐸2
𝑃
𝐸1
60° 𝐸1
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝐸1 = 𝐸
𝑎 𝑎/2 𝑎/2
𝐵

𝑎 3𝑎 𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸22 + 𝐸32 + 2𝐸2 𝐸3 cos 120° = 𝐸

𝐴𝐵 = tan 60° =
2 2
The resultant 𝐸𝑅 balances 𝐸1 .
2 3𝑎 𝑎
𝐴𝑃 = × = Net electric field at 𝑃 is zero.
3 2 3
 Electric Field for Symmetric Charge Distribution

• Symmetry check
Applicable to: 𝑛
−𝑞 1
A geometrical configuration of 𝑛 sides −𝑞 −𝑞
Point to check: 2
Configuration remains same after 𝑂
rotation of −𝑞 −𝑞
2𝜋
𝜃=
𝑛 6 3
• Regular polygon arrangement
−𝑞 −𝑞
Due to symmetry, electric field at
centre of polygon 5 4
−𝑞
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4 … + 𝐸𝑛 = 0
 T Five charges each of magnitude +𝑞 are placed at the corners of a regular
hexagon of side 𝑎. Find the magnitude of electric field at centre 𝑂.

Solution :
+𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞
𝐴 𝐹 𝐴 𝐹 𝐴 𝐹
𝐸𝑂𝐶
+𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 𝐸𝑂𝐷 𝐸𝑂𝐵 +𝑞
𝐵 𝐸 𝐵 𝐸 𝐵 𝐸
𝐸𝑂𝐸 𝑂 𝐸𝑂𝐴
𝐸𝑂𝐹
+𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞
𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 𝐷

Net electric field at centroid 𝑂

𝐸𝑂𝐴 + 𝐸𝑂𝐵 + 𝐸𝑂𝐶 + 𝐸𝑂𝐷 + 𝐸𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝑂𝐹 = 0

𝐸𝑂𝐴 + 𝐸𝑂𝐵 + 𝐸𝑂𝐶 + 𝐸𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝑂𝐹 = −𝐸𝑂𝐷
𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝑂𝐴 + 𝐸𝑂𝐵 + 𝐸𝑂𝐶 + 𝐸𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝑂𝐹 = 𝐸𝑂𝐷 = 2
𝑎
 Null Point

It is the position where net electrical field comes out to be zero as a vector sum.

+𝑞1 +𝑞2
𝐴 𝐸2
𝑃 𝐸1 𝐵 Case-1:
For +𝑞1 = +𝑞2 :
𝑥 (𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝑥 = 𝐿ൗ2

𝐿 Null point 𝑃 on the line 𝐴𝐵 is equidistant

from two charges.

Case-2:
For +𝑞1 < +𝑞2 :
𝑥 < 𝐿ൗ2
Null point is nearer to the charge of
smaller magnitude.
 Electric Field lines

• Electric field lines are imaginary lines or curves

drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at each
point represents the direction of net electric field
at that point. They are also called electric lines of
force.

• Number of field lines should be proportional to

the magnitude of charge.

Field lines originate from Field lines move toward • For reference, any number of field lines can be
and move away for +𝑞 and terminate for −𝑞 chosen, however proportionality must be
maintained.
• Electric field lines do not cross each other
as there cannot be two direction of 𝐸 at a
single point.
 Properties of Electric Field Lines

• In a uniform field, the field lines are • The greater the field strength in a
straight and uniformly spaced . region, more denser the field
lines will be.

𝑃1
𝑃2

|𝐸𝑃1 | > |𝐸𝑃2 |

 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field

Case - 1 1
Heading Case - 21
Heading Case - 31
Heading

• Charge released • Charge projected • Charge projected

in Field in Field at an angle

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝑞, 𝑚 𝑞, 𝑚 𝑞, 𝑚 𝜃
𝑢
 Case-1

𝐸
Assumptions: • Electric field = uniform
• Initial velocity = Zero
• Gravity is neglected
𝑞, 𝑚

Results: Force on the charge 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸

𝑞𝐸
Acceleration 𝑎Ԧ =
𝑚
𝑞𝐸
Speed at any instant 𝑣= 𝑡
𝑚
1 1 𝑞𝐸 2
Distance travelled 𝑆 = 𝑎Ԧ 𝑡 =2 𝑡
2 2𝑚
1 (𝑞𝐸𝑡) 2
Kinetic energy 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑚
 Case-2

Assumptions: • Electric field = uniform 𝐸

• Initial velocity = Non-zero

• Gravity is neglected
𝑞, 𝑚 𝑢

Results: Force on the charge 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸

𝑞𝐸
Acceleration 𝑎Ԧ =
𝑚
𝑞𝐸
Speed at any instant 𝑣=𝑢+ 𝑡
𝑚
1 1 𝑞𝐸 2
Distance travelled 2
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑡
2 2𝑚
2
1 1 𝑞𝐸
Kinetic energy 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑡
2 2 𝑚
 Case-3

