Exploitation of natural resources in Africa

Introduction to energy and power development

Energy is the capacity to do work.
In order to move (push or pull something) energy is required. Energy sources provide heat, light
and motive power for human activities.
We use some form of energy every day; to walk to school, cook food, and run our homes, move
vehicles, and machines. Our energy demands are increasing as the population grows. The
economic development of a country depends on energy. Humans need energy to make use of
resources that are available. Without sources of energy, all other resources are of little use. The
development of agriculture, fishing, mining, industry, construction, transport and commercial
activity all need energy.
Economic importance of energy

 Various farming activities rely on energy, such as the irrigation of commercial crops and
transport of agricultural produce
 Energy derives machinery that is vital to industrial development. Energy enables raw
materials to be processed into manufactured goods
 Energy is used in the functioning of cities
 Energy is needed for hospitals, banking, communication and technological equipment
such as computers and cell phones
 Energy raises the standard of living of a population as people are able to cook food, light
their homes and transport things more easily
Advantages and Disadvantages of different types of energy
Solar energy

 Solar power is the energy from the sun. It is the ultimate source of energy for the sun
Advantages and disadvantages of solar energy

Advantages
 It is renewable
 It is does not cause pollution, and
there are no foul smells or health risks
associated with it
 It reduces deforestation through the
use of solar cookers
 The sun shines almost all day (in
Zimbabwe, solar panels are mostly
placed in a north facing direction
because the sun takes mostly
northerly route, especially in winter
 Deserts and other uninhabited areas
can be used for solar energy
production
 It can also be stored and used at night
 Solar energy can be used in remote
areas where it is too expensive to
extend the electricity power grid
Disadvantages
 Solar components and installations
are expensive for the ordinary
household
 Equipment that is adapted to solar
energy, such as the parabolic solar
cooker, is bulky and complicated,
needing further adaptation
 Solar energy can only be harnessed
during the day when the sun shines.
The hours of sun do not always
coincide with the hours when energy
is needed
 Areas of the greatest solar energy
supply are usually remote deserts or
the tropics, which are in least need of
such energy
 Large areas of land are needed to
capture the sun’s energy
 Solar equipment is expensive to
manufacture and it is expensive to
build solar power stations
Coal
Coal is a hard, shiny, black rock that was formed long ago by the decomposition of organic
matter such as trees and grasses. Hwange colliery is the leading coal supplier in Zimbabwe,
producing an average of 6 million tonnes per year. Sixty percent of Hwange coal is used as
steam at Hwange thermal power station.
Advantages and disadvantages of using coal as a fuel for thermal electricity generation

Advantages
 It is a cheap source of energy,
especially where plentiful reserves
are found
 Coal is locally available so no
importing is needed
 Creation of employment and other
associated jobs result in the
transport, mining and construction
sectors
 Ash produced is used for land
reclamation and as a lightweight
concrete or sand substitute in the
building industry
Disadvantages
 Coal is finite which means that it can
be used up eventually
 Coal releases large amounts of
greenhouse gases when burnt, which
leads to global warming
 Mining for coal deep underground is
very dangerous
 Coal is bulky and expensive to
transport
 Mining leads to dumps and spoil
heaps, which are eyesore and a
danger to life
Hydroelectric power (HEP)
HEP is energy produced by falling water from behind a dam wall or waterfall. Kariba is
Zimbabwe’s largest Hydro-electric power plant.
Advantages and disadvantages of Hydroelectric power (HEP)
Advantages
 Energy is generated using a
renewable resource
 It produces much energy
 It is a clean form of energy because it
does not emit greenhouse gases
 Power station only needs inspection
every 5 years
 Hydroelectric power stations requires
less maintenance
 Dams that supply HEP can also be
used for controlling floods
 In the production of HEP, water
transports itself to the turbines. This
reduces transport cost.
Disadvantages
 High initial cost as dams must be built
 During dam construction, there is
displacement of people and homes
and loss of biodiversity (plants and
animals). People are moved to areas
they are not familiar with, and forced
to leave their original homes behind
 In periods of low rainfall or drought,
less power is produced
 It result in earth tremors due to the
sheer weight of water in the dam for
example, the Zambezi-Kariba area
frequently experiences earth tremors
due to the sheer weight of water in
the dam
 Some dams used for hydro-electric
power can become breeding grounds
for waterborne diseases such as
malaria and cholera
 There is high risk of flooding if the
dam collapses
 It requires long transmission lines
from power stations
 Dam construction disturbs river
processes
Nuclear power
Nuclear power is an atomic energy produced by splitting (fission) or joining (fusion) the nucleus
of mineral atoms. Nuclear energy is commonly used in developed countries because they have
the required technology. The Koeberg power plant in South Africa is the only station generating
nuclear electricity in Africa. In the SADC, a number of African countries have uranium reserves.
Namibia is the second-largest producer of uranium in Africa after Niger. Uranium reserved have
been found in Zimbabwe in the kanyemba area, and in Malawi.
Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy

