3.4 Heat 115 Where frie is the time required for the Dewar to rupture. The rate of heat transfer is constant and it therefore can be removed from the integrand in Eq, (1): Q=@ Tu = QUnprure 0-0 dot'time_rupture “time until Dewar ruptures” time_rupture_day=time_rupture'converisday) “in days" which leads 0 frypture = 5.30 day. b) Plot the time required for the Dewar to rupture as. function of the initial volume of saturated liquid. ‘A Parametric table is created with columns for the variables time_rupture day and Vol{1_Iter. The equation that specifies the initial volume of liquid is commented out. Solving the table provides results that are plotted in Figure 3, which illustrates the time required for the Dewar to rupture as a function of the volume of saturated liquid helium. The non-linear relation between the required time for rupture and the initial volume of liquid is a result of competing effects. Increasing the amount of liquid increases the mass and thus the thermal capacity of the helium, However, it also reduces the available volume for the gas. 7 a5 4 55 4 45] 4 35] 3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 a0 90 100 Initial volume of liquid (Iter) Figure 8: Time requie for Dewar to rupture as a function of te intial volume of liquid hea, Time required for Dewar to rupture (day) ‘The idea of heat may appear intuitive, but the concepts underlying heat are actually very ‘complex. This fact becomes evident if we examine the history of thermodynamics. The science of calorimetry (the measurement of heat) was well-established in the late 1700s, but researchers did not understand exactly what was being transferred to a substance that caused its temperature to increase. Various theories were postulated in order to explain the concept that today we call heat. The caloric theory proposed that an invisible substance called caloric is transferred to @ system when it is heated (Keenan, 1958). 5 A Z116 Energy and Energy Transport Experiments were conducted that seemed to show that caloric is conserved during any process. That is, the amount of caloric that is transferred to a system when it is heated is exactly equal to the amount of calorie that is transferred from the system when itis subsequently cooled to its original temperature. This is an obvious precursor to what wwe call today the First Law of Thermodynamics. However, caloric was also believed to have mass, This belief was the result of careful experiments that seemed to show that the ‘mass of materials increased slightly when they were heated to very high temperatures, Eventually, it was found that the measured increase in mass was actually due to an oxidation process occurring at the surface of the materials, The caloric theory was later modified to include latent and sensible types of the caloric substance in order to explain how caloric can be transferred in some cases and not increase the temperature of a system (asfor example, in the boiling of water at constant pressure). However, the caloric theory could not explain the apparent heating effect that results from friction. Therefore, in the middle of the 19th century, after about 75 years of existence, the caloric theory was abandoned and the new science of thermodynamics was born. Note that the common use of the word heat, like the word energy, differs from its formal thermodynamic definition. This difference can occasionally be a source of confusion, Heat is formally defined as an energy transfer process, Heat is not a property of a system; it is defined only at the instant and location where energy crosses the boundary between the system and surroundings. Since heat is not a property, its value cannot be determined by knowing only the initial and final states of a system. From a thermodynamics perspective, terms such as “heat content”, “heat loss”, or “heat transfer” are inconsistent with the modern definition of heat. Heatis not a property of a system and therefore a system cannot contain heat. Heat also cannot be lost from a system because it is not a property and therefore does not ‘belong’ to the system. The term “heat transfer” is pervasive. (In fact, this is the title of a textbook written by the authors.) However, the definition of heat indicates that itis an energy transfer process; therefore the word “transfer” appearing in the term “heat transfer” is redundant. ‘The confusion surrounding the word “heat” is understandable since the concept of, heat is not intuitive. The terms that were originally proposed to explain observed phe: nomena have taken on new definitions as our understanding of the underlying concepts has increased. On one hand, these differences in terminology can just be dismissed as semantics, Do the terms that we use really matter once we understand the concept? On. the other hand, the common use of the word heat reinforces the now discredited theory that heat isa substance that can be transferred between a system and its surroundings as if it were mass or energy. Change the word from heat to caloric and there is no apparent difference between our common use of the term heat today and the caloric theory that was abandoned in the mid-19th century. 3.5 Work In mechanics, work is defined as the integral of a force over a displacement. In mathe- aatical form, work (W) isa scalar quantity defined according to: we f Fas 6-4) where F is a force vector and di is the differential displacement vector. The vector dot product of F and dé is the product of their magnitude and the cosine of the angle