𝐸
Assumptions:
• Electric field = uniform
𝑢
• Initial velocity = Non-zero
𝑞, 𝑚
• Gravity is neglected 𝜃

Results:

Force on the charge 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸

𝑞𝐸
Acceleration 𝑎= = 𝑔′
𝑚
2𝑢 sin 𝜃
Time of flight 𝑇=
𝑔′
𝑢2 sin2 𝜃
Maximum height 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑔′
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃
Horizontal Range 𝑅=
𝑔′
 Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Arc
𝐴
Linear charge density: 𝜆
Due to symmetry,
𝑘𝜆𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝜆𝑑𝜃
න 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 0 =
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑑𝜃
𝑟 𝜃 𝑃
𝜆 𝜙 𝜃 𝐸𝑥 = න 𝑑𝐸𝑥
Net horizontal component: 𝜃 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝜙 𝜙 𝑘𝜆𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝜆𝑑𝜃
+2 +2 =
𝑘𝜆 𝑟2 𝑟
𝐸𝑥 = න 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = න cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜙
−2
𝜙
−2 𝑟 +
𝜙
𝑘𝜆 +
2 𝐵
𝐸𝑥 = sin 𝜃 𝜙
𝑟 −2

2𝑘𝜆 𝜙
𝐸𝑥 = sin
𝑟 2
 Special Cases: Summary

2𝑘𝜆 𝜙
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = sin
𝑟 2

Case 𝜙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 Diagram

2𝑘𝜆
Quarter Ring 90°
𝑅

2𝑘𝜆
Semi Ring 180°
𝑅

Complete Ring 360° 0

 Continuous Charged Body

• Electric field at point 𝑃 due to an

infinitesimally small, charged element 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸 of the continuous charged body is,

𝑃
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸𝑥 + 𝑑𝐸𝑦 + 𝑑𝐸𝑧
𝑑𝑞
• Net electric field at point 𝑃 due to
continuous charged body is,

න 𝑑𝐸 = න 𝑑𝐸𝑥 + න 𝑑𝐸𝑦 + න 𝑑𝐸𝑧

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑬𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑬𝒛
 Axial Electric Field: Uniformly Charged Ring

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ‫𝐸𝑑 ׬‬
𝑌

𝐸𝑦 = න 𝑑𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝐸𝑥 = න 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑞
𝑥 2 + 𝑅2
𝑅 (Due to
𝜃 𝑃 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜃 symmetry)
𝑞, 𝜆 𝐶 𝑋 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑞
𝑥 𝐸𝑦 = 0 𝐸𝑥 = න
𝑑𝐸 𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 3/2

𝑑𝐸 sin 𝜃

𝑘𝑞𝑥
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 3
𝑥2 + 2
𝑅 2
Graph of Electric Field vs Distance

𝑘𝑞𝑥
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 3
𝑥2 + 2
𝑅 2

At 𝑥 = 0: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0

𝑘𝑄
At 𝑥 ≫ 𝑅: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑥2

At 𝑥 → ∞: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 → 0

𝑅 2𝑘𝑄
At 𝑥 = : 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
2 3 3𝑅2

𝑅 2𝑘𝑄
At 𝑥 = − : 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
2 3 3𝑅2
 Total charge −𝑄 is uniformly spread along the length of a ring of radius 𝑅.
T A small test charge +𝑞 of mass 𝑚 is kept at the center of the ring and is
given a gentle push along the axis of the ring. Prove that the small
charge will oscillate performing SHM.

Solution :

• For 𝑥 ≪ 𝑅, Electric field due to a

uniformly charged ring is, −𝑄
1 𝑄𝑥
|𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 | = 𝑅
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅3
𝐹
• Electrostatic force on a charged
𝑞
particle 𝑞 at 𝑥 ≪ 𝑅 , 𝑥

1 𝑄𝑞𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝐹=−
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅3
⇒ 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
⇒ Particle will execute SHM.
 Electric Field at an Axial and Non - Axial Point due to a Rod

Find 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ‫𝐸𝑑 ׬‬

𝑘 𝑑𝑞
Find 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 =
𝑥2 𝑘𝜆 𝑘𝜆
𝐸⊥ = sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽 𝐸∥ = cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼
𝑟 𝑟
𝑘𝜆
Put 𝑑𝑞 in 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

𝐸∥
1 1 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸⊥2 + 𝐸∥2 And tan 𝜃 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ‫𝐸𝑑 ׬‬ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑘𝜆 − 𝐸⊥
𝑟 𝑟+𝐿
 Special Cases: Summary

Case 𝐸⊥ 𝐸∥ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 Diagram

On
2𝑘𝜆 2𝑘𝜆
Perpendicular sin 𝜃 0 sin 𝜃
Bisector 𝑟 𝑟

Finite Rod –
𝑘𝜆 𝑘𝜆
Along ⊥ to an sin 𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃 𝐸⊥2 + 𝐸∥2
edge 𝑟 𝑟

2𝑘𝜆 2𝑘𝜆
Infinite Rod 0
𝑟 𝑟

Semi Infinite
𝑘𝜆 𝑘𝜆 2𝑘𝜆
Rod - ⊥ to end
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
point
 Figure shows a square of side 𝑙 of which the four sides are charged with
uniform linear charge density 𝜆, −3𝜆, 2𝜆 and 4𝜆 respectively. Find the
electric field strength at the centre of square.