Advantages
 Nuclear power emits less greenhouse
gases than coal and oil and thus does
not contribute to global warming
 It is possible to generate a large
amount of electrical energy in a single
power plant
 Less uranium is needed to produce
the same amount of energy as coal or
oil. This lowers the cost of production
 The production of electricity is
continuous
 Very efficient energy source
  Uranium mining has toxic effects on
Disadvantages
 Uranium is a non-renewable resource,
and thus nuclear power is a non-
renewable form of energy
 The waste from nuclear energy is very
dangerous. It takes many years to
eliminate its radioactivity and risks
 Uranium mining has harmful effects.
Workers in uranium mines may inhale
harmful gases, which may cause
health problems
 Radioactive waste may enter the
water supply and contaminate it
plants and animals
 Nuclear accidents may occur. This can
have a devastating effect on the
people, plants and wildlife in the
areas surrounding the nuclear power
station
 It is too expensive for most countries
Fuel wood or firewood
Firewood is the most widely used source of energy in Zimbabwe, especially in communal and
resettlement areas. Wood fuel supplies over 50% of the country’s total energy needs - almost 6
million tonnes per year because:

 It is reliable and affordable to low income-households

 It is an indigenous (local) source of energy that requires no foreign currency to import
 Making charcoal and selling it is a source of income for many households

Problems associated with using firewood/wood fuel

 Deforestation increases and this causes more erosion and siltation
 People need to travel long distances to get firewood. This is usually the work of women
in rural areas. The long distances travelled mean that a lot of time is spent on this task,
and other jobs needing attention are left undone.
 Shortages of firewood are increasing with the results that other less efficient and health-
threatening alternatives are used. These may include the use of maize stalks and cow
dung
 Conflicts over firewood often arise when communal farmers ‘poach’ firewood from
nearby commercial farming areas

Solution to reduce the negative effects of deforestation

 Afforestation and reforestation
 Educate people about the importance of trees and involve them in national campaigns
such as National Tree planting Day
 Encourage communities to use alternative energy such as gas
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is derived from volcanic areas such as hot springs
Advantages of geothermal energy

 It is freely available
 Geothermal energy can be created all the time and is not dependent on the weather
 It leads to little or no pollution in the generation of electricity
 It is a finite resource
Disadvantages of geothermal energy

 Every country does not have geothermal potential

 The installation and start-up cost of geothermal plants are expensive
 Drilling is dangerous because it can release harmful gases
Wind energy
Wind energy is generated through windmill blades that are turned by wind. The rotating wind
blades are linked to turbines, which produce electricity. On a small scale, windmills are also
used to pump water for livestock and even for crop irrigation. In developed countries such as
the UK, the Netherlands and Germany, wind farms are a common feature. In Zimbabwe, the
wind speed of 2 to 3 metres per second is generally too low for meaningful wind power
production. The suitable wind speeds range between 3 to 6 metres per second
Advantages of wind energy

 It is a clean source of energy

 It is a renewable source of energy
 It is relatively cheap to maintain and run windmills
 Wind turbines can be used individually for small areas or on a large scale in wind farms
to form a part of the national electricity grid
Disadvantages of wind energy

