Southern University Bangladesh

Fluid Mechanics

Course Id: CE 0732261

Fluid Pressure and its Measurement

Engr. Md. Ayanul Huq Chowdhury

BSc. (CUET), MEngg. (CUET), PhD (ongoing)
Introduction

• Whenever a liquid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all

points on the sides and bottom of the container

• This force per unit area is called pressure

• If P is the force acting on area a, then intensity of pressure,

𝑃
𝑝=
𝑎
Pressure head

Vessel containing some liquid

w = specific weight of the liquid
h = height of liquid in the cylinder
A = area of the cylinder base
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝐴
𝑝= = = 𝑤ℎ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴
This equation shows that the intensity of pressure at any point, in a liquid, is
proportional to its depth, from the surface (as w is constant for the given
liquid).
Example 2.4
What is the height of an oil column of specific gravity 0.9 equivalent to a
gauge pressure of 20.3 kPa?
Solution:
Sp. gr. of oil = 0.9 and Gauge pressure (p) = 20.3 kPa = 20.3 kN/m2
h = height of oil column in metres
specific weight of oil, w = 0.9 x 9.81 = 8.829 kN/m3
gauge pressure (p) = 20.3 = wh = 8.829 x h
h = 20.3/8.829 = 2.3 m Ans.
Pascal’s Law
The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest, is the same in all directions
Consider a very small right-angled triangular element ABC of a liquid
𝑝𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑝𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑝𝑧
= 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜃 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law

Pressure on the vertical side AC of the liquid

𝑃𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 x 𝐴𝐶

Pressure on the horizontal side BC of the liquid

𝑃𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 x 𝐵𝐶

Pressure on the diagonal AB of the liquid

𝑃𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 x 𝐴𝐵
Pascal’s Law
𝑃𝑧 sin 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 x 𝐴𝐶
𝑝𝑧 x 𝐴𝐵. sin 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑥
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 x 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵. sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶
𝑃𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 x 𝐴𝐵
𝑝𝑧 x 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑝𝑥 x 𝐴𝐶
𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑥
𝑃𝑧 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑦 − 𝑊
Very small triangular element of the liquid, therefore neglecting weight of the
liquid (W), we find that
𝑃𝑧 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑦
Pascal’s Law

𝑃𝑧 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑦

𝑝𝑧 x 𝐴𝐵. cos 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 x 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵. cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐶
𝑝𝑧 x 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑝𝑦 x 𝐵𝐶
𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑦
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑦
Atmospheric pressure
• Air possesses some weight
• Must exert pressure on the surface of the earth
• Air is compressible
• Its density is different at different heights
• Density of air varies due to temperature and humidity
• Measured by the height of column of liquid it can support
• At sea level, the pressure exerted by the column of air of 1 square metre cross-
sectional area nd of height equal to that of the atmosphere is 103 kN
• Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 103 kN/m2
• 10.3 metres of water, in terms of equivalent water column or 760 mm of
mercury in terms of equivalent mercury column
Gauge pressure

• Pressure measured with the help of a pressure measuring

instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure, is taken as
datum.

• Atmospheric pressure on the gauge scale is marked zero

• This pressure is generally above the atmospheric pressure

Absolute pressure
• Pressure equal to the algebraic sum of atmospheric and gauge
pressure
• Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
Absolute pressure = 150
Atmospheric pressure = 103
Gauge pressure = 150 – 103 = 47 kN/m2
• Positive gauge pressure
• Negative gauge pressure or vacuum pressure
Measurement of fluid pressure

• By balancing the liquid column by the same or another column

these are called the tube gauges to measure the pressure

• By balancing the liquid column by the spring or dead weight

• These are called mechanical gauges to measure the pressure

Tube gauges to measure fluid pressure

• Piezometer tube

• Manometer
Piezometer tube

• Simplest form of instrument, used for measuring moderate

pressure

• Meant for measuring gauge pressure only

• Not suitable for measuring negative pressure

Manometer

• Improved form of piezometer

• Can measure comparatively high pressure and negative pressures also

Following are the few types of manometer

• Simple manometer

• Micromanometer

• Differential manometer

• Inverted differential manometer

Simple Manometer
Consists of a tube bent in U-shape
Liquid used in the bent tube is mercury which is 13.6 time heavier than
water
ℎ1 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℎ
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, , 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑠1 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑠2 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Simple Manometer
Simple Manometer
Pressure in the left limb above the datum line Z-Z
ℎ + 𝑠1 ℎ1 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