Solution :
−3𝜆 2 2 2𝑘𝜆 4 2𝑘𝜆
𝐸1 = 𝑖Ƹ 𝐸3 = − 𝑖Ƹ
𝑙 𝑙
𝐸4
6 2𝑘𝜆 8 2𝑘𝜆
1 𝐸2 𝐸2 = 𝑗Ƹ 𝐸4 = 𝑗Ƹ
𝑦 𝑙 𝑙
C
𝜆 2𝜆 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4
𝐸3 𝐸1
𝑥
3 2 2𝑘𝜆 14 2𝑘𝜆
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = − 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ
𝑙 𝑙

4 4𝜆

𝑙
 Find electric field at point 𝑃 for the arrangement consisting of two
T uniform rods & one uniform semi-circular ring each of linear charge
density 𝜆.

Solution :

𝐴 𝐷
+ + 𝐴 𝐷 +
+
+ + + 2𝑘𝜆 +
+ + + 𝑟 +
𝜆 𝜆
+ 𝜆 + +
𝜆 +
+ +
+ + + 𝐵 𝐶 +
+ 𝑃 𝑘𝜆 + 𝑘𝜆 𝑃 +
+ 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑃 𝑟
+ + 𝑟 + + 𝑟 +
𝑃 𝐵 + + + 𝐶
+ 𝐵 𝐶 +
𝑟 + 𝑘𝜆 𝜆 𝑘𝜆
+
+ + 𝑟 𝑟
+ + +
𝜆 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
 Electric field due to a thin disc of uniform charge
distribution along its axis

𝑑𝑞
When 𝑦 = 𝑅, 𝜃 = 𝜙

𝜎
+ 𝐸= 1 − cos 𝜙
+ + 2𝜖0
+ +
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥
𝑦 cos 𝜙 =
+ +
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝜎
+ + 𝜃 𝑃
𝑥 𝜎 𝑥
+ + 𝐸= 1−
𝑅 2𝜖0 𝑥 2 + 𝑅2
+ +
+ +

𝜎 = Surface charge density

 Electric field due to an infinitely large thin sheet of
uniform charge distribution

𝜎
• An infinite sheet is nothing but a
disc having an infinite radius.
Electric field at a distance 𝑥 from the
centre along the axis of a disc is,

𝜎 𝑥
𝐸= 1−
𝑃 2𝜖0 𝑥 2 + 𝑅2
𝑥
• For the case of infinite sheet,
𝑥≪𝑅
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜖0

𝜎 = Surface charge density

 Two infinite plane parallel sheets, separated by a distance d have equal
and uniform charge densities σ. Magnitude of Electric field at a point to
the left, between, and right of the sheets are

Solution :

Electric Field at (1)

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸1 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 = − 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑖Ƹ = − 𝑖Ƹ +𝜎 +𝜎
2𝜖0 2𝜖0 𝜖0
1 2 3
Electric Field at (2) 𝐴𝐴 𝑃 𝐵𝐵
𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 𝐸𝐵 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵
𝜎 𝜎
𝐸2 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑖Ƹ = 0
2𝜖0 2𝜖0

Electric Field at (3)

𝑑 𝑥
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸3 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑖Ƹ = 𝑖Ƹ
2𝜖0 2𝜖0 𝜖0
 Electric Dipole

Equatorial line
Axial line
An electric dipole is a system consisting of two point
charges, equal in magnitude but opposite in nature,
and separated by a small distance.
+𝑞 −𝑞

Dipole Moment (𝒑)

The dipole moment of an electric dipole is a vector quantity.
|𝑝|
Ԧ = 𝑞(2𝑎) SI Unit: Coulomb-metre (𝐶𝑚) 2𝑎

Magnitude: The product of the magnitude of

either of the charges and the separation
distance between them.
Direction: It is along the axis of the dipole 𝑝Ԧ
(directed from the negative charge to +𝑞 −𝑞
positive charge)
 Find the electric dipole moment of the equilateral triangle formed by
three charges as shown in the figure.