 They can be noisy for people close by

 It can only be used in areas where great wind speeds are experienced
 The strength of the wind is not consistent. This means that wind turbines do not
produce the same amount of electricity all the time, and produce none when there is no
wind.
 Wind farms are seen as ugly and spoil the natural scenery
 Many turbines are needed to produce electricity. One turbine can only provide enough
electricity for about 450 homes
 Wind farms can take up a lot of space
Biogas
Biogas is the gas produced by the anaerobic degradation of organic matter
Biogas energy is the mixture of different gases that comes from the breakdown of organic
material such as dead plants and animal waste. Decaying biomass materials, including sewage
and waste from landfills, can be a source of energy
Advantages of biogas

 It uses waste, therefore it is cheap

 It is a renewable source of energy
 The biomass of organic matter decomposition is a good fertilizer for agriculture

Disadvantages of Biogas

 It releases methane into the atmosphere leading to temperature increase

 Biogas generation is affected by weather. The optimal temperature bacteria need to
digest waste is around 37°. In cold climates (below 20°), biodigesters require heat
energy to maintain a constant biogas supply.
 The system used in the production of biogas in not efficient. Efficient means capable
of producing desired results with little or no waste as of time or materials
Tidal energy
Tidal energy is produced by tapping the water brought onto the coast during high tide. The
water is channeled through turbines, which produce electricity as they turn generators. In
France, some power stations have been built to tap tidal power
Advantages of tidal energy

 It is a clean form of energy

 It is a renewable form of energy
 High power output
Disadvantages of tidal energy

 The tidal equipment is expensive to install, especially offshore

 It is hard to store surplus energy
 It is restricted to coasts with high tides and countries technological knowledge.
Animal energy
Domesticated animals such as cattle, donkey, horses, camels, mules, the water buffalo, and
even dogs are used to provide drought power in transport (pulling carts and sledges) and in
tilling fields. In Zimbabwe, ox and donkey power is widely used for transport and agricultural
tasks
Disadvantages of animal energy

 Drought animals are easily available to most households.

 They are suited to work in small plots and on bad roads or pathways
Disadvantages of animal power

 Compared to tractors and mechanized farming, animal power is slow

 Heavy work also cuts short an animal’s life span

Introduction to map work and geographical information systems (GIS)

What is a map?
A map is a simple scaled down representation of the earth or part of the earth, showing some
of the features of the earth’s surface.
A map is a flat representation of an area of the Earth using a scale.
A map may not show everything from the area represented, but only those things that are
important and which represent the area well. Maps are therefore a summary of what a place
looks like using symbols. (Such as points, lines and colours) to show some information. Some
maps show physical features such as mountains, oceans, rivers and lakes, whereas others may
show cities and settlements only.
Contour lines and their interpretation

 Contour lines are imaginary lines drawn on a topographical map that join places
with the same altitude.
 These lines show the height, size, shape, and steepness of relief features.
 Contour lines never cross each other.
 Contour lines that are close together show a steep slope, while contours that are far
apart shows gentle slopes
 A cliff (vertical slope) will have contours that converge.
 On Zimbabwean topographic maps, the difference in height between each contour
line is 20 m. This is called contour interval
 Contours that are multiples of 100 are thicker and darker
 The contour lines are numbered with their height
 It is easy to see the height of any feature on the map from the heights of the contour
lines
 If the numbers on the contour lines of a feature on the map are increasing it means
that it is an uphill slope. If the numbers are decreasing, it shows a downhill slope
 On contour maps, the features are drawn as if looking at them from above
 The shape and spacing of contour lines show what the feature looks like in reality.
Contour line that are round in shape will indicate a relief feature that is round, such
as conical hill. A conical hill is a round hill, shape like a cone.
The diagram below shows the appearance of a conical hill when looked at from the side
and what it looks like on a contour map
Types of slope and contour patterns
Gradient
It is the angle of slope of the land
The gradient is a measure of the steepness of the slope. It is the ration of the difference in
altitude (height) between two points and the distance between them on land.
The difference in height is called the vertical interval (VI).
The distance on the ground between the points is the horizontal equivalent. Both
measurements must be in the same units. The VI must be reduced to 1. To do this we divide
the VI into itself, and the HE by the VI. We express our answers as a ratio, for example, 1:50.
This means for every 50 metres of horizontal distance, the change in height is 1 m. We can
write this as a formula:
Gradient =Distance in height \Ground distance between points (HE)
G =VI\HE
Land use patterns
Types of land use
Land use refers to the purpose for which a piece of land is used. People manage and change the
natural environment – they use the land for different purposes. For example, they may
cultivate land, build dams, plant forest, construct roads and railway lines, and establish
settlements
The table below gives description of different land uses