pressure in the right limb above the datum line Z-Z

𝑠2 ℎ2 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
ℎ = 𝑠2 ℎ2 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Simple Manometer
• Example 2.5
A simple manometer containing mercury is used to measure the pressure of
water flowing in a pipeline. The mercury level in the open tube is 60 mm
higher than that on the left tube. If the height of water in the left tube is 50
mm, determine the pressure in the pipe in terms of head of water.
• Example 2.6
A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil (sp. Gravity =
0.8) flowing in a pipeline. Its right limb is open to the atmosphere and the
left limb is connected to the pipe. The centre of the pipe is 90 mm below the
level of mercury (sp. Gravity = 13.6) in the right limb. If difference of
mercury levels in the two limbs is 150 mm, find the pressure of oil in the
pipe.
Simple Manometer
Simple Manometer - Example 2.7
A simple manometer containing mercury
was used to find the negative pressure in the
pipe containing water as shown in figure.
The right limb of the manometer was open
to atmosphere.
Find the negative pressure, below the
atmosphere in the pipe, if the manometer
readings are given in the figure.
Simple Manometer - Example 2.7
h2 = 50 mm, h1 = 20 mm, s1 = 1 (because of water), s2 = 13.6 (because of mercury)
H = gauge pressure in the pipe in terms of head of water
Pressure head in the left limb above Z-Z
= h + s1h1 + s2h2
= h + (1 x 20) + (13.6 x 50)
= h + 700 mm
= h + 0.7 m of water
Pressure head in the right limb above Z-Z = 0
Since the pressure in both the limbs above the Z-Z datum is equal,
h + 0.7 = 0
or, h = -0.7 m of water
Micromanometer
• Cross-sectional area of one of the limbs is made much larger than that of
the other limb
• Used for measuring low pressure where accuracy is of much importance
Two important types are
• Vertical tube micromanometer
• The fall of heavy liquid level, in the basin, will cause a corresponding rise of
heavy liquid level
𝐴𝛿ℎ = 𝑎ℎ2
𝑎
𝛿ℎ = ℎ2
𝐴
Pressure in the left limb above the datum line Z-Z
ℎ + 𝑠1 ℎ1 + 𝑠1 𝛿ℎ 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑎
ℎ + 𝑠1 ℎ1 + 𝑠1 . ( ℎ2 ) 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐴
Micromanometer
• Pressure in the right limb above the datum line Z-Z
𝑠2 ℎ2 + 𝑠2 𝛿ℎ 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑎
𝑠2 ℎ2 + 𝑠2 . ℎ2 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐴
Equating the left limb and the right limb
𝑎
ℎ = 𝑠2 ℎ2 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 + 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑠2 − 𝑠1
𝐴
Example 2.10
In order to determine the pressure in a pipe, containing liquid of
specific gravity 0.8, a micrometer was used as shown in figure.
The ratio of area of the basin to that of the limb is 50.
Find the intensity of pressure in the pipe for the manometer
reading as shown in figure.
Example 2.10
h2 = 200 mm, h1 = 100 mm, s1 = 0.8, s2 = 13.6 (because of
mercury), A/a = 50
Pressure head in the left limb above Z-Z
𝑎
= ℎ + 𝑠1 ℎ1 + 𝑠1 . ℎ2
𝐴
= h + (0.8 x 100) + (1/50) x 0.8 x 200
= h + 80 + 3.2
= h + 83.2 mm of water
Example 2.10
Pressure in the right limb above Z-Z
𝑎
= 𝑠2 ℎ2 + 𝑠2 . ℎ2
𝐴
= 13.6 x 200 + (1/50) x 13.6 x 200
= 2720 + 54.4
= 2774.4 mm of water
Pressure in both the limbs above the Z-Z is equal
h + 83.2 = 2774.4
h = 2691.2 mm = 2.6912 m of water
intensity of pressure in the pipe
p = wh = 9.81 x 2.6912 = 26.4 kN/m2 = 26.4 kPa (Ans.)
Micromanometer
• Inclined tube micromanometer
𝑎
ℎ = 𝑠2 𝑙 sin 𝛼 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 + 𝑥 𝑙 sin 𝛼 𝑠2 − 𝑠1
𝐴
Differential Manometer
• Differential manometer
• Used for measuring the difference of pressures, between two points
in a pipe, or in two different pipes
h =Difference of levels of the heavy liquid in the right and left limb (also
known as the reading of the differential manometer)
hA = Pressure head in pipe A
hB = Pressure head in pipe B
s1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid in the pipes
s2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid
Differential Manometer
Differential Manometer
• Differential manometer
• Used for measuring the difference of pressures, between two points
in a pipe, or in two different pipes
h =Difference of levels of the heavy liquid in the right and left limb (also
known as the reading of the differential manometer)
hA = Pressure head in pipe A
hB = Pressure head in pipe B
s1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid in the pipes
s2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid
Differential Manometer
Pressure in the left limb above the datum line Z-Z
ℎ𝐴 + 𝑠1 𝐻 + 𝑠1 ℎ 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