Solution :
−𝑞
Since, |𝑝|
Ԧ = 𝑞𝑑

The resultant dipole moment of the

given configuration is, −2𝑞
3𝑑
𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑝2 + 𝑝2 + 2 𝑝 (𝑝) cos 60° 2

𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 3𝑝2
60°

Thus, 𝑝
𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 3𝑞𝑑 60°
𝑑 +2𝑞
−𝑞 𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑝
 Electric Dipole
Electric field due to a dipole at an axial point
2𝑘𝑥 𝑝Ԧ
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑝Ԧ 𝐸− 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐸+ (𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 )2

Axial line 𝑞 𝑎 𝑞
𝑀
𝑎 𝑥 2𝑘𝑝Ԧ
Special case : When 𝑥 ≫ 𝑎, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑥3

Electric field due to a dipole at an equatorial point

𝐸+ Equatorial line
𝜃

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑀 −𝑘𝑝Ԧ
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 3
𝐸− 𝑥2 + 2
𝑎 2
𝑟
𝜃 𝜃
𝑥 𝑘𝑝Ԧ
Special case : When 𝑥 ≫ 𝑎, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −
𝑝Ԧ 𝑥3

𝑞 𝑎 𝑎 𝑞
 Electric Dipole
Electric field due to a dipole at a general point Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field

• Net force on dipole is zero.

1
• Net torque on dipole is,
tan 𝜃
𝑘𝑝 1 + 3 cos 2 𝜃 2 𝛼 = tan−1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2
𝑥3 𝜏Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑝Ԧ × 𝐸

The angle between the dipole vector and the net Stable Equilibrium (𝜃 = 0°)
electric field at 𝑀 is (𝜃 + 𝛼) Unstable Equilibrium (𝜃 = 180°)
 Forces on a Dipole in a Non-Uniform Electric Field

𝐸 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Consider an electric dipole in a non-uniform
electric field as shown.
+𝑞
The force on the charges are, 𝐹Ԧ+𝑞 = 𝑞 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸

𝐹Ԧ+𝑞 = +𝑞 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 𝐹Ԧ−𝑞 = −𝑞𝐸

𝑑𝑙
Thus, net force on dipole is,

𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹Ԧ−𝑞 + 𝐹Ԧ+𝑞 = 𝑞𝑑𝐸

−𝑞 𝜃
𝑑𝐸
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝐹Ԧ−𝑞 = −𝑞𝐸
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑥
=𝑞 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 ( ∵ 𝑝 = 𝑞𝑑𝑙 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑝 cos 𝜃 If 𝜃 = 0°, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 An electric dipole has a fixed dipole moment 𝑝, Ԧ which makes angle 𝜃
T
with respect to x-axis. When subjected to an electric field 𝐸1 = 𝐸 𝑖,Ƹ it
experiences a torque 𝑇1 = 𝜏𝑘. ෠ When subjected to another electric field
𝐸2 = 3𝐸1 𝑗,Ƹ it experiences a torque 𝑇2 = −𝑇1 . The angle 𝜃 is:

Solution : JEE Main 2017

𝑝Ԧ = 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ 𝑇2 = −𝑇1

𝐸1 = 𝐸 𝑖Ƹ ; 𝐸2 = 3𝐸1 𝑗Ƹ = 3𝐸 𝑗Ƹ ⇒ 3𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑘෠ = −𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 (−𝑘)

෠

⇒ tan 𝜃 = 3
𝑇1 = 𝑝Ԧ × 𝐸1 = 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ × 𝐸 𝑖Ƹ ⇒ 𝜃 = 60°
෠
𝑇1 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 (−𝑘)

𝑇2 = 𝑝Ԧ × 𝐸2 = 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ × 3𝐸 𝑗Ƹ

෠
𝑇2 = 3𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 (𝑘)
 Consider two charges each of 10 𝜇𝐶 but opposite in sign separated by
5 𝑚𝑚. Find the electric field at a point 0.2 𝑚 away from the midpoint on a
line that is passing through the midpoint and at an angle of 60° to the
axis of the dipole.

Solution :
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡
We know that the net electric field is, 1
𝐸1
1 3 2
𝑘𝑝 1 + 2
3 cos 𝜃 2 9 × 109 10 × 10−6 × 5 × 10−3 1+ 𝛼
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = 4 𝐸2
𝑥3 (0.2)3
𝑀
tan 𝜃 tan 60° √3
𝛼 = tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1
2 2 2
0.2 𝑚

The electric field is, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≈ 7.44 × 104 𝑁𝐶 −1

−10 𝜇𝐶 60° +10 𝜇𝐶
𝑝Ԧ
The angle between the net electric field and dipole vector is,
√3
𝛼 + 𝜃 = 60° + tan−1 2
5 𝑚𝑚
 Properties of a Conductor

• Excess charge given to an isolated

conductor redistributes itself on the
surface in order to minimize the potential
energy/maximize stability.

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑜 • Electric field lines never exist inside a

conductor.

• At steady state, the net electric field

inside a conductor is zero.

𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
 Electric Flux

• Area is a vector quantity.

𝑆Ԧ = −𝑆𝑛ො • The direction of area vector is taken along normal to the surface.
• Direction of normal vector is along 𝑛,
ො magnitude is the area of surface.