Land use Description

Residential Land used as places where people live

Agriculture Land used for the growing of crops or raising

of animals for human consumption

Mining Land used for the extraction of minerals from

the earth

Forestry Areas used to grow plantations of trees for

human usage

Industrial Buildings used for manufacturing goods

Commercial Buildings used for selling goods, for example

shops and restaurants

Recreational Land used for pleasure, relaxation and sport,

such as parks, museums, golf courses and
sports stadiums

Transport Land used to get people from one place to

another, like roads, railways and airports

Institutional Places built for a specific purpose, such as

schools for education, hospitals for health
care and churches for worship
Factors affecting land use patterns
A number of factors affect land use patterns. These include:

 Relief: It is difficult to farm or build on steep slopes. Relief also influences the local
climate: Temperature decrease with altitude, land north facing slopes are warmer than
south facong slopes
 Soil: Farmers require deep fertile soil for farming. The depth and mineral composition of
soil affect land use
 Climate: Areas that are too hot or too hot or too cold, or too wet or too dry, are sparsely
populated
 Natural resources: Land use will depend on the natural resources available in the area.
For example, if minerals are present, land will be used for mines and mining
settlements. Minerals may be processed on site or close to the source of the mineral
and thus land close by the mine may be used for processing industries
 Cost of land: The most expensive land is found in the centre of towns and cities. For this
reason, we find the tallest buildings in city centres. Industries that need large level
tracks of land are usually on less expensive land, outside of the town centre
 Land tenure: This is the rights a person has to the land. If the land is not owned by the
farmer, the farmer will plant short term crops and be unwilling to improve the land by
putting up permanent farm buildings or building farm roads
 The role of government: Governments zone what land can be used for in certain areas.
For example, you cannot put up industries in areas that are zoned as residential areas or
build houses in areas zoned for agriculture
Identification of land use patterns on a map
Question
1. Identify the land use patterns on a map and describe the possible reason for their
location
Introduction to minerals and mining
Define minerals

 Minerals are any useful materials extracted from the earth. These minerals could be
metals, non-metals or liquids such as crude oil
 The rock containing a useful metal or mineral is referred to as an ore one
What is mining?

 Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and metals from the earth. This may be
from the ground surface, from below the ground surface or even from the bottom of
the sea. The removal or mining of minerals at or near the ground surface involves
digging the ground, creating quarries or depressions. Underground mining involves
drilling or boring holes or shafts to reach the mineral ore. Mining is a primary activity or
industry. This means it involves sourcing or extracting natural resources from the land or
bodies of water (Other primary activities are farming, fishing and forestry) Once the
minerals have been extracted, they are refined or processed by concentration or
smelting. Mineral processing and manufacturing is a secondary activity in which the
mined raw materials are made into something more useful
Factors affecting mining
Market
There must be a demand or use for the mineral before it can be mined. Minerals such as gold
and diamonds have a high demand on the market. They attract more investors because of their
high returns, though they might be expensive and difficult to extract.
Value of mineral or metal
Minerals that are very valuable such as diamonds, gold, silver, uranium or platinum, can be
mined at high cost as their high demand and high prices can meet the costs of mining, even
where the deposits are small or difficult to access.
Transport
Mineral deposits found near established industrial and urban areas are readily exploited
because it is cheap to transport the minerals to these nearby centres. Mineral deposits in
mountainous and remote areas that are not easily accessible by road or railway, may take some
time before they are mined. Easily accessible deposits are exploited first. Where there is a need
to mine minerals in remote areas, the mining company builds its own railway or road to
transport the ore. In Zimbabwe, many branch railway lines, such as the one to Bindura, were
built due to the availability of gold, nickel and other mineral deposits
Labour
Readily available labour makes mining easy. In colonial times before 1980, many Zimbabweans
went to work in the gold mines in South Africa. In remote areas, mining companies provide
houses, sporting facilities and other amenities to attract both skilled and unskilled labour. For
mining to take place, both skilled and unskilled labour is required. Some mining methods
demand highly skilled labour.
Grade or quality of ore.
The grade of the mineral ore refers to the amount of the mineral in a given ore body compared
to the waste material of the ore body. It is the quality of the ore. It is much more profitable to
mine high-grade ores than low-grade ores. Poor-quality ore might be very expensive to mine
because of low returns. Some rare and valuable metals such as uranium or platinum may justify
the mining of low-grade ores.
Capital
The opening of a mine requires initial capital (or money) for the mining infrastructure; building,
roads, railways and houses; buying machinery and paying wages. It may take some time before
a mine runs profitably. Companies or individuals starting a mining project need large amounts
of initial capital. This is especially the case where underground mining methods will be used as
they need skilled labour and special equipment to extract the ore.
Size of mineral deposit.
Before mining a deposit, it is important to know the quantity of ore available to decide whether
it is profitable to extract the mineral. Mining needs expensive machinery, the establishment of
railway and road networks and other infrastructure. Thus, a large ore body that takes long to
exhaust is preferred to a small ore deposit which would last for a few months. Small deposits of
valuable minerals such as gold or alluvial diamonds can be mined with cheaper methods, such
as panning.
Geological occurrence of the ore
Mining takes place where the mineral ore deposit is large and the mineral ores are easy to
reach. Easily accessible ores reduce the costs of mining and of installing safety measures in the
underground mines. Surface mining methods are used to mine ores that occur at or near the
surface of the earth. Underground mining methods are used when ore is deep beneath the
surface. It may be difficult and expensive to mine where the mineral ore occur in rocks that are
fractured or cracked (faulted) or bent (folded). Some are found on very steep slopes or in
swampy areas, which makes mining difficult and dangerous because such areas are unstable.
Technology
Mining requires sophisticated machinery such as bulldozers, overhead gears, cranes, draglines
and conveyor belts. As a result, mining is usually undertaken by big companies that can source
the machinery and technology
Mining methods.
The methods used to extract minerals depends on where the mineral deposit is located. Some
minerals are found on the earth’s surface, some are just below the earth’s surface, and others
occur at great depth below the surface.
There are two major mining methods, surface mining, and underground mining
Surface mining
Surface mining methods are used to mine ores which occur at or near the surface of the earth.
Methods of surface mining
Open cast or open pit mining
Open cast or pen pit mining is used when the mineral deposits occur near the earth’s surface.
Bulldozers remove the topsoil known as the overburden. The rock layer containing the ore is
then loaded by large front-loading machines or excavators into dump trucks that can carry a
load of more than 30 tonnes. The ore is then taken to a processing plant where the ore is
crushed, graded, or washed. Once the minerals and waste have been removed from the top,
the excavation moves down a level and work begins again. This leads to the formation of
terraces or a step like structure. The waste rock in the form of the overburden is usually
deposited into the previously mined areas, which bulldozers then level. Vegetation is planted
on these levelled areas. Approximately 70% of Hwange’s coal production is obtained through
the open cast method.
Advantages of open cast mining

 It is quite cheap and does not therefore involve much cost in terms of equipment
 It is not dangerous to the miners since digging is not to great depths. There is thus a
low risk of accidents
 It is a rapid way of extracting a mineral and in some cases large quantities of the
mineral can be extracted in a short term
Disadvantages of open cast mining