pressure in the right limb above the datum line Z-Z

= ℎ𝐵 + 𝑠1 𝐻 + 𝑠2 ℎ 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Example 2.10
A differential manometer connected at the two points A and B at
the same level in a pipe containing an oil of specific gravity 0.8,
shows a difference in mercury levels as 100 mm. Determine the
difference in pressures at the two points.
Solution:
Pressure head in the left limb above Z-Z
= ℎ𝐴 +𝑠1 𝐻 + 𝑠1 𝑥100 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Pressure in the right limb above Z-Z
= ℎ𝐵 + 𝑠1 𝐻 + 𝑠2 𝑥100 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Example 2.10
Example 2.10

ℎ𝐴 + 𝑠1 𝐻 + 𝑠1 𝑥100 = ℎ𝐵 + 𝑠1 𝐻 + 𝑠2 𝑥100
ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = (𝑠2 − 𝑠1 )𝑥100
ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = 13.6 − 0.8 𝑥 100 = 1280 𝑚𝑚 = 1.280 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Difference of pressure

𝑘𝑁
𝑝 = 𝑤 ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = 9.81 𝑥 1.28 = 12.56 2 = 12.56 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚
Inverted Differential Manometer
• Particular type of differential manometer, in which an inverted U-
tube is used
• Used for measuring difference of low pressures, where accuracy
is prime consideration
• It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid whose
two ends are connected to the points whose difference of
pressures is to be found out
Inverted Differential Manometer
h1 =Height of liquid in the left limb below the datum line in mm
h2 = Difference of levels of the light liquid in the right and left limbs
in mm
h3 = Height of liquid in the right limb below the datum line in mm
hA = Pressure in the pipe A (in mm)
hB = Pressure in the pipe B (in mm)
s1 = Specific gravity of the liquid in the left limb
s2 = Specific gravity of the light liquid
s3 =Specific gravity of the liquid in the right limb
Inverted Differential Manometer

Pressure head in the left limb below the datum line

ℎ𝐴 − 𝑠1 ℎ1

Pressure head in the right limb below the datum line

ℎ𝐵 − 𝑠2 ℎ2 − 𝑠3 ℎ3

Pressure heads in both the limbs below the Z-Z datum are equal
ℎ𝐴 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 = ℎ𝐵 − 𝑠2 ℎ2 − 𝑠3 ℎ3
Example 2.13
An inverted differential manometer having an oil of specific gravity
0.75 was connected to two different pipes carrying water under
pressure as shown in figure.

Determine the pressure in the pipe B in terms of kPa, if the

manometer reads as shown in the figure. Take pressure in the pipe
A as 1.5 metre of water.
Example 2.13
ℎ1 = 200 𝑚𝑚 = 0.2 𝑚
ℎ2 = 100 𝑚𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚
𝑠2 = 0.75
ℎ3 = 50 𝑚𝑚 = 0.05 𝑚
ℎ𝐴 = 1.5 𝑚
𝑠1 = 𝑠3 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
ℎ𝐵 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐵 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Example 2.13

ℎ𝐵 − 𝑠2 ℎ2 − 𝑠3 ℎ3
ℎ𝐴 − 𝑠1 ℎ1
Example 2.13
Pressure head in the left limb below Z-Z
ℎ𝐴 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 = 1.5 − 1 𝑥 0.2 = 1.3 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Pressure head in the right limb below Z-Z
ℎ𝐵 − 𝑠2 ℎ2 − 𝑠3 ℎ3 = ℎ𝐵 − 0.75 𝑥 0.1 − 1 𝑥 0.05
= ℎ𝐵 − 0.125 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Pressure heads in both the limbs below the Z-Z datum are equal
1.3 = ℎ𝐵 − 0.125
ℎ𝐵 = 1.3 + 0.125 = 1.425 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
And pressure in the pipe B
𝑘𝑁
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑤. ℎ𝐵 = 9.81 𝑥 1.425 = 13.98 2 = 13.98 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (Ans.)
𝑚