𝑆Ԧ = 𝑆𝑛ො
• For an open surface, any one of the two normal directions can be
considered as positive.

𝑆Ԧ → Area vector

• Electric flux is the measure of the net electric

𝑆Ԧ lines of force normally crossing a surface.

𝜃
𝐸 • The electric flux of the uniform electric field 𝐸
through an area 𝑆Ԧ is given by:

𝜙 = 𝐸. 𝑆Ԧ
Uniform electric field
 If the electric field 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑖,Ƹ then what will be the net electric flux through a
T cube of side 𝑎 ?

Solution : 𝑦
𝐴4
𝐴Ԧ1 = −𝑎2 𝑖Ƹ 𝜙1 = −𝐸𝑎2
𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑖Ƹ 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑖Ƹ
𝐴Ԧ2 = 𝑎2 𝑖Ƹ 𝜙2 = 𝐸𝑎 2
𝐴6
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴Ԧ3 = −𝑎2 𝑗Ƹ 𝜙3 = 0
𝜙 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸
𝐴Ԧ4 = 𝑎2 𝑗Ƹ 𝜙4 = 0 𝐴5
𝑎
𝐴Ԧ5 = 𝑎2 𝑘෠ 𝜙5 = 0 𝑥

𝐴Ԧ6 = −𝑎2 𝑘෠ 𝜙6 = 0 𝐴3
𝑧
Therefore, the net electric flux
through the cube is,

𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3 + 𝜙4 + 𝜙5 + 𝜙6 = 0
 Electric Flux

Electric flux through any curved surface Electric flux through a closed surface

𝑑 𝑆Ԧ
𝐸
𝐸 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ

𝜙 = න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ 𝜙 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
 Solid Angle

• The solid angle is defined as an angle

Ω subtended by an area at a point.
𝑟
O
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑆
𝛺= =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 2 𝑟 2

• SI unit: Steradian 𝑠𝑟

𝑆 → Area of spherical surface

intercepted by the cone

𝑟 → Radius of spherical surface

 Solid Angle

• If the normal of the small planar
surface passes through the
point at which the surface
subtends the solid angle, then
the solid angle will be,
ΔS
ΔS
𝑟 ΔΩ = 2
𝑟 𝑟2
• If the normal of the small planar
surface does not pass through the
point at which the surface subtends
the solid angle, and the normal rather
makes an angle of 𝛼 as shown in the
figure, then the solid angle will be,
ΔS 𝛼
ΔS cos 𝛼
ΔΩ =
𝑟

ΔΩ
O ΔΩ
O
 Solid Angle

Solid Angle at any Interior Point Solid Angle at any Exterior Point

• As long as a point is inside any • The solid angle subtended by any

closed volume of any arbitrary random closed surface at any exterior
shape, the solid angle point is zero.
subtended at that point will be
4𝜋 𝑠𝑟.

𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑜
 Find the relation between the solid angle at the vertex and half angle of
the cone. 𝛼 = half angle of the cone & 𝑙 = slant height of the cone.

Solution :

𝑅 sin 𝜃 𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝛼
𝑆 = න (2𝜋𝑅 sin 𝜃) 𝑅𝑑𝜃
0

𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑅2 (1 − cos 𝛼)

𝑑𝜃 𝑆
R 𝛺 = 2 = 2𝜋(1 − cos 𝛼) 𝑠𝑟
𝑟
𝛼
𝜃
 Flux Due to a Point Charge
dS
Flux due to a charge through a small surface 𝑑𝑆,
𝑟
𝑞 dΩ
𝑑𝜙 =
𝜖0 4𝜋
𝑞 dΩ

Flux through a closed surface Flux through surface area 𝑞

due to an outside charge, 𝜙 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 of a closed surface produced 𝜙=
𝜀𝑜
by enclosed charge,
𝑞
+
𝑞
+
 Gauss’s law

Flux through Gaussian surface due to

𝑞3
Charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 & 𝑞3 ,
𝑞2 +
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝜙1 = , 𝜙2 = & 𝜙3 = 0 +
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑞1
Total Flux through the gaussian surface,
+
𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 0 q1 + q 2
𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0

σ 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝜙 =
𝜀0
 Gauss’s law

Statement :
The flux of the net electric field through a closed
surface is equal to the net charge enclosed by the +
surface divided by 𝜀𝑜 . 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡

Mathematical form of Gauss’s law : +

+
+
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝜙 = ර 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸 is due to all charges.
𝜀0
+

• The closed surface or the periphery of a volume

on which Gauss's law is applied is known as the
Gaussian surface.
It can be real or hypothetical.

𝜙 is independent of its shape.

 Four closed surfaces and corresponding charge distributions are shown
T
below. Let the respective electric fluxes through the surfaces be 𝜙1 ,
𝜙2 , 𝜙3 & 𝜙4 . Find relation among the fluxes.