 It produces lots of waste

 It results in unsightly mine dumps
 It disturbs the environment and local ecosystems
 The use of heavy machinery and blasting techniques results in environmental pollution
Strip mining
In strip mining, graders are used to scrape off the ore just below the topsoil. Ore may be 20
metres below the ground. In Zimbabwe, this method of mining is used in Mutorashanga to
mine chrome.
Quarrying
In quarrying, huge pits with rocks such as granite are blasted with dynamite. In Zimbabwe,
Granite quarries are very common. They supply headstones, dust and rocks
Panning or alluvial mining
Panning or alluvial mining is used mainly for minerals ores that are resistant to rusting or
corrosion. These minerals are also heavy, for example gold, diamonds and tin. These ores are
usually found in river deposits, so they are called alluvial deposits. In Zimbabwe, panning for
gold is a very common activity in gold belts, especially in areas such as kwekwe, Kadoma,
Mazoe, Save Valley, Shamva and Bindura and many other areas. This practice was common
from 1999 to 2006. This mining method is given the local name chikorokoza. Towards the end
of 2006, the government decided to stop this activity, especially by individuals and unregistered
small-scale miners. Panning now takes place not just along river banks, but also away from
rivers along reef deposits.
Problems associated with gold panning

 During panning, mercury enters the rivers, polluting the water. This then destroys the
aquatic flora and fauna.
 Panners use their hands to stir, and so they are in direct contact with the mercury too.
This is a danger to the panners
 The waste from panning can cause river siltation which may result in flooding during the
rainy season
 Panners also destroy the natural vegetation during the process of gold panning

Measures to increase the contribution of gold panning to the national economy

Underground mining
The minerals found deep below the earth’s surface are mined by a number of underground
mining methods. Miners need to dig a shaft or tunnel to get to the ore-bearing rock.
Underground mining methods are very costly, difficult and dangerous. In addition to digging
shafts, miners need to set up ventilation and lightning system, support tunnel roofs, drain
water and establish cages and underground railway systems.
Methods of underground mining
The most common underground mining methods are vertical shaft, inclined shaft and adit or
drift mining
Shaft mining
A mineral ore may occur at a deeper level below the earth’s surface, such that open cast
methods cannot be used. In such situations, vertical shafts are dug to reach the mineral seams.
Some shafts are sunk to depths of over 1 000 m below the ground. Some tunnels are also
created horizontally from the shafts so that they reach the mineral.
The diagram below shows a shaft gear

A lift or cage is used to carry miners down to the ore and up to the surface. The miners must
wear helmets, carry powerful torches and wear protective shoes. The mineral ore can be taken
out in the same cage or in a separate cage known as a ‘ship’. At the shaft entrance on the
surface, there is a pit head gear. This is the mechanism responsible for moving the cages up and
down.
Advantages of shaft mining

 It can access deep ores eg gold mining in South Africa is done at a depth of 3 kilometres

Disadvantages of shaft mining

 It is very expensive because it requires specialised equipment for digging, exploding,

ventilation, underground transport, water supply and medical insurance for the
workers.
  Workers are exposed to diseases that are associated with gases generated in the
working environment. There are usually lung related diseases such as silicosis
 The underground tunnels may collapse or flood with underground water, fires may
occur, or explosives might cause tremors that may cause tunnels to collapse and may
trap miners
 It is difficult to rescue trapped miners
NB: It is important that there is ventilation to remove dust and gases that may be trapped in
pockets inside the earth
The Mufulira mine in Zambia is the largest underground mine in Africa. This mine employs
10 000 people and produces 300 00 tonnes of copper each year
Adit or drift mining
Adit or drift mining is used to extract minerals in horizontal and slightly sloping ore bands on
the sides of the hills or valleys. To extract the mineral ores, horizontal or inclined shafts are dug
into the valley side seams to remove them.
Advantages of adit or drift mining

 It is fairly cheap to extract the ore when compared to the costs involved in shaft mining
Disadvantages of adit or drift mining

 There is always the danger of loss of life as the overhanging valley slopes may collapse
during ore extraction
 It causes deforestation