Solution :
𝑞 3𝑞

2𝑞 −𝑞
𝑞
𝑞
𝑞
𝑞
𝑆1 𝑆2 −5𝑞 𝑆3 𝑆4

2q (𝑞 + 𝑞 − 𝑞 + 𝑞) (𝑞 + 𝑞) (8𝑞 − 2𝑞 − 4𝑞)
Φ1 = Φ2 = Φ3 = Φ4 =
ε𝑜 ε𝑜 ε𝑜 ε𝑜
2q 2q 2q
= = =
εo εo εo

Φ1 = Φ2 = Φ3 = Φ4 Flux through these surfaces are equal.

 A charge 𝑞 is placed at a distance 𝑎/2 above the centre of a horizontal,
square surface of edge 𝑎 as shown. Find the flux of electric field through
the square surface.

𝑞 Solution :

Gaussian Surface – a cube where the given

𝑎/2 charge is at its centre.

𝑎 𝑎 Net flux passing through the cube, 𝑞

𝑞
⇒ 𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 =
𝜀0 𝑎/2

Cube contains six similar equal square 𝑎

𝑎
faces. So, flux through one square face is

𝑞
𝜙𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =
6𝜀0
 What is the electric flux through a cube of side 𝑎 ,if a charge 𝑞 is placed at
one of its corners?

Solution :
𝑞 Gaussian Surface – a cube of side 2𝑎 where
𝑎
the charge is at the centre of cube.
𝑞
Electric Flux passing through the big Cube.
𝑎
𝑞
⇒ 𝜙8 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 =
𝑎 𝜀0

𝑎 Big cube of side 2𝑎 is made of 8 similar

cubes of side 𝑎. Hence, flux through a single
cube of side 𝑎 is, 𝑎
𝑎

𝑞
𝜙1 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 =
8𝜀0
 Find the electric flux through the left face (𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷) of the cube, due to
charge 𝑞.

Solution :
Flux through a cube if charge 𝑞 is placed at its corner as
shown is,
𝑞
⇒𝜙=
8𝜀0

The point charge +𝑞 is placed at the corner 𝐻. Therefore,

flux associated with the surfaces that consists of the
corner 𝐻 is zero.

⇒ 𝜙𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐻 = 𝜙𝐴𝐵𝐺𝐻 = 𝜙𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜

1 𝑞
⇒ 𝜙𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 𝜙𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 = 𝜙𝐶𝐵𝐺𝐹 = ×
3 8𝜀0

𝑞
⇒ 𝜙𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 =
24𝜀0
 Determine the flux of electric field across a disc of radius 𝑅 due to a
point charge 𝑞 placed at a distance 𝑙 from its centre.

Solution :
Flux passing through the disc,
𝑞
⇒ 𝜙𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐 = Ω 𝑞 𝑅
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝛼
Ω𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐 ∶ Solid Angle subtended by disc at
the charge( Similar to cone)

Ω𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 2𝜋 1 − cos𝛼 , Therefore

𝑞 𝑙
⇒ 𝜙𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐 = × 2𝜋(1 − cos𝛼)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜

𝑞 𝑙
𝜙𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐 = × 1−
2𝜀𝑜 𝑙2 + 𝑅2
 Determine the flux of electric field through the curved surface of the
cylinder (length = 𝑙 and radius = 𝑅 ) due to a point charge 𝑞 placed at its
center.

Solution :

If we assume a conical surface at face 2 then,

Flux through face 2 is, 𝑅

𝛼
𝑞 1 2
𝜙= × 2𝜋(1 − cos 𝛼) 𝑞 𝑙/2
4𝜋𝜖0

𝑙
𝑞 2 𝑞 𝑙
𝜙= × 1− = 1−
2𝜖0 2 2𝜖0 𝑙 2 + 4𝑅2
𝑙 𝑙
+ 𝑅2
2
𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝜙
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑙
𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = ⇒ 𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = − 2𝜙 =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝜖0 𝑙 2 + 4𝑅2
Electric Field - Uniformly Charged Infinitely Long, Thin wire

+𝜆 𝐶/𝑚 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ =
𝜖0

𝑟 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 𝜆𝐿
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = =
𝜖0 𝜖0
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

𝐿 𝑃
∵ න 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 0 = න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

𝜆𝐿 𝜆𝐿
𝐸 න 𝑑𝑆 = ⇒ 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 =
𝜖0 𝜖0

𝜆
⇒ 𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝜖0
 A very long cylindrical volume contains a uniformly distributed charge of
density 𝜌 . Find the electric field at a point 𝑃 inside the cylindrical volume
at a distance 𝑥 from its axis.

Solution :
For 𝑥 < 𝑅
𝑅
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = න 𝐸. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ =
𝜖0
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝐸
⇒ න 𝐸 (𝑑𝑆) = 𝑥
𝜖0 ∵ න 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 0 = න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ 𝐿
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

𝜌 (𝜋𝑥 2 )𝐿
⇒ 𝐸 2𝜋𝑥𝐿 =
𝜖0
𝜌𝑥 𝜌𝑥Ԧ
⇒𝐸= ⇒𝐸=
2𝜖0 2𝜖0
 A very long cylindrical volume contains a uniformly distributed charge of
density 𝜌 . Find the electric field at a point 𝑃 outside the cylindrical
volume at a distance 𝑥 from its axis.

Solution :
𝑅
For 𝑥 > 𝑅
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = න 𝐸. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = ∵ න 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 0 = න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
𝜖0
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
⇒ න 𝐸 (𝑑𝑆) =
𝜖0 𝐸
𝐿
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

𝜌 (𝜋𝑅2 )𝐿
⇒ 𝐸 2𝜋𝑥𝐿 =
𝜖0
𝜌𝑅 2 𝑥
⇒𝐸= For 𝑥 = 𝑅
2𝑥𝜖0
𝜌𝑅
⇒𝐸=
2𝜖0
 𝐸 𝑥
The electric field in a region is given by , 𝐸 = 0𝑙 𝑖.Ƹ Find the charge contained
inside a cubical volume bounded by surfaces 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑙, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑙, 𝑧 = 0 and
𝑧 = 𝑙.

Solution : 𝐴3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
Applying Gauss’s law to the cube, ∮ 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 =
𝑦
𝜀0
Flux along surfaces 3,4,5 and 6 will be zero
as the electric field vector is perpendicular
to area vector.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮ 𝐸1 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐸2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀0 𝐴6
𝐴1 𝐴2
At 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝐸1 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑙 ⇒ 𝐸2 = 𝐸0 𝐴5
𝑂
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑥
𝐸0 𝑙2 =
𝜀0
𝑧
𝑙
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜀0 𝐸0 𝑙2

𝐴4
 Uniformly charged Conducting/Nonconducting spherical shell

+ + +
𝐸 + +
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 0 + +
+ +
𝑘𝑄 + + +
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2
𝑟
Choose a
Gaussian surface
+ 𝑘𝑄
𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 2
𝑅
+
Identify the charges
inside gaussian surface

Apply Gauss law,

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮ 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀0
+
𝑟=0 𝑟=𝑅 𝑟
 Uniformly charged Conducting sphere
+ + +
𝐸 + +
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 0 + +
+ +
+ + +
𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2
𝑟 Choose a
Gaussian surface
+ 𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =
+ 𝑅2
Identify the charges
inside gaussian surface

Apply Gauss law,

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮ 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀0
+
𝑟=0 𝑟=𝑅 𝑟
 Uniformly charged Non-conducting
sphere
𝐸 𝜌𝑟
𝑘𝑄𝑟
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 3 𝐸𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅 3𝜀0

𝑘𝑄 𝜌𝑅3
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑟 3𝜀0 𝑟 2
Choose a
Gaussian surface
𝑘𝑄 𝜌𝑅
𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 2 𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =
𝑅 3𝜀0
Identify the charges
inside gaussian surface

Apply Gauss law,

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮ 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀0
𝑟=0 𝑟=𝑅 𝑟
 A non-conducting sphere of radius 𝑅 has a uniform volume charge density 𝜌.
A spherical cavity of radius 𝑏, whose center lies at 𝑎Ԧ from sphere, is removed
from the sphere. Find the electric field at any point inside the cavity?

Solution :
+𝜌
𝜌 −𝜌
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑂′ 𝑏 𝑶′ 𝑂′ 𝑏
𝑎Ԧ 𝒂 𝑎Ԧ
𝑅 𝑂 𝑹 𝑶 𝑂

𝑃
𝑟Ԧ2
𝑟Ԧ1 𝜌𝑟Ԧ1 −𝜌𝑟Ԧ2 𝜌(𝑟Ԧ1 − 𝑟Ԧ2 )
𝑂′ 𝐸𝑃 = + =
𝑎Ԧ 3𝜀0 3𝜀0 3𝜀0
𝑂
𝜌𝑎
At any point inside the given cavity, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
3𝜀0
 Very large thin sheet of uniform charge distribution

Non- Conducting Sheet Conducting Sheet

• uniform electric field • uniform electric field

• In terms of charge density • In terms of charge density

𝜎 𝜎∗
𝐸= 𝐸=
2𝜀0 𝜀0
• In terms of charge • In terms of charge
𝑄 𝑄
𝐸= 𝐸=
2𝐴𝜀0 2𝐴𝜀0
 Electric Potential Energy

Work done by electric force in moving the

Fixed charge 𝑞2 from 𝑟 = 𝑟1 to 𝑟 = 𝑟2 :
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑑𝑟 1 1
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 න 2 = −𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 −
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟1
𝑟1
𝐴 1 1
𝑟1 𝑈 𝑟2 − 𝑈 𝑟1 = −𝑊 = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 −
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟1

Potential energy of the system when the separation between the charges is 𝑟 :
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈 𝑟 −𝑈 ∞ = −0 𝑈 𝑟 = ቤ
𝑟 𝑟 𝑈 ∞ =0

• It is defined as the amount of work needed to move a charge from a reference point (𝑈
= 0) to a specific point.
• 𝑘𝑞 𝑞
While calculating the potential energy of two charge systems using the formula 𝑈 𝑟 = 𝑟1 2 ,
𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are to be taken with signs.
• ∆𝑈 = 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 if and only if ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0
• ∆𝑈 = −𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
A charge +𝑞1 comes from infinity with an initial speed 𝑣0 towards the
charge +𝑞2 which is initially at rest (not fixed). Find the closest distance of
approach between these two charges.