The diagram below shows adit or drift mining methods

Environmental impacts of mining

 Mining activities have resulted in the degradation of the environment through the
creation of wide open pits due to open cast mining, and ugly heaps of rock waste of
mine dumps
  Gold panning has caused widespread siltation and degradation along rivers such as the
Mazowe and Tengwa
 In black granite mining areas in Mutoko, remains of cut-off blocks litter crop fields and
roadsides
 Vegetation is cleared for mines. This lead to increased erosion and the loss of topsoil.
Eroded materials is washed into rivers and causes rivers to silt up.
 The pollution by solid wastes may contain toxic substances and these are being
deposited on the land. For example, gold has high concentration of mercury and sodium
cyanide
 Mining produces a lot of dust, which pollutes the air.
 The use of machinery on mines produces high levels of noise pollution. Blasting also
results in noise pollution
 Chemicals from the mines often find their way into rivers, making the water unsafe to
use.
 The smelting industries produce a lot of smoke that contains harmful substances
 Gases emitted by processing industries, such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and
sulphur dioxide, may be harmful to human health
 Greenhouse gases emitted by mining industries contribute to global warming

Solutions to the problems caused by mining

 Environmental impact analyses: Mining companies must carry out environmental impact
assessment (EIA) before mining commences to mitigate against negative environmental
impacts
 Education: Many organisations can assist in educating people through environmental
education such as sustainable management programmes for cleaner production
techniques resulting in less pollution. The environmental organisations are the
Department of Natural Resources (under the Ministry of Environment and Tourism),
universities and colleges, nongovernmental organisations, (NGOs) such as Africa
Resources Trust, Environmental Africa, Environmental development Activities (ENDA)
and the recently formed Environmental Management Authority (EMA)
 Legslation: Laws can be used to control mining activities and the emissions. People or
organisations breaking these laws can be penalised by way of fines or arrest.
 Substitution of minerals: Some minerals have been substituted for others, for example,
copper has been replaced by aluminium in electronic; optics and metals have been
replaced by plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Rehabilitation: Institute rehabilitation programmes to avoid degradation, for example,
reforestation or regressing of mine dumps helps to consolidate them. Reclaim and use
 the rehabilitated areas for recreational purposes, for example, construct football
pitches.
Rehabilitation of mining sites
It is important to rehabilitate mine sites in order to sustain and protect the environment. This
means returning the land to its natural state after mining has been completed. This is done by:

 Flattening out waste dumps: This controls surface runoff and makes the slope stable.
This prevents soil erosion. Topsoil is then spread to a depth of 150 millimetres before
the area is contour ripped, fertilised and seeded with local natives
 Filling in used open pit mines with rocks and other waste material. These areas are then
covered with topsoil. If necessary, nutrients and fertilisers are added to the soil before
vegetation is planted
 Plant more vegetation as it protects and bind the soil. This increases infiltration and
reduces surface run-off. It also make the land attractive again, and plant and animal life
is able to return to the area.
Introduction to environmental management
Introduction
The environment is everything around us. It is where we live, where we go to school and where
we play. Everything we see and everything we touch is part of the environment. The
environment includes all the living and non-living things on earth. Inside the classroom, your
environment is your classmates, your teacher, your desk and chair, the windows and door and
the air around you. If you go outside, the environment changes to include the plants, soil,
insects, birds, clouds and air
Definition of terms
An environment is the place or area in which an organism lives, and on which that organism
depends for its survival.
Management:
Environmental management involves the preservation and maintaining of the environment in a
sustainable manner. It means making the best use of the environment and prevents the
depletion and degradation of the resources

Environmental degradation
Environmental degradation refers to a reduction in the quality of the environment. This in turn
means reduced quality of life for the people who live in that particular environment.
Humans are the major agents of environmental degradation. The earth’s natural environments
are made up of non-living or abiotic environments, and living or biotic environments. Both
living and non-living environments may be degraded by human actions.
The environments that support life on earth are made up of:

 Terrestrial (land) environments

 Aquatic (marine and fresh water) environments
 The atmosphere
Terrestrial and aquatic environments are home to plants and animals that make up biotic
environments. The atmosphere is abiotic (as is sunlight and soil) – it supports life on earth by
regulating temperatures and providing moisture in the form of precipitation to sustain life.
Forms of environmental degradation
Bush and grass fires