Rest
𝑣0
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑚1 𝑚2

𝑣 𝑣
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑚1 𝑚2
 Rest
𝑣0 𝑣 𝑣
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

Applying conservation of mechanical energy Applying conservation of linear momentum for

for the system - the system -

𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 𝑓 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓

1 1 1 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑚1 𝑣02 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣 2 + 𝑚1 𝑣0 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣 + 𝑚2 𝑣
2 2 2 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑚1 𝑣0
1 2
1 2
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑣= − (2)
𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑚 + 𝑚2 𝑣 + − (1) 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
2 1 0 2 1 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

Solving 1 and 2 we get -

2𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑣02
 Multiple-Charge Systems

Electric potential energy of a

multiple charge system
𝑞2
𝑞1
𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑈21 +

𝑈31 + 𝑈32 +
𝑞4 𝑞3
𝑈41 + 𝑈42 + 𝑈43 +

For 𝑛-charge system

𝑛−1

𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ෍ 𝑈𝑖+1, 𝑖 (A total of 𝑛𝐶2 terms)

𝑖=1
 How much work has to be done in assembling three charged particles at
the vertices of an equilateral triangle as shown in the figure?

Solution :
2𝑞
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑈𝑓

𝑘 2𝑞 4𝑞 𝑘 2𝑞 3𝑞 𝑘 3𝑞 4𝑞 𝑟 𝑟
= + +
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

4𝑞 3𝑞
𝑟
26𝑘𝑞 2
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
𝑟
 Change in Potential Energy

• Concept of potential energy is defined only in the case of

conservative forces.

∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = −𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖→𝑓

𝑓
Ԧ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
= − න 𝐹.
𝑖

An electric field 𝐸 = 20 𝑁𝐶 −1 exists along the x-axis in space. A charge of

− 2 × 10−4 𝐶 is moved from point 𝐴 to 𝐵. Find the change in electrical
potential energy 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 when the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are given by

a. 𝐴 = 0, 0 ; 𝐵 = 4 𝑚, 2 𝑚
b. 𝐴 = 4 𝑚, 2 𝑚 ; 𝐵 = 6 𝑚, 5 𝑚
c. 𝐴 = 0, 0 ; 𝐵 = 6 𝑚, 5 𝑚
 Summary
𝑞 = −2 × 10−4 𝐶 𝐸 = 20 𝑁𝐶 −1 𝑖Ƹ 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸 = −4 × 10−3 𝑁 𝑖Ƹ
a. 𝐴 = 0, 0 ; 𝐵 = 4 𝑚, 2 𝑚 b. 𝐴 = 4 𝑚, 2 𝑚 ; 𝐵 = 6 𝑚, 5 𝑚 c. 𝐴 = 0, 0 ; 𝐵 = 6 𝑚, 5 𝑚

𝐸 = 20 𝑁𝐶 −1 𝐸 = 20 𝑁𝐶 −1 𝐵 6, 5
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝐸 = 20 𝑁𝐶 −1 𝐵 6, 5

𝐵 4, 2 𝐴 4, 2

𝐴 0, 0 𝑥 𝑥 𝐴 0, 0 𝑥

𝑊𝑒𝑙 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝐴𝐵
𝑊𝑒𝑙 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝐴𝐵 𝑊𝑒𝑙 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝐴𝐵
= −4 × 10−3 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 4𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑗Ƹ
= −4 × 10−3 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ = −4 × 10−3 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 6𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ
= −16 × 10−3 𝐽
= −8 × 10−3 𝐽 = −24 × 10−3 𝐽
𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = −𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = −𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = −𝑊𝑒𝑙

𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = 0.016 𝐽 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = 0.008 𝐽 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = 0.024 𝐽

 Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field

Potential energy of a dipole in

a uniform electric field +𝑞

𝜃2 +𝑞
𝑈𝜃2 − 𝑈𝜃1 = −𝑊𝑒𝑙
𝐸
𝑂 𝜃1
−𝑞
= −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1
−𝑞
𝜋 𝜋
𝑈 𝜃 −𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 − cos
2 2

𝜋
𝑈 𝜃 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 Considering 𝑈 = 0 for 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2

𝑈 𝜃 = −𝑝Ԧ ∙ 𝐸